131 Chapter 7 E-Books in Digital Libraries Monica Landoni University of Lugano, Switzerland ABSTRACT This chapter will introduce a definition and an analysis of user needs when reading electronic books. The way users interact with e-books is explored in a section on e-reading with an overview of different types of readings and their implications on design. Finally the description of an evaluation initiative aimed at studying e-book usability in context, the Active Reading Track in INEX is provided. Specific attention will be paid to the role e-books play in academia and the studies that look into visibility, popularity and accessibility of electronic titles with students and scholars. 1. INTRODUCTION The printed book (p-book) as a means of storing and presenting information has a long history and is now firmly embedded in modern culture with an associated infrastructure of bookshops and libraries. The public library system was set up in order to guarantee access to the printed word for all. Recent developments in computer technology have led to the development of the electronic book (e-book), basically the contents of a book made available to the reader in electronic form. For such a young market, the e-book market has DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-031-0.ch007 seen various formats come and go. First the CDROM based book and then the dedicated e-book reading device have appeared and subsequently disappeared, largely because of the increased development of the World Wide Web and its ability to deliver interactive multimedia content to a desktop PC. Public libraries have generally been slow to react to the arrival of e-books, not least because they usually lack the resources necessary to undertake the required research and development work. However, some studies have been conducted in conjunction with public library authorities. For example, McKnight and Dearnley(McKnight & Dearnley, 2003) reported on a study undertaken Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. E-Books in Digital Libraries in 2001/2002 in which Rocket eBook dedicated devices were loaned to library patrons in the same way that books were loaned. They found that in addition to lukewarm reactions to the devices from patrons, institutional considerations generally militated against the lending of dedicated hardware. Dearnley, McKnight & Morris(Dearnley et al,2004) report on a study in which general purpose PDA devices were loaned to library patrons in order to read e-books. They note that in order to read fiction, linear reading which stirs the imagination and offers an ‘escape’, an e-book platform must be comfortable and usable for extended periods of time. The PDAs lacked this potential in terms of both display size and battery life. As noted above, the Web has become the dominant delivery medium in many areas and various content providers now offer a service to libraries through which their patrons can download e-books to their home PC. Libraries typically do not have a research and development budget within which to develop and test such services. Additionally, the providers tend to be US-based, with the consequent bias to the books on offer through their system. The development of the Web has also been fuelled by the improved network infrastructure and increased speed of access via broadband. However, while many people now have the ability to download files with relative ease and at reasonable speed, e-books are still relatively expensive for individual readers and require considerable effort to seek them out. There exists a considerable number of free e-books available over the Web, which has been increased dramatically by the growing number of initiatives for scanning and making available on-line large collection of existing titles. In fact, next to well established large repositories of free e-books for humanities such as those produced by Project Gutenberg1 and Oxford Text Archive (OTA), there is now a flourishing of digitisation projects such the Million Books2 and Google Print3 aiming at giving access to even larger corpora of 132 books in electronic format via web interfaces. As these are getting increasingly sophisticated and effective it is reasonable to suggest that the dream of a real digital library to guarantee access to the digital word for all is going to come true very soon. However, their use is limited for the average reader by few well-known factors. The first is in finding them: they are scattered across many sites with no obvious organising principle even within sites. Once found, the books lack a suitable interface to make reading/using them easy and enjoyable. While both these issues are being addressed by researchers, users complains about the limited (when it comes to currency) choice of available books and the fact that still it is mainly old material to be scanned and made available on line, which is a problem for publishers to solve hopefully when redefining their market strategies. 2. vISIBILITy Visibility is becoming an even more crucial issue as many more titles than before are made available on-line. Finding the right title in a readable format is a very tricky task, and it is not a coincidence that the most popular e-commerce site for books, Amazon has acquired a large e-book seller, MobyPocket.com and is currently behind the most successful e-readers on the market: Kindle and Kindle II. Among the other famous features that have made the fortune of Amazon the use of user profile and collaborative filtering in order to suggest what to buy next, make it a very interesting combination. Amazon offers a combination of search, browse and filtering in a very easy to use interface, providing users with a combination of pull and push strategies so that it is almost impossible to miss a title available. Ideally, an equally supportive, effective and easy to use system could be designed to allow for access e-books in an e-library environment. The library metaphor should be kept at a high level in order to take advantage of the existing user familiarity E-Books in Digital Libraries and trust. An inspiring example from the past when virtual environments were fashionable is the Book House that provided a very innovative, visually engaging and intuitive means of browsing through fiction books in a virtual library, but did not include any e-book titles (Pejetersen, 1994), another interesting approach is that implemented by Flamenco (Ame, 2001)well known example of a system allowing for easy to use browsing in different types of collections, but again not necessarily e-books. Currently academic libraries have subscriptions with a number of e-book providers such as netLibrary4, ebrary5 and books24X76, each of them proposing a different model of e-book with minimal extra value in terms of functionalities to support reading and personalisation, often the result of the restrictions imposed by publishers. 3. READING E-BOOKS A book or document can be understood in general terms as a medium for presenting information, where information is taken to include facts, teaching material, discursive writing and fiction, among others. An electronic book (or e-book) is, or should be, its digital equivalent, an object, container and content, where information is organised and structured so that it can be presented to readers in order to facilitate consultation (Landoni, 2003). Consultation is an activity that would normally include at least the following basic actions: browsing, searching, extracting, comparing and assessing relevance and quality of information presented. An essential activity to support this process is reading in its many variations from deep to shallow, from intensive to extensive reading (Levy, 1997) that has attracted quite some attention from experts in different relevant disciplines, from education to physicians, from psychologists to human computer interaction experts. In particular (Dillon, 2004) has produced an extensive theory to support the different facets of e-reading by spanning across different type of content and use. A study by Adler et al.(Adler et al.,1998) has crucially explored this subject in a more specific, perhaps less theoretic, scenario-based perspective, by looking at the work scenario and running a user study across professions. That study produced some very promising and much needed information on how people use digital documents and highlighted the common practice of mixing reading with some form of writing, e.g. annotations, reports, specific answers. It is expected that better understanding of reading practice among different categories of users would provide valuable insight to assist the design of e-readers tools to support the use of electronic documents. In fact there is good evidence in literature (Parker, 1996),(Wilson, Landoni & Gibb, 2003),(Crestani, Landoni & Melucci, 2005) that the design of e-books has to take into account advantages and disadvantages in terms of legibility, portability and autonomy of the medium they are hosted by. There is of course a growing range of e-readers, devices and/or dedicated software, created for reading e-books, each of them exploiting some aspects of the paper book metaphor such as tangibility and portability. Screen resolution is still not comparable with paper resolution and this has motivated more research in this area plus the need for extra value to be added to e-books in order to justify the discomfort of “reading” them on a relatively poor resolution screen. Paper augmented books have been developed too (Norrie, Paliginis & Singer, 2005). E-ink and e-paper have been a promise for a while, not yet completely fulfilled. The main models that have inspired the design of e-books have been focusing on paper books and their physical appearance, logical structure and usage. Thickness, page titles, page layouts, typographical clues and tools for searching and browsing such as indexes and table of content, bookmarks and annotations, have all been considered as desirable features to include in such a model. 133 E-Books in Digital Libraries What has not yet been taken into consideration is the diversity of presentation styles that applies to different types of books according to their content, use and intended audience. Personalisation and user customisation will be the core of the next generation of e-books and e-readers. Indeed, lessons can be learned from how paper books have evolved to a variety of different templates both to fit in with their specific contents and their intended audience. Children books are different than adults’, scientific publication from novels, encyclopaedia from monographs, textbooks from art books and the differences become subtler in each genre, even for the same title, in order to really target a specific reader group. Such a clever system to match readers with the most suitable version of a title can be taken much further by e-books where instead of just targeting few user groups, e-books could be designed to fit in with individual needs and profile. Creativity and user centred design should be the core of e-book design where research should claim a much deserved centre role. 4. DIFFERENT READINGS FOR DIFFERENT pURpOSES Section 2 has discussed how different types of readings need to be supported by different types of e-books. We suggest a model of electronic reading where the broad categories of reading purposes are linked to reading activities, which are listed in approximate order of importance to suggest which are most relevant for different purposes. These activities are then related to specific features of electronic reading technology, which may support them. It will be noticed that the divisions of reading purpose are not rigid, as similar activities occur in different contexts. This serves to identify features, which are shared by many forms of electronic reading, and activities may have a greater or lesser degree of importance in different reading purposes. It is suggested that 134 this model is based on two main dimensions: Purpose linked to reading activities and Support could be used, for instance to map the most appropriate interface to each e-book title according to user profile. Looking at literature and our experience in the design, implementation and evaluation of ebooks for over than 10 years we have extracted a list of representative purposes in reading that are here further explored in terms of related types of reading and additional activities involved as well as specific features and functionalities required to support them: Entertainment: that is reading for personal reasons, but not necessarily light reading. It can include serious fiction, light reading, or non-fiction. Linear reading should be supported. Critical, “reflective” (O’Hara, 1996), or “active”(Schilit et al., 1997) reading can also be involved, requiring support for navigation through the text, scanning, cross-referencing and annotation. Study/Learning: where study is understood to be for a specific purpose, whereas learning is for general information. However, the two involve very similar activities. Critical, active reading will be more important here, as readers will want to understand the information. Fact-finding and searching for specific information, possibly in multiple documents, should be supported. However this reading will require more re-reading and searching. Research and exploration: This is more complex than the previous category, involving critical analysis, synthesising multiple sources and developing new ideas. The use of multiple sources is vital here, so systems need to support comparisons of multiple documents. Navigation, cross-referencing, searching and scanning, again using multiple sources, must be supported. As research is creative, the need for annotation and personalisation of material is also very important. The quality of the presentation of information, to improve comprehension, should also be supported. E-Books in Digital Libraries Research can require collaboration, so there must be the capacity to share information. Work: as work and work environments vary greatly, such reading can involve complex, varying uses depending on the specific circumstances7. However basic purposes are shared by many types of work reading, particularly the need to share information and keep up-to-date. Quick access to specific information is required, so searching and fact-finding should be supported. It is important that information is up to date, so the system should support a network or other way of updating material. Collaboration will often be required. Annotation and personalisation are highly desirable too. Some tasks may require portable, flexible systems to be used in conjunction with other actions; portable and desk-based systems may have to be used in conjunction. Linear reading will again be needed, but probably for short sections only. Critical reading will be less important, as information will generally be applied to practical situations. Instruction: this is to perform a specific activity, using a manual or similar document. Reading will therefore often be combined with action. Factfinding is vital, and therefore support for searching. Portability and flexibility of use, to allow use in conjunction with practical activity. Personalisation, especially the ability to take notes, and to arrange important information in most useful way. Comprehension is important, requiring quality presentation and effective communication. Less linear reading, though may require “slow”(Lorch, Lorch & Klusewitz, 1993), intensive reading. It is clear that this analysis has deep implications on e-book design and usability, as discussed in the next section. 5. DESIGN When it comes to e-book interfaces a number of studies8,(Landoni & Gibb, 2000),(Wilson, Landoni & Gibb, 2002),9 suggests that good design is crucial. One size fits all is not working so a more refined approach should be embraced, where design guidelines are mapped to a combination of users’ requirements plus content implications. We believe that the right combination of e-content and e-reader will result in a personalised e-book, tailored made for each specific user, use and purpose. The analysis of reading, presented in the previous section, shows the complex relationships between reading purpose and reading activities. This has implications n research into the design of electronic reading technology. As discussed previously, research which considers “reading” in general will be of little practical use. By having a theoretical concept of what the system is intended for, experiments can be chosen which represent more accurately the specific reading activities that will be required. The model also suggests, however, that certain features of electronic media will be useful in many reading situations. The ability to search is beneficial, and most reading will require some degree of linear reading, which benefits from high quality displays and comfort in using the device. Again, this suggests areas that research could concentrate on, and where general findings may be of use in more specific applications. However, the analysis described in the previous section clearly points out the need to balance different demands. Where features cannot easily co-exist in the same system, as for example providing large, multiple displays while allowing portability, the purpose for which the system will be used should determine the relative importance given to each in the design process. Ultimately this should allow for the creation of a range of different approaches to electronic reading, allowing users to choose which system or application meets the needs of a particular situation. This should also allow for variations in the number of features offered, since the more complex functionalities may increase the cost of the system, which could limit its use. While a range of systems should be made available, the possibilities of personalisation 135 E-Books in Digital Libraries should allow some degree of flexibility, to allow for different user preferences. E-books and their design can greatly benefit from the application of this model. By drawing a parallel from paper books, content is crucial in dictating for whom and how e-books should be designed, support follows in terms of what type of device/s are more suitable to use as support for that content, which is a choice that depends also on the purpose of the book and its intended use. The crucial step of gathering user requirements for designing an e-book needs to explore the following aspects: • • • Content and its desirable features including topic, length and style. Purpose in reading the book (e.g. acquire new information, consolidate previous knowledge, revise familiar information, relax, exercise imagination, discover new realities, learn new skills and so on). This dimension also covers the use of the book (e.g. read sequentially, reference part of it, interact and relate practice to instructions in the book, consult or revise it). Support most suitable to users in terms of overall profile, considering portability, cost, extra computational power, legibility issues and robustness. A relevant study(Malama, Landoni, Wilson, 2005) shows that even if appearance is still crucial when moving from educational material to novels and some of the generic guidelines developed for educational resources10 are still applicable, there is a clear need for specific guidelines both in terms of desirable functionalities and appearance. There is clearly a need to map these features to the relevant interface so that each e-book can achieve its purpose while providing users with the highest usability possible. The same content can be used in different way for a different purpose and in a different format, e.g. a Jane Austen’s novel is a topic of philological research for scholars 136 but also of entertainment for readers that liked the TV adaptation. In the first instance the novel is going to be used and analysed, in the second simply read sequentially possibly trying to resist the temptation to run to the end. The format could be different too: cheap paperback is perfect to take on holiday, while proper hardback to stand long term use, or, even better, an electronic version for easy reference and philological search could be more suitable for scholars. Looking into the e-book counterpart, possibly the novel to be read purely for pleasure in the most economical and light form would require an equally simple, portable, no fuss, minimal design, perhaps just a scrolling e-book in PDA format with few functionalities: mainly book-marking, moving to next/previous page, and to next /previous chapter. The scholar version would require more sophisticated services, for instance search facilities targeting individual passages, chapters and pages, or the possibility to apply statistical analysis to elements of the text. Portability will be less crucial, but speed in processing statistical data would need a more powerful machine, so a desktop based machine would be a better option than a PDA and the necessity to use multiple window will also require a large size screen 6. EvALUATION While there is quite a consensus on the importance of good design and few authors have already been publishing guidelines by proving advice on good practice still, no much attention has been paid to evaluation and its impact on e-book quality. It would indeed be extremely useful for designers to have a common platform in terms of bench-marks, agreed procedures, criteria and measures to evaluate the impact of their products on users, but this is far from happening. The reality is that quite a few researchers are setting up evaluation experiments and collecting evidence of good practice but mostly in isolation from other E-Books in Digital Libraries previous or current similar initiatives. We believe that the time is ready for the e-book community to look into how to set up such a framework that would indeed bring lots of benefits in terms of improved design and quality of e-books. A starting point would be to look into good examples of methodologies and related experiments for the evaluation of e-books and extract from there the foundation of the future common framework. In this respect the seminal work done by the SuperBook team(Egan, 1987) has to be considered the main reference for a large study, EBONI, (Electronic Books ON-screen Interfaces), conduced by one of the authors on e-books usability that resulted in a set of guidelines for the design of more usable on-line resources for education11 and the development of a specific methodology to be used when setting up user studies looking at the way users interacted with e-books in education12. The methodology measured both the ease with which users can retrieve the information they need from the text, and their subjective satisfaction with the experience of reading the material on the Internet. The two measures were then combined to produce an overall usability score for each text. Different representative user groups from few discipline and background were involved in the study via this methodology that also allow for the development of a means of analysing the results of the experiment and using these results to examine the extent to which students from different disciplines and backgrounds have separate requirements for the electronic delivery of learning and teaching resources, and identifying mechanisms for improving the usability of such material13. A specific experiment, part of the main EBONI study, looked at the way students in high school interacted with e-encyclopaedias while asking them to compare usability of three different models14. The methodology developed for EBONI is the core of the Active Reading Task (ART), part of the INEX Book Search Initiative. The main aim of ART is to explore how hardware or software tools for reading e-books can provide support to users engaged with a variety of reading related activities, such as fact finding, memory tasks or learning. The goal of the investigation is to derive user requirements and consequently design recommendations for more usable tools, to support active reading practices for e-books. Software and hardware e-readers have moved on quite quickly with new models recently coming on the market and getting a lot of attention (e.g., Amazon’s Kindle and iRex’s Ilaid Reader). Researchers, from a number of related communities, are actively involved in the study and design of e-reader tools. Progress in this area, however, suffers by the lack of common practices when it comes to conducting usability studies. Current user studies focus on specific content and user groups and follow a variety of different procedures that make comparison, reflection and better understanding of related problems, difficult. ART offers an ideal arena for researchers involved in such efforts with the crucial opportunity to access a large selection of titles, representing different genres and appealing to a variety of potential users, as well as benefiting from established methodology and guidelines for organising effective evaluation experiments. ART is based on the large evaluation experience of EBONI, and adopts its evaluation framework with the aim to guide participants in organising and running user studies whose results could then be compared. The task is to run one or more user studies in order to test the usability of novel e-readers by following the provided EBONI based procedure and focusing on INEX content. Participants should then gather and analyse results according to the EBONI approach and submit these for overall comparison and evaluation. The evaluation is task-oriented. Participants will be able to tailor their own evaluation experiments, inside the EBONI framework, according to resources available to them. In order to gather user feedback, participants may choose from a variety of methods, from low-effort online questionnaires 137 E-Books in Digital Libraries to more time consuming one to one interviews, and think aloud sessions. 7. CONCLUSION In this chapter we have focused on an essential element of Digital Libraries: the electronic book. We have discussed issues still to be addressed in order to make e-books more widely available and popular with readers in different contexts and scenarios of use. In particular we have analysed the kind of activities related to reading for different purposes and how design needs to keep these central in order to produce more usable books. We have also described briefly some of the on-going research initiatives aiming at achieving this task. Even if there is quite a good margin of improvement in the e-books and e-readers currently on the market, still their popularity is growing, making it even more urgent for researchers to get involved and drive their design, by keeping into account user feedback gathered in rigorous evaluation experiments. E-books have a variety of exciting and stimulating scenarios of use. Education, from high school to university, has already been subject of extensive study. Fiction reading and in general reading for pleasure, instead still need to be properly explored, an area where libraries have the potential to play a crucial role by proposing new paradigms for making titles available and distribute them to a larger groups of readers. Libraries should let users borrow e-readers together with content to be read on these. Indeed in this case librarians will have to overcome some initial resistance or even hostility to e-books as opposed to traditional and beloved paper books. Reading at work is another area where topical libraries should embrace e-readers and propose new models for the usage of e-books. More specifically, reference books, manuals and internal reports, all material that has been reported in literature to be ideally suited for being read and 138 consulted in electronic format, could very effectively be circulated among these homogeneous communities, once the most suitable and appropriate e-reader/s has been selected. A very promising group of users is that of young readers, 5 to 9 years old, the so called native digital, where a certain lack of interest and reluctance in reading plain paper books could prove an advantage for the introduction of e-books as long as their design focus on the specific needs and skills of this age group. Children libraries should embrace innovative e-readers and provide electronic titles for children as a way to make reading more attractive and appealing to their age group. An interesting initiative is that of Nintendo DS Flips15. Books for children have been designed as a combination of games and text to be enjoyed on this very popular device for video games. The main advantage of this approach is that there is no need to buy a dedicated device, as the majority of children are already familiar with Nintendo DS and its paradigms of interaction. The main disadvantages are the size of screens, extremely small, and the fact that children can easily ignore the text and simply enjoy their game component once the novelty effects fades away. Even with these caveat still this is an area worth further exploration. We are planning a pilot study to get some feedback from children, 6-9 years, by running a long term study, in the form of a children reading group. This would let children interact and enjoy each ‘game’, made of 6/8 titles by same author, for a month, so that they could then be free to read and enjoy it as much as possible before asking and exchanging their opinions. When writing this chapter the author looked back a few years to a similar contribution she wrote for the International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science16 and how much the research scenario has changed since. Back then a simple typology of e-books was sufficient to guide readers into the different models under study, with a focus on format, metaphors and overall presentation; the discussion about roles had just started E-Books in Digital Libraries with authors, designers and readers being sort of interchangeable, e-readers had still to appear on the market and portable devices where not yet a reality worth exploring. Now, few years later, in order to discuss different types of e-books and e-readers we need to define scenarios of use, with enough dimensions to capture the different way readers interact with content according to their purpose and context of use. There has been a flourishing of new roles including that of book aggregators and providers, these together with publishers and authors are still looking for best model to promote and sell e-books on the market. E-readers are making a name for themselves in the US and European market, finally establishing their presence long enough for new and more advances releases (see Kindle and Sony E-Readers). Above this dynamic, confused and messy scenario, only Libraries, or better Digital Libraries, can provide e-books with their best chance of being visible and accessible to readers, if and only if designers would make them usable and useful to readers. 8. ACKNOwLEDGmENT The study of electronic book models and typologies, central to this chapter, started from a travel experience supported by an EPSRC grant, “A Typology Driven Interface Study for E-books“ in 2005, when author was based at the department of Computer and Information Sciences of the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, UK. This provided the author, member of the UK research community, with the opportunity to meet a number of researchers active in this area in US and discuss design, use and evaluation issues further, perhaps with a more pragmatic perspective. That experience was followed by a Master thesis on the topic by Peter Stirling, who produced the in-depth literature analysis here only briefly reported in section 4 that constitutes the basis of the discussion on usable design in section 5. REFERENCES Adler, A. A. Gujar, B. L. Harrison, K. O’Hara, & A. Sellen. (1998.)A diary study of work-related reading: design implications for digital reading devices. 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(1994).A new approach to design of document retrieval and indexing systems for OPAC users. In D.I Raitt & B. Jeapes (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th International Online Information Meeting, pp. 273-290. London: Learned Information. 140 Wilson, R., Landoni, M., & Gibb, F. (2003). The WEB Book experiments in electronic textbook design. The Journal of Documentation, 59(4). doi:10.1108/00220410310485721 ENDNOTES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 www.gutenber.org www.ulib.com http://books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/about.html www.netLibrary.com. http://www.ebrary.com www.books24x7.com. Cf. A. Adler et al, op.cit. Cf. Barker, op. cit. Cf, Wilson et al, op. cit. Cf. Wilson et al, op. cit. Cf. M. Landoni & R. Wilson et al, op. cit. Cf. R. Wilson & M. Landoni, op.cit. Cf. Wilson et al, op. cit. Cf. Wilson et al, op. cit. See http://www.nintendodsflips.com/ Cf. M. Landoni op. cit.
