UNIDADE 1 EVOLUCIÓN DA DIDÁCTICA DAS LINGUAS TENDENCIAS ACTUAIS DA DIDÁCTICA DO INGLÉS. O ENFOQUE COMUNICATIVO

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UNIDADE 1: EVOLUCIÓN DA DIDÁCTICA DAS
LINGUAS. TENDENCIAS ACTUAIS DA DIDÁCTICA DO
INGLÉS. O ENFOQUE COMUNICATIVO
1. Introduction
The aim of this paper is to present the didactic evolution of language teaching,
which will be related to the advances in the fields of Psychology and Linguistics.
In the first part of this unit, the methods used up to the 1960s will be studied
together with the impact of cognitivist theories on language learning. In the second
part, we will examine the current trends within Applied Linguistics, the discipline
in charge of studying linguistic theories and their methodology.
Finally, we will focus on the Communicative Approach and the different
techniques derived from it.
2. First approaches to the teaching of languages
Bilingualism and multilingualism have been constant factors in the evolution of
human societies. What is more, the Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages (henceforth, CEFR) establishes plurilingualism as the natural state
of a European citizen. Therefore, following Richards and Rodgers (1986)1, we may
acknowledge that historical changes in language teaching methods have reflected
the awareness of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need, as well as
changes in the nature of linguistics and language learning.
2.1. The introduction of modern languages in school
Latin was the lingua franca of communication in the world during the Middle Ages
and the Renaissance. As a result, it was seen as a vital part of children’s early
education from the 16th to the early 18th centuries. Students would learn grammar
1
Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.S. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
C.U.P. (2nd edition)
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through translations and rigorous study of its declensions and conjugations. When
Modern Languages became part of the curricula in the early 18th century, teachers
used the same method applied to Latin. They focused on the reception of language
and its understanding without any oral practice, consequently producing little real
results when students engaged with native speakers.
2.2. The Grammar-translation method
The trend of modelling Modern Language learning on the rules of Latin continued
to be the leading one at the beginning of the 20th century. The aforementioned trend
evolved into the Grammar-translation method and was supported by intellectuals
such as Johan Seiden-Stücker or Karl Plötz.
This method’s characteristics are as follows:
• Its goal is to help students to be able to read the foreign language’s
literature and appreciate it. Hence that, attention was placed on reading
and writing without focusing on listening and/or speaking.
• Grammar teaching in this method is deductive, as language is studied
through an analysis of its grammar rules and their application to the
translation of sentences. The vocabulary is obtained from the texts and
memorised by the students.
• The student’s L1 is used as the language of instruction and the teacher
is seen as an authoritative figure.
The Grammar-translation method was widely used until the 1940s, and scholars
like Richards and Rodgers consider it useful when teaching in contexts where
understanding texts is the main objective.
Nevertheless, this teacher-centred method is basically non-communicative, as it
does not take into account a real interactive application of the language and nonmotivational due to the drilling techniques used in this method.
2.3. The Direct method
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The economic expansion that took place at the end of the 19th century boosted
communication and commerce among European countries, therefore creating a
demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages. This also made linguists realise
the flaws of the Grammar-translation method.
Scholars like Wilhelm Vietör and Paul Passy advocated for a change in language
teaching by changing the emphasis from the written to the oral aspect of the
language. On the other hand, Berlitz, Desauzé and Palmer thought that a foreign
language could be learnt just by using it actively in class.
The main features of this method derive from its name, which alludes to the direct
transmission of language knowledge without the need for translation into the
student’s L1. All the communication in the classroom should be made in the target
language, with the goal being everyday vocabulary and sentences. Oral
communication is the highest priority, along with listening skills. As a result,
teaching is organised around question/answer exchanges between the teacher and
the students.
Moreover, grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively, with the teacher
making the new uses and meanings clear through the use of pantomime, pictures
and realia. Special attention is also given to phonetics, so as to establish good
pronunciation habits.
2.4. The Audio-lingual method
In the late 1920’s, the teaching of foreign languages began to adopt an approach
based on reading comprehension and the oral repetition of basic structures. The
Direct Method was considered to be very slow because teachers had to loose a lot
of time explaining simple things to avoid translation. As a result, attention was
turned to grammar and the structure of the language due to the influence of
Structuralism and Behaviourism.
On the one hand, Structuralism understands language learning as the mastering of
the elements of the language and claims that we learn to speak before we learn to
read or write, therefore, speaking must be taught first.
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On the other hand, Behaviourism considers that learning a language is a
mechanical process of habit formation, created by the repetition of a given
stimulus-answer sequence. It also claims that the mother tongue processes are the
pattern for learning a foreign language, that is, learning occurs by imitation.
The conjunction of these ideas gives birth to the Audio-lingual method. This
method used a consistent drilling of patterns by students followed by positive or
negative reinforcement: simulating a contrastive analysis between the mother and
the foreign language. This is done to prevent, explain and correct interference
errors from the students L1.
New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues, which are
memorised by repetition and imitation of the teacher. Grammar rules are induced
and rarely made explicit. Some scholars argue that not real communication occurs
after all, since the method is primarily based on repetition. Finally, the high
emphasis on teacher correction may be discouraging for weaker students.
2.5. The impact of Cognitivism
In Syntactic Structures (1957), Noam Chomsky argued that structural theories of
language could not account for human language’s main property, which is
creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences.
He proposed a new theory of language labelled The Transformationalgenerative Grammar, where he posited that the main characteristics of human
language are derived from mental innate processes through which human beings
process experience.
For Chomsky, language learning cannot be achieved by habit, but rather by the
rational acquisition of the finite set of rules that govern each language. He claims
that the human mind does not respond to stimuli, but rather looks for the underlying
structure. In this way, rules can be applied when facing a new and unexpected
situation to create a suitable response. This idea leads to the notion of language
competence.
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The application of Chomsky’s theory to language teaching is called The Cognitive
Approach and proposes the following:
• A creative use of language: students can create endless sentences
• A responsible use of the mother tongue: students can use it in class because
it can benefit the learning process.
• An inductive and deductive explanation of grammar, depending on the
context and needs.
• A positive analysis of errors, as a way of analysing one’s progress.
3. Current trends in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language
Before studying the more modern methods of language teaching, it is important to
pay attention to a significant distinction, singled out by Edward Anthony. He
identified three levels of conceptualisation and organisation regarding the theory
of the language and the theories concerning how languages are learnt:
• Method: systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory
of language and language learning.
• Approach: language teaching philosophy that might be interpreted and
applied in a variety of ways.
• Design: describes the underlying nature of the teaching methodology.
• Procedure: objectives, specifications, activities and materials.
The methods that will be described in this section originated from the
unsatisfactory results of traditional methods.
3.1. The Silent way (Caleb Gategno)
This method follows a structuralist syllabus, regarding grammar. Contrary to other
methods, the Silent Way arranges activities inside the classroom, as the teacher
tries to speak as little as possible.
3.2. Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov)
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This method aims to explicit the hidden potential of the human mind using
relaxation techniques. It focuses on dialogues and hidden patterns that can be
discovered by students when comparing their L1 to the L2.
Language is presented in two phases: the receptive phase and the activation phase.
• The receptive phase: the teacher reads the dialogue synchronising the
cadence of the language with the rhythm and pitch of the background music.
Students can read the dialogue and its translation along with the teacher.
Then, they close their eyes and listen to the music and the teacher reading
the dialogue again to engage both sides of the brain.
• The activation phase: students are expected to engage in a number of
activities designed to help them apply the previous knowledge to the
patterns of language present in the dialogue. The main goal is
communication, so the teacher may overlook some errors.
The main drawback is that the method can only be successful if the learners feel
that they can learn by using it. In that case, they will experience some sort of
“placebo” feeling. Therefore, the teacher must persuade students that
Suggestopedia is a scientific option.
3.3. Community Language Learning (CLL) (Curran)
In this method, the teacher is seen as a facilitator of the learning process, translating
messages supplied by students who engage in small tasks such as recording and
analysing transcriptions in the L2 to determine errors and structures to practice
later. Social and interpersonal dynamics are very important.
3.4. Total Physical Response (TPR) (Asher)
The Total Physical Response method aims to make learners learn a language the
same way that children acquire their L1. It has a delayed production stage, a
gaming atmosphere and heavy use of realia.
3.5. The Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrel)
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The Natural Approach regards communication as the main function of language,
focusing on teaching communicative abilities where the superiority of meaning is
emphasised. The syllabus usually presents grammatical content in increasing
complexity, aiming to reduce anxiety in students. Their ideas, first established in
The Natural Approach (1983), relied on Krashen’s five fundamental hypotheses
on second language acquisition:
• The Acquisition/Learning Hypotheses, which maintains that language is
acquired through an unconscious process, by means of comprehension and
language use in significant communication. Learning, on the other hand, is
a conscious process which turns into the explicit knowledge of language
forms and the ability to use such knowledge accordingly.
• The Monitor Hypotheses, which argues that conscious learning monitor
the process, controlling and correcting linguistic production.
• The Natural Order Hypotheses, which establishes that grammatical
structures are acquired in a predictable order. Learners make similar
mistakes during the acquisition of a language, independently of their L1.
• The Input Hypotheses, which holds that information is better understood
when it is close to the learner’s real level, but that the best conditions are
given when the information is a bit over the current level of knowledge of
the learner.
• The Affective filter Hypotheses, which considers that affective variables
such as anxiety or self-confidence may facilitate or hamper the
psycholinguistic process whereby data are stored in the human memory.
Consequently, when there is a negative affective disposition, language
acquisition is lesser or inexistent.
4. The Communicative approach
The second language teaching field from the last decade of the 20th century
onwards experienced a critical paradigm shift in pedagogy that culminated in what
has become known as Communicative Language Teaching (henceforth, CLT).
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Stemming from the convergence of Noam Chomsky’s generative transformational
grammar, and the work of several applied linguists who emphasised the functional
and communicative potential of language, CLT departs from a communicative
model of language use, focusing on developing the student’s communicative
competence in real settings.
4.1. General characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT)
The theoretical framework for CLT derived from the second language acquisition
construct known as communicative competence, which is comprised of four major
types of competences: linguistic, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic,
according to Canale and Swain (1980)2. Savignon (1972)3 considers the
identification of learner communicative needs and goals as the first step in the
development of a teaching programme that involves learners as active participants
in the acquisition of a new language. Johnson and Morrow (1981) define CLT as
“a second-language teaching in which communicative-competence is the aim of
the course”.
Richards (2006) 4suggests that the CLT paradigm outlined above has lead to eight
major changes in approaches to language teaching. These changes can be
summarised as follows:
• Learner autonomy
• The social nature of learning
• Curricular integration
• Focus on meaning
• Diversity
• Thinking skills
Canale, M. and Swain, M. 1980. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second
Language Teaching and Testing “. Applied Linguistics, 1: 1-47.
3
Savignon, S.J. 1972. Communicative Competence: An Experiment in Foreign-Language Teaching.
Philadelphia: The Centre for Curriculum Development.
4
Richards, J.C. 2006. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge: C.U.P.
2
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• Alternative assessment
• Teachers as co-learners
These changes in thinking have not led to the development of a single model of
CLT that can be applied in all settings. Rather, a number of different language
teaching approaches have emerged which reflect different responses to the issues
identified above.
As far as the materials are concerned, these play a vital role in CLT. They must
encourage both participation in their execution and participation in their creation
as well. Richards and Rogers (1986) classify CLT materials in three broad
categories:
• Text-based: which rely on textbooks and do not differ much from prior
structurally-organised texts, except for CLT’s emphasis on using real
material when possible.
• Task-based: which include games, role plays, simulations, activity cards,
etc.
• Real life materials: such as magazines, advertisements, newspapers and
audio-visual material like clips from movies, TV shows, etc.
4.2. Process-based CLT approaches
In this section, we will examine two current methodologies that stem from CLT
but have a slightly different focus of action: content-based instruction and taskbased instruction. They are commonly referred to as process-based methodologies
since they share as a common starting point the goal of creating classroom
processes that are believed to best facilitate language learning.
Content-based instruction
It is a theme or topic-based methodology, based on a utilitarian conception of the
target language. In this type of instruction, students practice all the language skills
in a highly integrated, communicative fashion while learning cross-curricular
contents like science, math and social studies.
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Content provides a coherent framework that can be used to link and develop all of
the language skills, and consequently the expected output from students will be
integrated by conceptual (cross-curricular) and linguistic (grammatical or lexical
focus) components.
However, content-based instruction raises a number of issues. A central issue is
the extent to which focusing on content provides a sufficient basis for the
development of the language skills. When English is used as the basis for teaching
school subjects, learners often bypass grammatical accuracy since their primary
concern is mastery of content rather than development of accurate language use.
Task-based instruction
It became popular from the 1990’s onwards, in an attempt to get away from
presentation-practice-production teaching practices. The claim is that language
learning will result from creating the right kinds of interactional processes in the
classroom, and the best way to create these is to use especially designed
instructional tasks. Advocates of TBI argue that grammar and other dimensions of
communicative competence can be developed as a by-product of engaging learners
in interactive tasks.
TBI sees tasks as the primary unit to be used both in planning teaching and also in
classroom teaching. This method also makes abundant use of pair work and group
work to increase student interaction.
Within the framework of TBI, we will follow Willis (1998) 5 who proposes six
types of tasks as the basis for this methodology:
• Listing tasks: For example, students might have to make up a list of things
they would pack if they were going on a beach holiday.
• Sorting and ordering: Students work in pairs and make up a list of the most
important characteristics of an ideal holiday.
• Comparing: Students compare ads for two different supermarkets.
5
Willis, J. 1998. A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Malaysia: Longman.
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• Problem-solving: Students read a letter to an advice columnist and suggest
a solution to the writer’s problems.
• Sharing personal experience: Students discuss their reactions to an ethical
or moral dilemma.
• Creative tasks: Students prepare plans for redecorating a house.
Task-based instruction can, in theory, be applied in a number of different ways in
language teaching:
a) As the main framework for course planning and delivery.
b) As one component of a course, where it would seek to develop general
communication skills.
c) As a technique.
4.3. Recent developments within the framework of CLT
From the year 2000 onwards, the advent of computers and the World Wide Web
made a methodological leap in ESL possible: that of enabling students to
experience the language in a real context in real time quite easily. In educational
terms, this translates in a wide variety of easily accessible live materials that can
be used by teachers in a communicative classroom, applying whatever approach
they consider more suitable.
The introduction of the Common European Framework of Reference, published
by the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe in 2001 has also
influenced the way we understand ESL nowadays. Teachers are aware of the need
to fulfil a minimum set of common descriptors that will assess their students’
proficiency. In close connection to this comes the European Language Portfolio
(ELP), over 100 official versions of which use checklists of CEFR-based
descriptors for different levels to set individual learning priorities and track
progress.
Both the advent of the CEFR and the internet have allowed for a deeper reflection
on teaching practices and the establishment of teaching portfolios to reflect on their
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own learning and, if so desired, to share it with other teaching professionals across
the globe.
5. Conclusion
This unit has endeavoured to offer a thorough overview on the changing trends in
methodology that gave rise to the different approaches.
As we have seen, the history of language teaching goes hand in hand with that of
the theories of the language, beginning with deductive methods like the Grammartranslation one, moving on to the behaviourist-influenced ones, like the Direct
Method, and finishing with the Communicative Approach, which remains the most
widely accepted today.
From a pedagogical standpoint, it is obvious that we will not explain the different
methodologies to our students but being familiar with them will help us to be better
teachers and choose the road that best suits us and our students.