Skirting the men: Gender roles in sixteenth century pastoral books

Skirting the men: Gender roles in
sixteenth century pastoral books
Author: Elizabeth Rhodes
Persistent link: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/2449
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Published in Journal of Hispanic Philology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 131-149, Winter 1987
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Skirting the men: Gender roles in sixteenth
century pastoral books
Elizabeth Rhodes
Boston College – Department of Romance Languages and Literatures
Journal of Hispanic Philology Vol. 11, No. 2 (Winter 1987), pp.
131-149
BOSTON COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
This publication is posted on eScholarship@BC, Boston College University Libraries,
http://www.bc.edu/escholarship.
These materials are made available for use in research, teaching and private study, pursuant to U.S.
Copyright Law. The user must assume full responsibility for any use of the materials, including but not
limited to, infringement of copyright and publication rights of reproduced materials.
SKIRTING THE M E N :
G E N D E R ROLES IN
SIXTEENTH-CENTURY
PASTORAL BOOKS
Elizabeth Rhodes
" A l l the feminist is asserting, then, is her o w n
equivalent right to liberate new (and perhaps
different) significances from these same texts;
and, at the same time, her right to choose which
features of a text she takes as relevant because
she is, after all, asking new and different questions of it."
1
W
H
E
N
O
N
E
CONSIDERS the e n o r m o u s a n d still enig-
matic p o p u l a r i t y of pastoral books in s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y E u r o p e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in Spain, the influence o f a m u t e d g r o u p o f c o n s u m e r s o n the
rise of
sonable
that
genre's
popularity becomes a rea-
supposition- "That is, the v o g u e o f the
"libros de pastores" w a s influenced by a g r o u p
of r e a d e r s — w o m e n — w h o s e presence directed the p h e n o m e n o n , yet
w h o s e same presence w a s erased as the v o g u e w a n e d . T h e erasure
w a s due to the m u t e d g r o u p ' s lack of a m o d e o f e x p r e s s i o n capable
of
s u r v i v i n g the d o m i n a n t — m a l e — g r o u p ' s self-interested c o n t r o l
o v e r w h a t made " h i s t o r y " a n d w h a t did n o t .
2
Jorge de
Monte-
m a y o r ' s La Diana is a n especially appropriate book to c o n s i d e r in this
light, since h i s t o r i c a l d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g reference to it and its
1 A n n e t t e K o l o d n y , " D a n c i n g T h r o u g h the M i n e f i e l d : S o m e O b s e r v a t i o n s
o n the T h e o r y , Practice, a n d Politics of a F e m i n i s t L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m , " The New
Feminist Criticism ( L o n d o n : V i r a g o Press, 1986), p. 160.
2 O n the t h e o r y of m u t e d g r o u p s , see M a r y C r a w f o r d and R o g e r C h a f f i n ,
" T h e Reader's C o n s t r u c t i o n of M e a n i n g : C o g n i t i v e R e s e a r c h o n G e n d e r a n d
C o m p r e h e n s i o n , " in Gender and Reading, Essays on Readers, Texts, and Contexts, eds.
E l i z a b e t h F l y n n , P a t r o c i n i o S c h w e i c k a r t (Baltimore: J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v . Press,
1986), pp. 3-30. ( C o l l e c t i o n s u b s e q u e n t l y cited as Gender and Reading.)
readers are plentiful, and since it was the first book of its kind, the
prototype of the "libro de
pastores."
Montemayor's complete works provide testimony of his notably
articulate sensitivity to spiritual and emotional issues, an aspect of
his creative personality which served him well as he composed La
Diana and which made his pastoral book eminently attractive to
readers of the same sensitivities.
It bears repeating that M o n t e -
mayor began his writing career as an author of religious prose and
poetry; he published two collections of religious verse and composed
numerous expositions on Biblical texts and Catholic doctrine. H o w ever, his "obras de devoción" were put on the 1 5 5 9 Index, and there
is no evidence
that he wrote any religious literature after
the
publication of his 1 5 5 8 Segundo cancionero spiritual.
Since they were included on the list of prohibited books, it is
likely that Montemayor's same "obras de devoción" were read by
one of the Inquisition's calificadores, men invited by the Holy Office to
evaluate literature for purposes of censorship. Although no such
report censoring Montemayor's "obras" has yet come to light, the
calificadores' evaluations do provide insight into the criteria by which
his and others' publications were judged, publications of religious
and secular nature. O n e such report is the "Parecer cerca de prohibición de libros de poesía y otros" by Alvar G ó m e z de Castro (dating
from the 1 5 7 0 ' s ) . That document is interesting for its identification
of women as especially avid and equally lamented readers of La
Diana and its two most immediate imitations: "La Diana de M o n t e mayor, con otras dos que la han continuado, son cernícalos de uñas
entreueladas, parte coplas, parte prosa; quisieron imitar La Arcadia de
Sanazaro pero infelizmente tienen [?parco] ingenio, muy poco artificio, tratan la liuiandad m á s descubiertamente, por donde mugeres
las leen mucho; libros son que se pierde poco en que no los aya."
3
Unlike many of his contemporaries, G ó m e z does not rail against
Quoted from the article and edition by P. E. Russell, "Secular Literature
and the Censors: a Sixteenth-Century Document Re-examined," BHS, 59
(1982), 219-25, at p. 224. Gomez's criteria for evaluating the literature to
which he refers are clearly based on standards more related to art (verisimilitude, decorum, and "artificio") than to religion or morality, and he displays an
expectable prejudice toward works that successfully imitate the classics. Nonetheless, he also insists on a direct, critical association between women readers
and the first three published Dianas.
3
secular l i t e r a t u r e itself; after s t a t i n g that he w o u l d prefer that
e v e r y o n e spend a l l idle h o u r s r e a d i n g " l e t u r a de S a n c t o s , " he w i s t fully r e m i n d s his readers sed non omnes capiunt verbum istud (p. 2 2 3 ) . H e
does n o t c o n d e m n p a s t o r a l l i t e r a t u r e i n general; the prestige he
allots to S a n n a z a r o ' s Arcadia is b o r n e u p by his s u p p o r t o f the
classical idea that m e n " d e s a h o g a n h o n e s t a m e n t e su p e n a " by w r i t i n g eclogues (p. 2 2 3 ) . N e i t h e r is it the focus o n secular love i n
pastoral l i t e r a t u r e that he finds so objectionable, because of G a r c i laso he says that "le p u e d e n leer las V í r g e n e s V e s t a l e s " (p. 2 2 4 ) .
It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that m e n like G ó m e z w o u l d be disappointed
that La Diana w a s n o t a servile i m i t a t i o n o f S a n n a z a r o ' s book o r of
Garcilaso's p o e t r y ; o n e o f the basic differences b e t w e e n t h e m is the
p r o m i n e n t role that w o m e n play i n La Diana as w e l l - r o u n d e d c h a r a c ters w h o are as active a n d believable as their male c o u n t e r p a r t s , a
characteristic s h a r e d by several o f the s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y pastoral
books. T h e r e f o r e , the calificadores a n d o t h e r male readers had c o n siderably less m a t e r i a l w i t h w h i c h t h e y could o v e r t l y identify i n the
libros de pastores t h a n i n c h i v a l r i c fiction, for e x a m p l e , w h i c h focuses
almost e x c l u s i v e l y o n m e n o r masculine v a l u e s .
4
T h e so-called " l i u i a n d a d " that G ó m e z associates w i t h La Diana
d r a w s a fine line, for he cites several acceptable "tratados que,
a u n q u e escritos c o n h o n e s t i d a d , el subjecto s o n cosas de a m o r e s ,
c o m o Celestina, Cárcel de amor, Question de amor" (p. 2 2 4 ) . A l t h o u g h the
4 W h a t little m a t e r i a l there is in c h i v a l r i c fiction w i t h w h i c h w o m e n c o u l d
identify directly is cast t h r o u g h the m a s c u l i n e codes o f c h i v a l r i c / c o u r t l y love
a n d h o n o r , w h i c h g e n e r a l l y d e p e r s o n a l i z e a n d repress the w o m a n o r m a n w h o
plays the b e l o v e d . T h e w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d pleasure w i t h w h i c h w o m e n read
books of c h i v a l r y does n o t necessarily indicate that those b o o k s reflect the
f e m i n i n e experience w i t h a n y sort o f a c c u r a c y at all: research in g e n d e r
patterns of c o g n i t i o n a n d r e a d i n g s h o w s that w o m e n are trained by their sex's
role in society to identify w i t h a n d u n d e r s t a n d a text t h r o u g h the male voice in
l i t e r a t u r e , because it is the d o m i n a n t one (often the o n l y one). M e n , o n the
c o n t r a r y , have been typically unable to adjust their r e a d i n g sensitivities to
literature (by m e n o r w o m e n ) that expresses the female voice because their
e x p o s u r e to it has b e e n so l i m i t e d . See E l i z a b e t h Segel, ' " A s the T w i g Is
B e n t . . . ' G e n d e r a n d C h i l d h o o d R e a d i n g , " i n Gender and Reading, pp. 165-86.
Segel studies gender-specific E n g l i s h literature in the late n i n e t e e n t h a n d early
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . G i v e n the p r o d u c t i o n of gender-specific literature in the
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d the fact that codes of b e h a v i o r for m e n a n d w o m e n w e r e
e q u a l l y (if not identically) d i s t i n g u i s h e d in the s i x t e e n t h a n d the n i n e t e e n t h t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , it is reasonable to a s s u m e that language c o g n i t i o n (and
t h e r e f o r e r e a d i n g patterns) w e r e gender-specific l o n g before the age f r o m
w h i c h Segel d r a w s h e r c o n c l u s i o n s .
pastoral b o o k s like La Diana are s e n t i m e n t a l , i n that they basically
consist of love stories, their q u a l i f i c a t i o n as lascivious o r erotic by
G ó m e z (and some m o d e r n critics) is h i g h l y suspect.
5
Indeed, most
libros de pastores d o reveal an u n u s u a l l y o p e n contact b e t w e e n
men
a n d w o m e n , but t h e r e is n o sex, as t h e r e is in some of the books of
c h i v a l r y , n o r are t h e r e p r o v o c a t i v e scenes. In La Diana, S i r e n o a n d
Diana
hold
hands once a n d
h u g once, a n d l i k e w i s e C e r v a n t e s '
L i s a n d r o recalls that he received " e l p r i m e r o y último beso" f r o m
Leonida w i t h her d y i n g breath.
6
T h a t is typically the e x t e n t o f a l l
p o t e n t i a l l y erotic contact b e t w e e n
a n y of the l o v e r s i n this "las-
c i v i o u s " fiction.
O n e c a n n o t help b u t w o n d e r if it m i g h t be the e x c l u s i v e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n to sentimental issues i n the pastoral books, c o m b i n e d w i t h
the significant role of female characters as d e s i r i n g w o m e n i n t h e m ,
that male l i t e r a r y critics h a v e f o u n d difficult to identify w i t h all
a l o n g a n d h a v e t h u s c e n s o r e d as erotic a n d i m p r o p e r . Gomez's
n o t i o n that pastoral books w e r e " l i v i a n o s " a n d not s i m p l y a m o n g
the "tratados de a m o r e s , " a n d the belief of o t h e r w r i t e r s of the t i m e
that pastoral books w e r e m o r a l l y n o x i o u s , m a y w e l l have s t e m m e d
from
t w o related features of this type o f fiction, M o n t e m a y o r ' s
v e r s i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r . F e m a l e characters play a d i s t i n c t i v e role i n the
pastoral
b o o k s , one w h i c h clashed w i t h prescribed b e h a v i o r
for
w o m e n , a n d w o m e n c o n s e q u e n t l y read pastoral books w i t h special
interest a n d t h e r e b y had access to ideas that t h r e a t e n e d the established code of sexual conduct (a code p r e s c r i b e d , i n t e r p r e t e d , a n d
e n f o r c e d b y men). T h e A m e r i c a n l i t e r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t reacted i n a
5 S e v e r a l critics w r o n g l y a t t r i b u t e the e q u a t i o n pastoral = e r o t i c i s m to
R e n a t o P o g g i o l i , w h o does single o u t s o m e cases of erotic pastoral l i t e r a t u r e
(i.e., T a s s o ' s Aminta) but is c a r e f u l to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the c a l m h e d o n i s m of
the p a s t o r a l i m p u l s e a n d its d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s across h i s t o r y . See his
collected essays in The Oaten Flute. Essays on Pastoral Poetry and the Pastoral Ideal
( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1975). J o h n C u l l says in this c o n t e x t ,
"the p o p u l a r i t y of the p a s t o r a l r o m a n c e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i r m a n i f e s t l y erotic
n a t u r e " ( " A n o t h e r L o o k at L o v e in La Galatea" in Cervantes and the Pastoral, eds.
J o s é L a b r a d o r a n d Juan F e r n á n d e z J i m é n e z ( C l e v e l a n d : C l e v e l a n d State U n i v . ,
1986], p. 66).
6 Jorge de M o n t e m a y o r , Los siete libros de la Diana, ed. F r a n c i s c o L ó p e z
E s t r a d a , C l á s i c o s castellanos 127, 4th ed. ( M a d r i d : E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1967), pp. 78
a n d 87 ( s u b s e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s are to this edition). M i g u e l de C e r v a n t e s
S a a v e d r a , La Galatea, ed. Juan B a u t i s t a A v a l l e - A r c e , C l á s i c o s castellanos 154
( M a d r i d : E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1961), I, 51.
s i m i l a r l y negative f a s h i o n to the p o p u l a r i t y o f s e n t i m e n t a l fiction i n
the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a p o p u l a r i t y that w a s inexplicable w i t h i n
the confines o f m a l e - d e f i n e d n o r m s f o r l i t e r a r y w o r t h a n d w h i c h
challenged those same
norms.
7
T h e l i t e r a c y o f w o m e n i n itself seems to h a v e met w i t h little
ideological resistence
from
sixteenth-century
male a u t h o r s .
8
The
m o r e liberal h u m a n i s t s a n d r e l i g i o u s w r i t e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r s u p p o r t e d
the n o t i o n that s t u d y w a s m o r a l l y u p l i f t i n g exercise f o r e v e r y o n e .
F o r e x a m p l e , i n the 1 5 2 9 (Valencia) e d i t i o n o f the a n o n y m o u s Spill de
la vida religiosa, M i g u e l J e r ó n i m o C r u i l l e s w r o t e i n the "Epístola
p r e l i m i n a r " to J e r ó n i m a E x a r q u e : " C u l t i v a s t u espíritu c o n lecturas
eruditas y de todo g é n e r o de v i r t u d e s elevadas, la n o b l e z a de tu
estirpe c o n el e s p l e n d o r de las letras . . . difícilmente e n c o n t r a r á s u n a
m u j e r perdida q u e n o sea i g n o r a n t e . . . . E l e s t u d i o es, sin d u d a , algo
que e n p r i m e r l u g a r o c u p a toda la m e n t e del g é n e r o h u m a n o , de
q u a l q u i e r sexo que s e a n . "
9
N o n e t h e l e s s , w h i l e the g u a r d i a n s of
public m o r a l i t y w e r e n o t as c o n c e r n e d that w o m e n w e r e able to
read as w i t h what t h e y w e r e r e a d i n g , m o s t still h e l d that if w o m e n
c o u l d n o t be cajoled, flattered, o r threatened i n t o r e a d i n g w h a t m e n
t h o u g h t t h e y s h o u l d , t h e n t h e y o b v i o u s l y s h o u l d n o t read at all.
L u i s V i v e s declares, "Estas tales [las que leen de a m o r e s ajenos], no
sólo sería b i e n q u e n u n c a h u b i e r a n a p r e n d i d o letras, pero
fuera
mejor que h u b i e r a n p e r d i d o los ojos para n o leer y los oídos para no
oír."
10
F r a y Juan de la C e r d a w r i t e s i n 1 5 9 9 : " A y algunas donzellas
que p o r e n t r e t e n e r
el t i e m p o , leen e n estos libros [he p r o b a b l y
refers to secular fiction], y h a l l a n e n ellos u n dulce v e n e n o que les
incita a m a l o s p e n s a m i e n t o s , y les haze p e r d e r el seso que tenían. Y
p o r esso es e r r o r m u y g r a n d e de las madres que paladean a sus hijas
desde niñas c o n este azeyte de escorpiones, y c o n este apetito de las
See Jane P. T o m p k i n s , " S e n t i m e n t a l P o w e r , " i n The New Feminist Criticism,
Elaine S h o w a l t e r ( L o n d o n : V i r a g o Press, 1986), pp. 81-104.
H o w e v e r , the intellectual level of S p a n i s h w o m e n ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n litera r y e n d e a v o r s still appears to h a v e b e e n far b e l o w that of their c o u n t e r p a r t s in
o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . See R o l a n d H . B a i n t o n , Women of the Reformation
( M i n n e a p o l i s : A u g s b u r g P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1971-77).
Notas sobre la espiritualidad española de los siglos de oro. Estudio del T r a t a d o llamado
el D e s e o s o , ed. F r a n c i s c o L ó p e z E s t r a d a (Seville: U n i v e r s i d a d de Sevilla, 1972),
pp. 71-75.
Juan L u i s V i v e s , Instrucción de la mujer cristiana, C o l e c c i ó n a u s t r a l , 138
( B u e n o s A i r e s : E s p a s a - C a l p e A r g e n t i n a , 1940), p. 34.
7
ed.
8
9
10
diabólicas lecturas de a m o r . "
11
M e n ' s s u p p o r t o f literate w o m e n i n
the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s clearly based o n t h e i r i n t e n t i o n to c o n f i n e
women's
encourage
reading w i t h i n
h i g h l y restricted limits a n d cater it to
e m u l a t i o n o f specific, u s u a l l y r e l i g i o u s , role m o d e l s .
12
F e r n a n d o de V e r a y M e n d o z a ' s delight i n h i s c o n t e n t i o n that " L a
V i r g e n n u e s t r a s e ñ o r a . . . h i z o v e r s o s , y t a n sentenciosos c o m o los
lyricos de s u M a g n i f i c a t "
is a d o u b l e - e d g e d
s w o r d designed to
inspire w o m e n ' s creative i m p u l s e s , w h i l e leading t h e m i n t o the
repressive circle o f V i r g i n - i m i t a t i o n .
1 3
K e i t h W h i n n o m has s h o w n that, j u d g i n g b y the n u m b e r o f
editions produced of certain books i n sixteenth-century Spain, very
few o f w h a t w e c o u l d call "bestsellers" w e r e secular b o o k s o f the
type enjoyed
today. Instead,
the m a r k e t
favored books w i t h a
m o r a l i s t i c , r e l i g i o u s , o r h i s t o r i c a l focus. A n y evidence o f t r e n d s i n
reading that s w e r v e d f r o m those n o r m s ( w h i c h reflected earlier
m o n a s t i c c o n t r o l o f l e a r n i n g ) w a s met w i t h resistance b y the establishment. T h u s
t h e h u g e p o p u l a r i t y o f M o n t e m a y o r ' s La Diana,
w h i c h surpassed that o f the b o o k s o f c h i v a l r y , w a s i n t e r p r e t e d as a
threat, against w h i c h i m m e d i a t e steps w e r e t a k e n i n a t t e m p t s to
m a i n t a i n the l i t e r a r y status q u o . F r a y P e d r o de la V e g a n o t e d the
m o r e c o n s t r u c t i v e , if a p p a r e n t l y unsuccessful, steps t a k e n t o solve
the p r o b l e m : " M u c h o s v a r o n e s doctíssimos, zeladores del bien de las
almas, desseando
desterrar
de las m a n o s de la d o n z e l l a , y de la
b u i d a , y a uezes de la m o n j a . . . las D i a n a s , A m a d i s e s y demás libros
p r o p h a n o s , de los quales los m e n o s dañosos están llenos de v a n i d a d
11 J u a n de la C e r d a , Libro intitvlado vida política de todos los estados de mugeres
( A l c a l á 1599), f o l . 8' (cited b y E d w a r d G l a s e r , " N u e v o s datos s o b r e la critica de
los libros de c a b a l l e r í a s e n los siglos X V I y X V I I , " Anuario de Estudios Medievales, 3
(1966), 3 9 3 - 4 1 0 , at p. 4 0 6 .
12 See W e r n e r G u n d e r s h e i m e r , " W o m e n , L e a r n i n g , a n d P o w e r : E l e a n o r a of
A r a g ó n a n d the C o u r t o f F e r r a r a , " a n d R o l a n d B a i n t o n , " L e a r n e d W o m e n o f
E u r o p e o f the S i x t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " i n Beyond Their Sex. Learned Women of the
European Past, e d . Patricia L a b a l m e ( N e w Y o r k : N e w Y o r k U n i v . Press, 1980), pp.
43-65 a n d 117-28.
F e r n a n d o d e V e r a y M e n d o z a , Panegyrico por la poesía (1627; r p t . C i e z a :
A n t o n i o P é r e z y G ó m e z , 1968) f o l . 5 6 . O n the d y n a m i c s of the V i r g i n role
m o d e l , see M a r i n a W a r n e r , Alone of All Her Sex (1976; N e w Y o r k : V i n t a g e B o o k s ,
1983), a n d M a r g a r e t L . K i n g , " B o o k - L i n e d Cells: W o m e n a n d H u m a n i s m i n the
E a r l y Italian R e n a i s s a n c e , " i n Beyond Their Sex, Learned Women of the European Past,
pp. 6 6 - 9 0 .
1 3
v
y m e n t i r a s , h a n e s c r i p t o tratados sanctos e n n u e s t r a l e n g u a v u l gar."
14
A s E d w a r d G l a s e r observes a n d the above q u o t a t i o n s illustrate, a
clear d i s t i n c t i o n was m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n w h a t was acceptable secular fiction for m e n a n d w h a t w o m e n s h o u l d r e a d .
15
C r i t i c i s m of
secular fiction v a r i e d by sex as w e l l : in the academic, theoretical
(masculine) c o n t e x t , books o f c h i v a l r y w e r e d e m e a n e d for their lack
of
v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . In reference
to w o m e n readers,
however,
the
p r o b l e m was t h e i r i m m o r a l i t y , w h i c h was d e t r i m e n t a l to "el bien de
las almas." It seems that w o m e n ' s e x p o s u r e to the pastoral books
was m a k i n g m a n y m e n u n c o m f o r t a b l e , s o m e t h i n g not s u r p r i s i n g ,
since t h e y are saturated w i t h love stories w h i c h take place in the
c o u n t r y s i d e , are r e m o v e d f r o m the r e s t r i c t i o n s o f c o u r t l y (masculine) c o n t r o l , a n d p r o v i d e w o m e n w i t h a u t h e n t i c voices.
In the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as since, " g o o d " l i t e r a t u r e was expected
to protect
the p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o r acceptable to the
dominant
g r o u p of society, p a t t e r n s w h i c h have l o n g been d i s t i n g u i s h e d by
gender. T h e p o p u l a r i t y of the pastoral books seems to have caught
the m o r a l i s t s a n d the censors off g u a r d ; too late they discovered
that the
malleable m i n d s o f c o u n t l e s s y o u n g w o m e n had
been
infested w i t h w h a t t h e y considered to be the w r o n g ideas. C o m pared w i t h
books o f c h i v a l r y , pastoral books give little voice to
aggressive m a s c u l i n e values and there is r e l a t i v e l y little i n t h e m to
offset all the a t t e n t i o n they devote to w o m e n and w o m e n ' s c o n cerns. In the "Prólogo del a u t o r " to La conversión de la Magdalena,
Malón de C h a i d e c o m p l a i n s o f w r i t e r s w h o ,
v i e n d o que el m u n d o tiene ya cansado el g u s t o para las cosas
santas y de v i r t u d , y tras esto tan v i v o el apetito para todo lo que
es vicio y estrago de buenas c o s t u m b r e s . . . así ceban [nuestra
Fray P e d r o de la V e g a , Declaración de los siete psalmos penitenciales (1599), fol
10
(cited in G l a s e r , p. 403). T h e l a m e n t that w o m e n had a b a n d o n e d their
d e v o t i o n a l readings in f a v o r of secular fiction seems to have f o r m e d part of the
m i s o g y n i s t t r a d i t i o n a n d was voiced well before La Diana was p u b l i s h e d . In the
Corbacho: " T o d a s estas cosas [de Boccacio] f a l l a r é y s en los cofres de las m u g e r e s :
oras de S a n t a M a r í a , syete salmos, estorias de santos, salterio de r o m a n c e , ¡nin
verle de ojo! P e r o c a n c i o n e s , dezires, coplas, cartas de e n a m o r a d a s , e m u c h a s
otras locuras, esto sy" ( A l f o n s o M a r t í n e z de T o l e d o , Arcipreste de Talavera, ed.
J o a q u í n G o n z á l e z M u e l a ( M a d r i d : C a s t a l i a , 1970], p. 135).
14
v
15
Glaser,
p.
407.
gastada naturaleza] c o n libros lascivos y profanos.... P o r q u e ,
¿qué o t r a cosa s o n los l i b r o s de a m o r e s y las Dianas y Boscanes y
Garcilasos... puestos e n m a n o s de pocos años, sino c u c h i l l o e n
poder del h o m b r e furioso? . . . ¿ Q u é ha de hacer la doncellita q u e
apenas sabe a n d a r y y a trae u n a Diana en la faldriquera? . . .
¿ C ó m o dirá Pater noster e n las Horas, la q u e acaba de sepultar a
Píramo y T i s b e en Diana? [ M o n t e m a y o r ' s p o e m " P í r a m o y T i s b e "
was i n c l u d e d i n e d i t i o n s o f la Diana after 1 5 6 1 . )
1
Malón
was obviously referring
6
to the h a r m f u l effects
such
reading h a d o n w o m e n , f o r he says: "Allí se a p r e n d e n las desenv o l t u r a s y las solturas y las bachillerías; y náceles u n deseo de ser
servidas y recuestadas, c o m o lo f u e r o n aquellas q u e h a n leído e n éstos
sus Flos Sanctorum... y de ahí v i e n e n a ruines y torpes i m a g i n a c i o n e s ,
y de éstas a los conciertos, o desconciertos, c o n q u e se p i e r d e n a sí y
afrentan
las casas de sus padres" ( I , 2 6 ) . T h e g r a m m a t i c a l g e n d e r
becomes m a s c u l i n e a n d refers to m e n i n reference to readers of
c h i v a l r i c fiction, w h o s e r u i n o u s reading habits w i l l n o t cause the
destruction of parental
h o n o r (the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of w o m e n ) b u t
neglect of m o r a l i s t i c a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l w o r k s that f o r m e d the m a i n stay o f a y o u n g caballeros e d u c a t i o n : "Otros leen aquellos p r o d i g i o s y
fabulosos s u e ñ o s y q u i m e r a s , s i n pies n i cabeza, de q u e e s t á n llenos
los Libros de
caballerías....
Y si a los q u e e s t u d i a n y a p r e n d e n a ser
cristianos e n estos catecismos les preguntáis q u e p o r qué los l e e n . . .
os persuadirán q u e Don Florisel es el Libro de los Macabeos, y Don Belianís,
los Morales de S a n G r e g o r i o . . . y Lisuarte, los Libros de Clemencia, de
S é n e c a " (I, 2 7 - 2 8 ) .
A l t h o u g h w o m e n w e r e largely blamed f o r the p o p u l a r i t y of the
pastoral books, t h e y w e r e not responsible f o r the genesis o f the
genre, f o r the " l i b r o s de pastores" w e r e w r i t t e n b y m e n a n d read b y
m e n as w e l l . T h e fact that the pastoral b o o k s addressed specifically
f e m i n i n e c o n c e r n s seems to have c o m e about b y c i r c u m s t a n c e , n o t
i n t e n t i o n . T h e genre's success is s t r o n g l y related to three e x t r a l i t e r a r y trends w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e m e s a n d
styles o f w r i t i n g that i n d i r e c t l y addressed f e m i n i n e concerns: the
political s i t u a t i o n o f the aristocracy, w h i c h led readers to i d e n t i f y
ed.
16 F r a y M a l ó n de C h a i d e , La conversión de la Magdalena, ed. P. F é l i x G a r c í a , 3 r d
( M a d r i d : E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1959), 1, 25-26.
closely w i t h a l i t e r a t u r e that rejected h i s t o r i c a l p o w e r in f a v o r o f
i n n e r w o r t h ; the i m p e t u s o f h u m a n i s m , w h i c h s u p p o r t e d the same
values as did pastoral fiction, that is, c o n t e m p l a t i v e a n d c o n v e r s a tional heroics; a n d the influence o f religious r e f o r m i s m o n secular
letters, a p h e n o m e n o n that p r o m o t e d e x a l t a t i o n o f i n n e r experience
and d i s d a i n f o r o u t e r
f o r m a l i t i e s . A l l three o f these factors
are
reflected i n the pastoral books, a n d all led to increased i n f r i n g e m e n t
of l i t e r a r y t h e m e s o n t o the c u l t u r a l d o m a i n o f w o m e n : e m p h a s i s o n
i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d affective versus h i s t o r i c a l experience, a n d
rejection o f w o r l d l y c o n c e r n s i n f a v o r o f the search f o r e m o t i o n a l
fulfillment.
T h e political role o f the
u n d e r g o i n g d r a m a t i c changes
S p a n i s h n o b i l i t y had been a n d
d u r i n g the time w h e n the
was
pastoral
books w e r e b e i n g w r i t t e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y before 1590. T h e u n i v e r s a l
pastoral m o d e , the p r i m a r y feature o f w h i c h is the l a m e n t o f l o s s ,
17
tapped the sensitivities o f the reading a r i s t o c r a c y w h i c h , since the
r e i g n o f the
C a t h o l i c M o n a r c h s , h a d been
subjected
to political
m a n e u v e r s d e s i g n e d to c u r t a i l its p o w e r a n d stress the c o u r t i e r , not
the w a r r i o r , as the aristocratic role m o d e l . H e n r y K a m e n refers to
"the t a m i n g o f the C a s t i l i a n a r i s t o c r a c y " i n this c o n t e x t a n d says,
" T h e pacification o f the great n o b i l i t y t u r n e d m a n y o f t h e m [nobles]
to q u i e t e r p u r s u i t s . T h e i r part i n the l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e o f the R e n a i s sance w a s n o t a b l e . "
18
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , h u m a n i s t c u l t u r e exalted i n -
tellectual p r o w e s s a n d c u l t u r a l r e f i n e m e n t , evidenced b y the ability
to c a r r y o n elegant c o n v e r s a t i o n , s i n g , a n d love a c c o r d i n g to
the
tenets of N e o p l a t o n i s m , all o f w h i c h s u p p o r t e d a n e w s y s t e m of
n o n - v i o l e n t heroics radically different
e r r a n t w h o charge
through
the
f r o m that o f the
knights-
books o f c h i v a l r y . F i n a l l y ,
the
s p i r i t u a l u p h e a v a l of i m p e r i a l S p a i n made m e n a n d w o m e n alike
i n c r e a s i n g l y sensitive to the i m p o r t a n c e o f i n n e r experience, a n d
made retreat f r o m the w o r l d a n d rejection o f w o r l d l i n e s s f a s h i o n able. T h e pastoral mode's acceptance of those same values a n d the
strict emphasis o n e m o t i o n a l life w i t h i n the b o w e r w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y
1 7
19,
P a u l A l p e r s , " T h e Poetics of Pastoral," lecture at B o s t o n U n i v e r s i t y ,
Feb.
1987.
18
H e n r y K a m e n , Spain 1469—1774. A Society of Conflict ( L o n d o n :
1983), pp. 22
and
21.
Longman,
attractive to a people w h o s e s e n s i t i v i t y to s p i r i t u a l experience w a s
at a peak.
T h e p a s t o r a l m o d e itself depicts a n existence i n w h i c h
inner
w o r t h is exalted a n d o u t e r w o r t h is n o t a n issue. T h u s , the facts o f
t h e i r personalities that w o m e n h a v e to share w i t h each o t h e r a n d
w i t h m e n are m u c h m o r e accentuated i n pastoral fiction t h a n i n a n y
o t h e r . C h a r a c t e r s like A m a d i s a n d O r i a n a share v e r y little b u t their
mutual
a t t r a c t i o n , sex life, a n d social r a n k . C h a r a c t e r s s u c h as
S i r e n o a n d D i a n a , h o w e v e r , s h a r e the p h y s i c a l space i n w h i c h the
significant events o f t h e i r lives o c c u r w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i o n , t h e y
b o t h exercise the same " p r o f e s s i o n " a n d participate i n the same daily
activities w i t h o u t s e x u a l d i s t i n c t i o n , a n d t h e y are e q u a l l y d o m i n a t e d
b y t h e s e n t i m e n t a l existence w i t h w h i c h t h e y are obsessed. T h e
v e r y n a t u r e o f the pastoral n a r r a t i v e as it d e v e l o p e d f r o m M o n t e m a y o r ' s La Diana served to create the type o f l i t e r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t
in w h i c h w o m e n ' s c o n c e r n s d o m i n a t e the n a r r a t i o n (and indeed,
w o m e n characters c o n t r o l m o s t o f M o n t e m a y o r ' s n a r r a t i o n ) : p h y s ical action is m i n i m a l ; p r o o f o f w o r t h is n o n - a g g r e s s i v e a n d instead
is based o n v i r t u e s o f elegant c o n v e r s a t i o n , s o n g , feelings, e m p a t h y ,
a n d focus o n h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
In a l i t e r a t u r e i n w h i c h the first plane o f the n a r r a t i o n
takes
place w i t h i n a c o n f i n e d n a t u r a l space a n d deals p r i m a r i l y w i t h plots
m o t i v a t e d b y s e n t i m e n t a n d ideological belief, w o m e n c a n take a
m u c h m o r e active role as characters a n d as readers t h a n i n b o o k s
that center a r o u n d w o r l d travels, h e a d - c h o p p i n g , d r a g o n s l a y i n g ,
a n d aggressive p u r s u i t o f w o r l d l y fame a n d h o n o r . T h e h o n o r o n
w h i c h the pastoral b o o k s depend is m o r e s p i r i t u a l t h a n t h e type
faithfully
p u r s u e d b y k n i g h t s - e r r a n t ; it is based o n s i n c e r i t y a n d
h o n e s t y i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s against a l l t u r n s o f f o r t u n e , n o t o n one's
political d e s t i n y . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this s e n t i m e n t a l h o n o r reflects
religious issues o f t h e early s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y that f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n
in a l m o s t e v e r y vehicle o f c u l t u r e , issues s u c h as i n n e r piety v e r s u s
c e r e m o n i o u s faith a n d the w i l l i n g n e s s to develop a n d express one's
i n n e r self, e v e n at t h e expense o f one's p h y s i c a l existence. S p a n i s h
w o m e n , w h o s e notable i n v o l v e m e n t i n r e f o r m i s t , i l l u m i n i s t , a n d
m y s t i c r e l i g i o n is w e l l d o c u m e n t e d ,
19
19
f o u n d i n p a s t o r a l fiction a
F o r e x a m p l e , R o n a l d S u r t z , " L a M a d r e Juana de la C r u z (1481-1534) y la
l i t e r a t u r e e x p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s s i m i l a r to those tapped b y religious
r e f o r m : e m p h a s i s o n experience o v e r book l e a r n i n g , a t t e n t i o n
to
p e r s o n a l g r o w t h w i t h i n a s u p p o r t i v e c o m m u n i t y , all represented i n
a n a r r a t i o n i n w h i c h p o w e r is n o t judged b y sex o r r a n k o r m o n e y
b u t by cortesía a n d one's ability to e n d u r e e m o t i o n a l h a r d s h i p a n d be
supportive of others.
Just
as w o m e n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n religious
activities h a d to o c c u r b e y o n d the l i m i t s o f p a t r i a r c h a l o r t h o d o x y , so
the pastoral books, i n w h i c h w o m e n play significant a n d m e a n i n g f u l
roles, take place i n n a t u r a l settings w e l l r e m o v e d f r o m patriarchic
centers o f " c i v i l i z a t i o n . "
T h e relative balance b e t w e e n m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e experience
in the pastoral books, t h e n , is h e a v i l y w e i g h t e d t o w a r d w h a t is
t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d "the
feminine." This situation, however,
depends o n s i m u l t a n e o u s loss a n d g a i n f r o m the respective sides of
the scale; as the e x p r e s s i o n " s k i r t i n g the m e n " indicates, there are
t w o sides to the p r o b l e m o f g e n d e r at h a n d w h i c h are c o n s i d e r e d
here. O n e is the c o m p a r a t i v e l y passive a n d effeminate n a t u r e o f the
m a s c u l i n e characters i n pastoral books, the o t h e r is the b y p a s s i n g o f
the s h e p h e r d s
mentary
to focus o n the shepherdesses
f a s h i o n to the effeminate
who, in a comple-
m e n , take o n responsibilities
t r a d i t i o n a l l y denied to w o m e n i n o t h e r
genres.
T h e s t r e n g t h o f the pastoral characters relative to the w o r l d i n
w h i c h t h e y live provides the k e y to the process o f sex-role m o d i f i c a t i o n in the p a s t o r a l b o o k s (pastoral characters b e i n g those w h o
participate i n the first plane o f the n a r r a t i o n ) .
20
C o m p a r e d to the
c u e s t i ó n de la a u t o r i d a d religiosa f e m e n i n a , " NRFH, 33 (1984), pp. 483. R o l a n d
B a i n t o n , Women of the Reformation, cited in n. 8 above; M a r c e l Bataillon, Erasmo y
España, trans. A n t o n i o A l a t o r r e , 2 n d ed. ( M é x i c o : F o n d o de C u l t u r a E c o n ó m i c a ,
1966), pp. 6 9 - 7 0 a n d 176-79.
20 T h e r e are typically t w o planes of n a r r a t i o n in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y pastoral
books. T h e first plane c o n s i s t s of the n a r r a t i v e p r e s e n t in w h i c h the i m p e r s o n a l
n a r r a t o r relates e v e n t s that take place i n the locus as they oc c ur . T h e second
n a r r a t i v e plane consists of the i n t e r p o l a t i o n s , past e v e n t s related by c h a r a c t e r s
w h o a r r i v e o n the pastoral scene f r o m s o m e w h e r e else. T h e e x t e n t to w h i c h
the c h a r a c t e r s w h o e n t e r the b o w e r m a n a g e to assimilate its n o n - a g g r e s s i v e
ideals a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s of the
locus d e t e r m i n e s the d e p t h w i t h w h i c h the pastoral m o d e f u n c t i o n s in the
n a r r a t i o n as a w h o l e . See E l i z a b e t h R h o d e s , " S i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Pastoral B o o k s ,
N a r r a t i v e S t r u c t u r e , a n d La Galatea of C e r v a n t e s , " f o r t h c o m i n g in BHS. T h e
a d a p t a t i o n of N o r t h r u p Frye's m i m e t i c s c h e m e to pastoral t h e o r y is b e i n g
d e v e l o p e d b y P a u l A l p e r s ; see note 17.
non-pastoral members of their world (who may or may not appear
in the locus but whose existence is always implied), shepherdesses
and shepherds alike are depicted as superior with regard to internal
qualities, but they are the same as or inferior to non-pastoral
characters with regard to their external relationship to that world.
That is, pastoral figures are superior singers, thinkers, conversationalists, and poets, and, most importantly, their ability to explain
their life stories in terms of intimate experiences is unparalled. They
typically exemplify
virtue and good intentions subjected to bad
fortune, for which they are admired. Such qualities are made
available at the expense of those characteristics typically attributed
to a non-pastoral heroine or hero, particularly the hero. In the first
narrative pane of the pastoral books, physical aggression as proof of
worth is inappropriate except as allegory, such as the attack on the
savages in La Diana, and external manifestations of social status and
political power are rarely if ever mentioned either except in allegorical terms (such as Felicia's palace or Felismena's jewels in La
Diana, or the tombs in the Valle de los Cipreses in Cervantes' La
Galatea). Although physical activity in the locus is severely limited,
emotional and conversational activity continues day and night.
It should be apparent that the human qualities represented in
the pastoral books as well as the traditionally heroic qualities eliminated in them effectively rob men of precisely those activities used
in other types of literature to make them heroes, while not only
leaving intact but emphasizing the traits which are typically assigned to women, such as gusto for conversation and preoccupation
with the development
of personal relationships.
21
Women thus
acquire increased significance relative to men in such a speech
setting. In La Diana, for example, all of the initial interpolations—
Selvagia's, Dórida's, Felismena's, Belisa's—are told by women. Also,
as they set down their arms and take up the lyre, masculine pastoral
figures acquire heightened sensitivity to feelings, lose the edge of
their physical aggression, and are immersed in subjective reality.
The female reader of the sixteenth century would have encountered several structural and thematic elements in the pastoral books
21 F o r s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s o n sex roles i n c o n v e r s a t i o n ,
E l i z a b e t h F l y n n , " G e n d e r a n d R e a d i n g , " i n Gender and Reading, p. 285.
see
that w o u l d m a k e that type o f fiction p a r t i c u l a r l y enjoyable to her.
O n e characteristic that d i s t i n g u i s h e s pastoral b o o k s f r o m
other
genres o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y secular fiction is the f r e e d o m a w a r d e d
to w o m e n i n t h e m to m o v e a b o u t the locus a n d to express t h e m selves o p e n l y as d e s i r i n g h u m a n beings w h o are able to risk, b u t not
forfeit,
t h e i r h o n o r f o r love. In La Diana, for e x a m p l e , S e l v a g i a ,
F e l i s m e n a , a n d Belisa are all i n d e p e n d e n t a r b i t r a t o r s o f t h e i r o w n
desire. T h e book's n a m e s a k e , D i a n a , is criticized b y S i r e n o precisely
because she failed to act o n h e r o w n feelings a n d a l l o w e d parental
a u t h o r i t y to o v e r r i d e h e r w i s h e s .
W o m e n ' s increased p h y s i c a l m o b i l i t y a n d e m o t i o n a l i n d e p e n dence is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n absolute lack o f s u p e r v i s i o n ; u n m a r r i e d
p a s t o r a l l o v e r s i n La Diana are f r e q u e n t l y described as b e i n g alone i n
isolated n a t u r a l settings, s o m e t h i n g w h i c h w o u l d i r r e p a r a b l y d a m age a w o m a n ' s h o n o r i n a n y o t h e r c o n t e x t .
22
For example, Sireno
a n d D i a n a b i d each o t h e r a tearful f a r e w e l l b e l i e v i n g themselves to
be alone ( a l t h o u g h C e l i o is secretly perched i n a tree above t h e m , i n
o r d e r that t h e i r p a r t i n g songs can be s u b s e q u e n t l y recited by o t h ers). T h e fact
that s o m e o n e
is u s u a l l y l i s t e n i n g i n o n couples'
c o n v e r s a t i o n s does n o t alter the fact that t h e y themselves do n o t
hesitate to be a l o n e together. T h e p o t e n t i a l for u n m e d i a t e d contact
b e t w e e n m e n a n d w o m e n is t a k e n full advantage o f b y the shepherdesses, w h o d o n o t t i m i d l y w a i t f o r t h e i r shepherds to seek t h e m
o u t , b u t s t r i k e off to find t h e m , w i t h a s t r e n g t h o f w i l l a n d desire
e q u a l to that o f a n y male l o v e r . Belisa recalls the m o m e n t i n h e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A r s i l e o w h e n "toda aquella n o c h e estuve pensando
el m o d o que ternía e n descubrille m i m a l , de suerte que la vergüenca
n o recibiesse daño, a u n q u e q u a n d o é s t e n o h a l l a r a , n o m e e s t o r v a r a
el de la m u e r t e " (p. 150). F e l i s m e n a , the p r e c u r s o r o f the mujer varonil
figure that w a s to have s u c h success i n the comedia, d o n s
23
the
It is this escape f r o m the rigid rules of c o u r t l y b e h a v i o r , signaled by
escape f r o m the c o u r t itself, that m a r k s the s h a r p e s t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the
pastoral b o o k s a n d s e n t i m e n t a l b o o k s s u c h as the Cárcel de amor; the rigid
s t r u c t u r e of the c o u r t l y love code as i n t e r p r e t e d in the s e n t i m e n t a l b o o k s
objectifies w o m e n a n d p r o v i d e s f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of codified e m o t i o n s . T h u s ,
in spite of the e m p h a s i s o n e m o t i o n a l issues s h a r e d by s e n t i m e n t a l a n d pastoral
b o o k s , they are radically distinct.
23 See M e l v e e n a M c K e n d r i c k , Woman and Society in the Spanish Drama of the
Golden Age. A Study of the mujer v a r o n i l ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e
University
P r e s s , 1974).
2 2
shepherdess' disguise to free herself f r o m c e n s u r e as she searches
the w o r l d f o r Félix; shepherdesses b y p r o f e s s i o n w e r e m o b i l e f i g ures w h o s e s o l i t a r y life i n t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d e x p l a i n e d itself, o n l y
the disguise as a m a n ( w h i c h F e l i s m e n a h a d already tried) offered a
similar, respectable
freedom.
It m a y be the independence to act o n t h e i r feelings w h i c h he
shepherdesses display, as w e l l as t h e i r life o u t o f d o o r s w h e r e t h e y
are free to r o a m t h e locus at w i l l , that b o t h threatened
the male
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , leading the pastoral b o o k s to be read as i m m o r a l , a n d
appealed to t h e i r w o m e n readers at the same t i m e . T h e paradoxes
of b e h a v i o r acceptable f o r w o m e n i n s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S p a i n are
described b y Selvagia i n t e r m s o f e m o t i o n a l c o n f i n e m e n t w h e n she
insists, " C r e o q u e n o a y m á s b a x o estado e n la vida q u e el de las
m u g e r e s , p o r q u e , si os h a b l a n b i e n , pensáis q u e e s t á n m u e r t a s de
a m o r e s ; s i n o os h a b l a n , creéis q u e de alteradas y fantásticas lo
h a z e n . . . si callan dezís q u e s o n necias; si h a b l a n , q u e s o n pesadas
....Assí
q u e n o está e n m á s pareceros la m u g e r b u e n a o m a l a
que e n acertar ella a n o salir j a m á s de lo q u e pide v u e s t r a i n c l i n a c i ó n " (pp. 38-39). W o m e n ' s s e x u a l a n d p h y s i c a l c o n f i n e m e n t is
exposed b y t h e w i f e i n F r a y D o m i n g o de B a l a t a n á s ' Enchiridion de
estados
(1555):
" N o s o t r a s d e s u e n t u r a d a s s i e m p r e encerradas e n casa.
Q u e a u n q u e n o os p o d a m o s s u f r i r d e n t r o n o nos es licito salir fuera,
ni p o d e m o s d e z i r n u e s t r a pena, para d e s c a n s a r . . . . Y l o q u e es peor
que s i e n d o e l varón y la m u g e r yguales e n la paga de la d e u d a
conjugal: D i o s y n a t u r a nos h i z o t a n vi[r]tuosas, q u e n o la pudiessem o s pedir s i n n u e s t r a afrenta: n i la p u d i e s s e m o s dar, s i n p e r d e r
n u e s t r a h o n r r a ; ssino siendo m u y i m p o r t u n a d a s , y c o n m i l regalos
requestadas."
24
T h e above q u o t a t i o n s , w r i t t e n b y m e n , a r e v i v i d l y
represented i n a fictional c o n t e x t b y María de Z a y a s y S o t o m a y o r ' s
Desengaños amorosos.
P a s t o r a l fiction, w h i c h depicts w o m e n as d e s i r i n g as w e l l as
desired characters, w a s doubtless a n affront to those w h o believed
f o r t h r i g h t n e s s about feelings o r desire o n the part o f w o m e n t o be
i n d e c o r o u s , since, as countless w r i t e r s o f the age declared, "a las
m u g e r e s de h o n r a n o basta la a b s t i n e n t i a sola d e l peccado, mas a u n
F r a y D o m i n g o de B a l t a n á s , Enchiridion de estados, donde se pone lo que deuen
guardar los que tienen el estado del matrimonio: y los eclesiásticos: y los religiosos, hombres y
mugeres (Sevilla, 1555), fols. c x x x i i a n d c x x x v ' .
2 4
v
para librarse de la sospecha d e l , les c o n u i e n e h u i r todos aquellos
i n c o n u e n i e n t e s é indicios que p u e d e n c a u s a r l a . "
25
Appearing virtu-
ous p r o b a b l y d i d n o t a l l o w for s u c h activities as s p e n d i n g the siesta
alone w i t h t w o y o u n g m e n beside a r e m o t e s p r i n g , as Selvagia does
(p. 63).
T h e difference b e t w e e n the object o f c o u r t l y love a n d the shepherdess is the latter's fallibility as w e l l as h e r desire. P a s t o r a l books
display e r r o r s o n the part o f w o m e n as w e l l as m e n , w h o c o m m i t
the same sins o f excess a n d fall v i c t i m to the same pitfalls o f bad
luck as t h e i r m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s .
T h u s , i n r e l a t i o n to each o t h e r ,
p a s t o r a l characters are equals i n the face o f love; the w o m e n as w e l l
as the m e n t e n d to reify t h e i r beloved d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f l a m e n t
o v e r t h e i r bad f o r t u n e s , a n d b o t h t e n d to c o n f r o n t the object of
t h e i r love face to face at one m o m e n t o r a n o t h e r , d r i v e n by desire.
T h r o u g h o u t t h e i r e m o t i o n a l experiences, male a n d female characters are r e p r e s e n t e d as possessing equal e x p e r i e n t i a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l
authority.
O n e o f the m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e features o f the pastoral books is
t h e i r c o m m u n a l s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h w h i c h the stories o f several pairs
of
lovers, not
a single pair, are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y developed. T h e
v a r i o u s stories t o l d across the first plane o f the n a r r a t i o n become
d e p e n d e n t o n each o t h e r f o r c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e ,
i n La Diana, S i l v a n o a n d Selvagia are e v e n t u a l l y paired, e v e n t h o u g h
each one o r i g i n a l l y appeared i n the locus because o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h s o m e o n e else. L i k e w i s e , F e l i s m e n a orchestrates the r e u n i o n o f
Belisa a n d A r s i n i o , a n d it is because o f h e r defense o f the attacked
n y m p h s that the t r i p to Felicia's palace is b r o u g h t about for the f o u r
o t h e r characters w h o g o there. T h i s s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h allocates m o r e
o r less e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e to a series of stories r a t h e r t h a n subjugati n g p e r i p h e r a l m a t e r i a l to the a d v e n t u r e s o f just o n e pair, m i g h t
h a v e h e l d p a r t i c u l a r appeal to f e m i n i n e readers; research s h o w s that
i n f e m a l e - c o n t r o l l e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , c o m m u n a l i t y is v a l u e d m o r e t h a n
25 J u a n de E s p i n o s a , Diálogo en laude de las mujeres [1580], ed. Á n g e l a G o n z á l e z
S i m ó n ( M a d r i d : C S I C , 1946), p. 268. A s i d e f r o m s t a n d a r d literary sources s u c h
as the w o r k s of C e r v a n t e s , n o n - f i c t i o n a l e x a m p l e s a b o u n d of the n o t i o n that it
w a s w o m a n ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y not o n l y to be v i r t u o u s but a p p e a r to be so: "que
los principes y los sacerdotes y las m u g e r e s , n o basta q u e sean b u e n o s s i n o que
lo p a r e s c a n " ( B a l t a n á s , fol. cxiiii').
in those controlled by m e n .
26
Also, the nature of the pastoral mode
reduces or nullifies class and sex role distinctions by emphasizing
inner worth over power, and thereby recognizes authority based on
personal experience. This process creates a terrain on which women
exist as equals with men, unfettered by excessive idealization (a
form of subjugation). Also, members of the pastoral community
are quite involved in each other's lives and are willing to take risks
for each other. Anthropological studies indicate that in communal
egalitarian societies, in which mutual efforts directed toward the
well-being of the group far outweigh the desire for power, women
figure predominantly as respected members of the community.
27
Another characteristic of books like La Diana which would have
had special meaning to women readers is their unique focus on
emotional problems. As the critics of this type of literature pointed
out time and time again, the pastoral books are collections of love
stories which tell of difficulties in people's relationships. The progression of the first narrative plane depends on the characters'
sharing their love experiences with the community, which enfolds
them as they go through the ordeal of recalling their past misfortunes and nurtures them through the painful process of confronting unsuccessful love. Political and social motives are cast aside to
focus directly on the fate of love subjected to time and fortune. The
motivations for the characters' actions are for the most part emotional and are directed toward fulfillment of the desire for a happy
relationship, not desire for the suffering one finds in the sentimental books or the quest for fame and honor of chivalric romance.
(Although the characters often express delight in their suffering,
the nature of the narration, which progresses in history rather than
dwelling on the eternal suffering present, makes clear their desire
to resolve their problems.)
Narrative material of this type offers particular potential
to
women readers who, as a sex, are more inclined than men to enter
into the human relationship presented by stories, searching out
interpersonal motives, allegiances and conflicts, rather than reading
26 C r a w f o r d a n d C h a f f i n , p. 23.
E l e a n o r L e a c o c k , " W o m e n i n E g a l i t a r i a n Societies,"
2 7
i n Becoming Visible:
Women in European History, eds. R e n a t e B r i d e n t h a l a n d C l a u d i a K o o n z ( B o s t o n :
Houghton
Mifflin,
1977), p p . 11-35.
in terms of the perspective of a single character or the author.
28
Feminist research shows that "men define themselves through indivuation and separation from others, while women have more
flexible ego boundaries and define and experience themselves in
terms of their affiliations and relationship with others."
29
T h u s the
exclusive attention to human relationships of pastoral fiction and its
communal structure correspond to gender-specific reading patterns
of women.
T h e censorship of such fiction, in which women figure freely
and predominantly as equal partners in narrative meaning and
structure, is lamentably understandable when one recalls that they
were written for a society in which the male establishment willed it
that "la doncella cristiana no haga m á s que orar y callar, y obrar con
sus manos, y obedecer a sus padres, y viuir en recogimiento y
honestidad."
30
T h e pastoral books, for their representation of wo-
men as free-moving and free-thinking beings, provided absolutely
unacceptable role models for "la doncellita que apenas sabe andar, y
ya trae una Diana en la faldriquera." Most of those responsible for
31
judging the acceptability of such literature for women ruled against
it, and typically concluded, along with Antonio de Porras, "Ojala que
todas las mugeres
no se ocupassen
en leer otra cosa, sino los
euangelios, y epístolas de San Pablo."
32
Although the role of women within the confines of the first
narrative plane of pastoral fiction might be interpreted as liberating
for the woman reader, when considered in light of the interpolations related on the second narrative plane and in light of the
inevitable direction of the plots toward marriage, which typically
represents women's absorption by an institution, pastoral fiction
provides only a brief, interludic escape from the confines of surrounding society (true to the pastoral mode, which is basically
D a v i d B l e i c h , " G e n d e r Interests i n R e a d i n g a n d L a n g u a g e , " i n Gender and
Reading, pp. 2 3 4 - 6 7 .
2 8
P a t r o c i n i o P. S c h w e i c k a r t , " R e a d i n g O u r s e l v e s : T o w a r d a F e m i n i s t T h e o r y o f R e a d i n g , " i n Gender and Reading, pp. 31-62 at p p . 54-55.
G a s p a r de A s t e t e , Tratado del gouierno de la familia, y estado de las viudas y
donzellas ( B u r g o s , 1603), p. 183 (cited i n G l a s e r , p. 407).
M a l ó n de C h a i d e , I, 25.
A n t o n i o de P o r r a s , Tratado de la oración que se divide en tres partes ( A l c a l á , 1552)
[all folios a r e u n n u m b e r e d ] .
29
3 0
31
3 2
escapist). In spite of the relative freedom with which they move
about the locus and their independence in trying to deal with their
own, individual problems, the female characters in La Diana and
many of its continuations are subject to events dictated by men.
Even Sireno, who complains of Diana's fickleness, cannot lament
only of her changing her mind but must also consider the role her
father played in her decision to marry Delio. Likewise, Selvagia's life
is not only ruined by the inconstancy of Arsidoro, but she is swept
away from the love quadrangle in which she was enmeshed by her
father. Belisa falls victim to what she feels are her obligations to
repay with kindness Arsenio's love for her, which conflict directly
with her obligation to herself to develop her emotional involvement
with his son.
Felismena, the character typically designated as the only one
with sufficient will and constancy to overcome her problems, is not
as much a credit to womanhood as she is to manhood: her power at
arms and even her speech habits are decidedly masculine and aggressive, to say nothing of the fact that a woman falls in love with
her and dies of that love. Constance Jordon makes a valuable point
about humanist defenses of women which describes characters such
as Felismena as well: "The women who illustrate feminine excellence are noted for acting courageously and intelligently—in short,
in a manner specified as virile. These women logically prove the
worth of their sex by denying it: a strange form of defense. While it
questions sexual stereotypes, that some women can do men's wok,
it also seems to confirm gender-related values, that everything
female is inferior."
33
When considered in light of their fictional totality, the ultimate
standards of behavior, even in pastoral fiction, are those imposed on
women by men. However, in the process of their approach to those
standards, during which they recognize, express, and act on their
own desires, female pastoral characters display vivacity, refreshing
fallibility, and depth of personality. A t the nexus of humanism,
C o n s t a n c e J o r d o n , " F e m i n i s m a n d the H u m a n i s t s : T h e C a s e f o r S i r
T h o m a s E l y o t ' s Defense of Good Women," i n Rewriting the Renaissance. The Discourses of
Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe, eds. M a r g a r e t F e r g u s o n , M a u r e e n Q u i l l i g a n , a n d N a n c y V i c k e r s ( C h i c a g o : U n i v . of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1986), p p . 2 4 2 - 5 8 , at
p. 252.
3 3
r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m , a n d the v o g u e o f pastoral l i t e r a t u r e o c c u r r e d the
f l o w e r i n g o f a g e n r e i n w h i c h w o m e n w e r e represented i n a c o n t e x t
t h e y c o u l d i d e n t i f y as theirs, a g e n r e i n w h i c h the n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e itself as w e l l as the c o n t e n t appealed to t h e i r experience as a
sex. In the p a s t o r a l b o o k s , w o m e n are depicted i n an idyllic w o r l d
that not o n l y r e c o g n i z e s the e m o t i o n s a n d desires o f w o m e n a n d
m e n as b e i n g o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e i n life, but depends o n those
e m o t i o n s a n d desires a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y for the n a r r a t i o n itself.
Recognizing themselves and their concerns therein, they
read.