"Two-wheeled light chariots, carts and wagons in the Iberian

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TWO-WHEELED LIGHT CHARIOTS, CARTS MID WAGONS
IN THE IDERIAN PENINSULA DURING THE !RON AGE'
From the end of tbe Bronze Age to the Orientalizing Period: Tlle Iight war-chario
stelae oftbe Soutb-West (c. 9th-7th c. BC).
The light war chariot drawn by two horses tied to a central draught-pole, with t',vo
wheels, light box with side handles, and manned by one or two standing persons, appears
Iberian Peninsula in the forro of schematic representations carved on stone slabs in wh'at is kn
Spanish scholarly literature as the "Estelas del Suroeste" group. However, these images s
understanding of constructional details that proves a knowledge of the structure of the v
themselves. The introduction in Iberia of these chariots can be related to the first Oriental c
perhaps even before the creation of the first permanent Phoenician settlements. These chariot
no way related to the transport vehicles -mostly two wheeled carts with shafis-, known fram
Age Rock Art [1].
Carved stelae showing human representations, weapons, chariots and other
constitute a typical phenomenon of the south-west quarter of the lberian during the later stage
Late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Orientalizing period (c. 1.050-c. 700/650 BC) [2]
these stelae have never been found in a context that proves their function as grave markers
authors disagree about theír purpose, emphasizing their possible status as tenitorial marke
enviroment of herdsrnen [3], even though admittíng the fi.merary meaning of some of the
carved on íhern. Whatever the case, it is clear that such large standing stones were meant to
the power of an elite, and tbai the objects depicted on them reflected their power, wealth and s
Among these objects, chariots figure prominently in tile more complex stelae types
sort that inelude human figures and other elements re1ated to war or prestige, on top of th
"basic panopl)' stelae" of spear, sword ill"1d round shield without human figure. The chariot st
found not only in the southero Guadalquivir valley, but a1so in the inorthern, mountainous
reaching the river Tagus area. They are therefore not limited to the: Tartessian nuclear ar
coastal areas oí Huelva and Cadiz and Seville), but are also found in the mountain ranges an
valleys to the north. The "chariot stelae" sub-group is cornmonly dated to the later time span
production of stelae, probably as late as the transition between the 8th ahd i h centuries Be. Ho
recent discoveries cast a shadow over the accepted evolution and chropological chart that co
the earliest steJae to be the northernmost and the simplest, expanding: south and inclüding c
mostly in the southero areas [4]. In fact, we might even put forward t~e proposal that chario
could be arnong the earliest types. In any case, since these rnonurnents unfortunately lack any
'We are grateful to Eduardo Kavanagh del Prado for the English translation arld revision ofthe text.
figures can be compared with 24 and 7 known in 1976 [6]. The proportions show that abo
these monuments nave images of chariots inscribed ün them, and that this proportions has
more or less constant over three decades of research.
There is hardly any archaeological evidence of the funerary ritual within th
therefore the only source of information to evaluate the type and significance of the char
data contained in the carv'ings themselves. In every case the chariots are represented from a
view, instead of the lateral vision characteristic of the Mediterranean worId. The former
both of the Scandinavian and Saharan cultures, however distant. In fact, we should not pre
representations of a similar type are due to any cultural influences.
Fi.g. l. Ategua stele (Córdoba, Andalusia). One large human figure accompanie
weapons appears over a funerary scene. Underneath, another figure - probably the same i
appears to be climbing on a carefully represented chariot that wiíi carry him to the afterEfe
around the VIII s B.C., Córdoba Museum .Lnv. ur. 24.632. (drawing S. Celestino)
298
a. - Chariots are invariably represent vebic1es drawn by two quadrupeds, most p
horses and not oxen; we do not believe that the flattened position of the horses represent a s
[8].
b. - Three 01' four animals teams are never represented, as opposed to what happene
t.1.e beginning of the 1 Mi!1ennium in the East, in Cyprus 01' the Sabara, where trigae and qu
are frequently found [9].
c. - Tbey are always two wheeled vehicles, never four; the only doubtful case (So
Cabañas) has been long identified as an ercor ofthe engraver [10].
d. - Whenever the engraver took the bother of showing it, the wheels are four spok
never find six 01' more spokes. The presence of disc wheels is most unlikely even if no spo
drawn [11]; this detail is striking, since the most common type ofwheeis in the Mediterrane
for severa1 centuries had six or more spokes, while four spoked wheels remained only in the
after c. 1450 al' so [12].
­
e. - The chariot box a1ways has a curved front, with big handles.
f. - When represented, the axle always appears under the centre ofthe box, as in Gree
not at the back end ofthe platform.
g. - The draught- pole is always simple. We never [¡nd dauble poles as in Salam
Cyprus [13].
Fig. 2. A detail ofthe chariot carved on the Ategua stele. (Photo auihor)
/'.Itogether, aH t.l-¡e typological details visible in these chariots c1early distinguish ther
those found in the Near East, Cyprus or the Sahara and bring them cJoser to those belonging
Aegean Dark Age world or, at most, their Mycenaean prototypes [14].
engraved by any artisan who did not know anythíng about the real vehicíes. AIso, three pa
run frorn the pole: two reach only the front of the box, as they represent reins, whil
continues under the box (as said, the draught pole). Also, Ategua shows four spoked w
c1ear handles at the back of the box - the driver who is mounting is already holding one o
the other hand, the mistaken conversion of the large handles at the back of the box into
inexistent, pair ofwheels (Zarza de Montánchez), shows a iack of understanding ofthe rea
layout, as does the wrong structure at Monte Blanco.
•
Estelas sin imagen de cerro
® Fernando Quesada Sanz
Fig. 3. Distribution map of stelae in the Southwest (afier Quesada 2005)
300
character, probably of a funerary nature. lndividually considered, the objects represente
parallels both in the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic Late Bronze Age, but seen as a who
show a clear relationsbíp with the Eastem Mediterranean and particularly the Aegean. C
iconography, as for instance in the case of the Ategua steIe (Córdoba) with ¡ts Greek-ge
parallels also support this view [15].
On the other hand, there is no evidence of the existence of any palace type~system
South-Wast of the Península in the 11 ¡h - 8th C. BC, or of a system capable of maintain
arsenals for the building of war chariots, nor of storehollses and repair workshops, stables and
crews, that is, an infrastructure that would permit liS to speak of the presence of a true "war c
either as a fighting platfonn (as in the Middle East) or as a "taxi" for carrying the chief1ain
bartlefield (as among the in Mycenaeans).
Fig. 4. SteJe from Cuatro Casas (Carmona, Seviíla).
Detail of the chariot with central axle ad two big handles at the
back. (Photo author)
objects of prestige by traders of oriental origin (Le., oriental from the tartessians point of v
Such vehicles would not have had any military role, and probably they were on
prestige and ceremonial purposes. They soon acquired an even more symbolic meaning
for the transit to the netherworld, in the context of the heroization of the deceased aristoc
shown in the often mentioned stele of Ategua and oihers [17].
The Tartessian Orientalizing Period" (7 th _6 th c. B.e.)
No chariot representations dated to the 7th-6th c. B.C. are k...'1own. However, w
sorne -and growing- archaeological evidence of the existence of wheeled vehicles in certa
funerary contexts. Such evidence is present especial1y in the Tartessian cemetery at
(Huelva) [18]. But it can also be inferred from a growing catalogue of bronze itcms (m
rings ar terrets) faund in different points of Andalucía, Estremadura, Southern
unforhmateiy not in controlled digs, and therefore without any reliable archaeological co
No decorative bronze iterns as complex and significant as those appearing in the Etrus
burials ofthe 7th - 6th c. BC have been found in any ofthe orientalising graves in Iberia (20
The main prpblem is that such vehicles -at least that from La Joya- do not seem to
the ligbt chariot of Aegean type nor to the Near Eastern war chariots. They rather belong to
omate wagon type with lots of bronze decorative elements and plenty of metal rivets in
and box, with a long -up to a length of 1.5 m.- box, specifically made for carrying the b
deceased to the burial as in Cypriote Salamis. Even the lion head axle caps have Cyprio
[21). These would be different vehicles from those represented in the stelae. But n
noticeabie erosion marks left in rein terrets and bronze naves [22J, it is also possible that
or wagons were ceremonial vehicles, used in processions or ceremonies with a certain
before being used in the last funerary rites.
On the other hand, the recently proposed "high" chronology for grave nO 17 at La
700/650 Be versus the previous date in the 6ih c. Be) using external evidence differen
chariot itself [23], brings the date of vehicle found in it closer to the -probable- date o
stelae of the Sauthwest. Therefore, we could argue for a short coexistence in Eastern An
both types af vehicle (light war chariots and ceremonial and funerary wagons). Even
proposal perhaps involves stretching too far the scarce available evidence, bringing the c
of the chariot stelae ofthe Guadiana and middle Guadalquivir too close to the Orientalizin
the Tartessian Huelva rulers".
Unfortunately, the vehic!e found at La Joya 17 had 10st a11 remains of its wo
excepting sorne tiny fragments of walnut-tree wood. However, the excavators obta
meaningful results (24). The draught team consisted of two, er probably four horses, cons
presence of two magnificent and unusual bronze bits in the tomb, but also of four possi
cheekpieces of a different type, as wen as four rein rings or terrets. AH of them were foun
in a heap; therefore the horses themselves were not buried. The size oí the open rectangul
estimated as 1.5 x 1 m., that is, double the normal size of the box of a light war chariot. lts
302
Yet another vehicle of which only a few bronze elements remain may have b
deposited in Tomb 18 of the same cemetery. It is significant to note that Tomb 17 of La J
one of the richest in the cemetery, as it contained a complex set of grave goods that
abundant ceramic items - including some L111ported wine amphorae - one large bronze
burner, one bronze jar and basin for libations, ane small ivory chest with Egyptian style figu
many other objects [26].
Fig. 5. Heavy chariot wheel froro tile Iberian cemetery at Toya
(Jaén). 4 th century Be (photo author)
Other possible chariot remains are reported in Grave 89 in Alcacer do Sal, at the Tag
mouth, near Lisbon, where some elements of a chariot axIe nave were found. This later ite
also be dated in a somewhat iater period, in the IV c. B.C., along with other items known
Máquiz bronzes", decorative complements belonging either to a chariot or to an outstanding
fumiture.
Tomb 17 of La Joya also contains four other bronze pieces, probably rein rings or te
a type that is characteristic of Iberia, of which many other examples are known to have a
century BC and even earlier [28]. Ás a matter of fact, although the complete remains o
have not been found here, the last stmcture ("A" building) contains abundant items asso
horses, such as many bits of different types that have a parallel in the ltalic world [2
belonging to chariots rather than to riden horses [30]. A small, well shaped bronze figure
has been also found there [31]; it probably was part of a votive chariat of the type alread
the Extremadura area [32J, parallels of which are found aH over Europe, including Italy.
The presence of so many elements related to chariots and horses in Cancho Ro
sanctuary proves the survival of their use as prestige vehicles outside the funerary cont
"peripheral" to the Tartesian nucleus, during the orientalizing Periodo
Tbe chariot in the Iberian Culture (5 th_2 nd c. BC)
The Orientalizing tradition of depositing chariots in sorne princely tombs was on
preserved during the following period (5 th - 4 th c. BC), the period of the 'heroic' an
aristocracies of the Iberian culture [33]. There is very scarce evidence for chariot-·bur
period, ano when there is ane it belongs, not to war chariots but to quite heavy, iron lad
used as it seems, mostly for daily transport purposes and in this case for funerary pu
vehicie for the Afterlife [34].
Only in a very few Iberian burials -less than a dozen among thousands-, wheel
possible chariot elements have being found. These tombs belong to contexts dated to the
and they are almost always located in Eastero Andalucía (ancient Bastetania), witb
extension to the Southeast. The richly decorated bronze fittings with war, hunting and
scenes in repoussé, characteristic for instance of the Etruscan world, are unknown here. N
any evidence ofthe use af light chariots for racing.
Spoked wheels from the Iberian period are heavy wooden contractions with a big
forged ¡ron elements naiied to the spokes a!1d hub [35]. Tbese are six spoked wheels, with
of around 90 to 100 cm (Toya) or 140 cm (Baza, hurial 176). Most probable these w
deposited alone, as a pars pro tato votive offering or grave good.
Ancient Orientai and Aegean war chariots wheels hardly had any metal pieces t
wood cracking as the vehicie took speed [36]. Ceitic war chariots had a total weight of m
tyres inc1uded, that did not exceed 3 kg.[37]. Iberian wheels, on the contrary, have a m
metallic component as in the cases ofToya (jaén) or Baza (Granada), whose six iron pla
and enforced union to the wooden felloe have parallels in Italy (for example Grottazz
Nevertheless, even these elaborate chariot wheels found in burials are quite different fro
díse wheels or cross-bar wheels with metal tyres nailed to the felloes documented in sorne
such as El Amarejo (Aibaeete), dated to the 3rd c. BC. [39].
Unfortunately, wheels documented in the great masonry built chamber tombs at T
Galera, both in eastern Andalucía, lack the precise archaeological context necessary
304
in simple rivet pieces, that could as easily belong to any wooden object [41].
Fig. Ó. Wbeel tracks on the rocky surface ofthe road leadins to the Iberian settlemen
at Castellar de Meca (Valencia). (Photo Santiago Broncano).
Only in Grave 176 at the cemeterj in Baza (Granada, Andalucía), we may find
associated to an exceptional grave, one ofthe richest in the cemetery, associated in its turn to
of Attice Red Figure craterae, Attic Biack Giaze pottery, amphorae, weapons, etc. In the
another tomb at Galera (Granada, Andalucía), in this case unfortunately plundered, the prese
wheel is associated to remains of weapons, including al1 ¡ron helmet
On the other hand, in no one of lile hundreds of gmves from the great Iberian ce
nd
dated from the 5th to the 2 centuries BC and properly excavated (Cabezo Lucero, C
Cigarralejo, Coimbra, La Senda, La Serreta, Los Víllares, etc.) have any chariot remna
found, not even in those c1assified as "princely", no matter how many objects and Greek po
bronze vases they nave provided (for exalnple tomos 200 and 277 from El Cigarraiej0,
Only very recently a chariot -or wagon- wheel has been found at Fortuna (Murcia), on
earliest Iberian cemeteries in the area [42], an a paír in a rescue excavation in Lorca (Murcia
both cases the wheels are typologically close to the known examples from Baza and Toya, a
definitively deposited without chariots.
fíg. 7. Representatian of t":le transit of an Iberian figure to the afterlife. Ceramic K
from Elche de la Sierra (Albacete). Burnt, it was probably used as a cinerary urn. Prob
century BC (afier J J. Eiroa).
Archaeological data clearly shows that the Iberians ofien used two wheeled and
wheeled carts and wagons, drawn by horses or bovines, as a mean of transporto Road
many settlements ofien show, deeply carved in rack by thousands of wheels, the tracks l
heavy iron -ryres (Castellet de Bernabé, or Castellar de Meca in Valencia, El Oral in A
These wheel tracks aliow us to ínfer an axie width of around 100-130 cm. for rberían ve
smalier than the 150 to 200 cm. axle span typical of the Near Eastern war chariots. The
as we have showo, solid dise 01' cross bar whee!s, as in tne case of Amarejo in Albace
wheels, 3rd c. BC), Cerro de la Cruz, Córdoba (2 nd C. BC) or Montjuic in Barcelona (4 th _2
These humble vehicles are also represented in the form of srnall votive offerin
stone or castin bronze. Examples of the fomler technique were deposited in sanctuarie
Cigarralejo or La Luz (Murcia); oí the latter, at Collado de los Jardi..'les (Jaén). They s
simple transport cart was far more common than the rieh ceremoniai vehicle. In this
clealing with vehicles defmed by a rectangular 01' triangular box, two wheels with ax
central prt of the box, and probab!y shafis. Very ofien the votive offerings do not show
therefore resembling solid wheels, although this is not a proof in itself.
306
However, something of the ald tradition that looked upon wheeled vehicles as
transport for the transit to the transit to the Afterlife was preserved in the Iberian mental
curious painting in a pottery vessel fram Elche de la Sierra, dated to the 2nd c. BC, seems
[44]. In this drawing, an Iberian ma1e figure is depicted a he starts its journey to the Afte
appears just about to cIimb on a cart, but just befare he receives a winged horse from the han
a1so winged female figure. Perhaps the horse is aimed to be yoked to the chariot that wíIl tak
the Underworld. As a whole, this typoe of heroizing scene with winged horses and
following a strong Mediterranean tradition, has good parallels in Etruria; Nevertheless, th
we are dealing with is not the typica! light war or ceremonial vehicie, but a transport wag
cross-bar whee1s, and high box, more suitable for carrying hay than a deceased aristocrat. Ob
the idea was maintained, but the old ceremoniallight chariot was no ¡onger known or used b
c. Be Iberians.
Mediterranean ideas concerning the transit to the Other World on board of vehic
reached the Celtiberian territory. We do not find any burials with vehicles or even wheels t
it is precisely this same idea that was represented in a coarse moulded relief made in cla
bnench in a smal1 domestic shrine in the Celtiberian site at Cerrón de !1!escas (Toledo),
datable te the mid 4 th c. Be. Two light Mediterranean style chariots llave to the left, follow
wlnged griffon, both being very unusual iconographic motifs to be found in this environment
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308
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37. According to Pigott (Piggott S. Horse and chariot: the price ofprestige I En 1.G.. Evans
n·o~e"'d;nos
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38. Woytowitsch E. Die Wagen der Bronze- und frühen Eisenzeit in Italien II PBF. Mtinchen, ]978. - Taf. 58.3, 61h c. BC.
39. Broncano S., Blánquez 1. El Amarejo (Bonete, Albacete) II Excavaciones Arqueol
España. - 139. -- Madrid, 1985.'- 140 ff.
40. Cabre Aguiló 1. Arquitectura hispánica. El sepulcro de Toya II Archivo Español de Arqu
l. - 1925. - Fig. 21.
4 i. Contrary to Stary (Stary P.F. Eisenzeitliche wagengraber auf der Tberischen Halbinse1 II
Mitteilungen. - 30. - 1989. - P. 151-183).
42 Unpublished. We are grateful to J.M. García Cano for the information.
43. We are grateful to Andrés Martínez for letting us study these two wheels.
44. Eiroa J.1. El kalathos de Elche de la Sierra (Albacete) II Anales de Prehistoria y Arqueol
Universidad de Murcia. - 2. - 1986. - P. 73-86.
45. Balrnaseda 1.1" Valiente S. El relieve de IlIescas II Archivo Español de Arqueología
1981.-P.215-238.
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Fernando Quesada-Sanz
TWO-WHEELED LIGHT CHARIOTS, CARTS AND WAGONS IN TH
PENINSULA DURING THE IRON AGE
This paper provides a brief overview 01' the types ad uses of wheeled vehicles
Peninsuia between the end oI the Late Bronze Age ad the Late lron Age (9th to 2nd cent
J70cmymma 6 oel(
316