OECD - Bioheat, Biopower and Biogas - Developments and Implications for Agriculture

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Faux-titre_16x23.fm Page 1 Wednesday, April 7, 2010 10:13 AM
Bioheat, Biopower
and Biogas
DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR AGRICULTURE
Faux-titre_16x23.fm Page 2 Wednesday, April 7, 2010 10:13 AM
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to
address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at
the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments
and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an
ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy
experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate
domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of
the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD.
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering
and research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions,
guidelines and standards agreed by its members.
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions
expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the
Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
ISBN 978-92-64-08586-2 (PDF)
DOI 10.1787/9789264085862-en
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© OECD 2010
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FOREWORD – 3
Foreword
This study is one of several reports carried out in the context of analyses
on market and policy-based approaches to bioenergy. It follows and
complements an earlier OECD study entitled Biofuel Support Policies – An
Economic Assessment, published in 2008, and focuses on bioenergy chains
other than liquid biofuels.
Martin von Lampe, agricultural economist with the OECD Directorate
for Trade and Agriculture, is the main author of this study. The sections on
commercialised biomass crops, conversion technologies and environmental
performance of alternative bioenergy crops, however, were contributed by
three consultants, D.B. Turley, H. Parry and R. Leybourn (Central Science
Laboratory, UK). In addition, many colleagues in the OECD and Delegates
from OECD member countries provided valuable input and comments on an
earlier draft.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................ 7
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11
Key attributes of commercialised biomass crops .......................................................... 15
Conversion technologies ............................................................................................... 16
Combustion ............................................................................................................ 16
Gasification ............................................................................................................ 17
Conversion efficiencies for thermal processes ...................................................... 18
Combined heat and power (CHP) generation (cogeneration) ................................ 19
Anaerobic digestion (AD)...................................................................................... 19
Material preparation............................................................................................... 20
Bioenergy support policy developments ....................................................................... 21
The environmental performance of alternative bioenergy chains,................................. 25
GHG savings.......................................................................................................... 25
Energy balance....................................................................................................... 31
Market developments in the overall bioenergy context................................................. 33
Costs of bioheat, biopower and biogas production ................................................ 40
Implications for agriculture ................................................................................... 40
Annex 1. Technical remarks on live-cycle analyses ..................................................... 45
References ..................................................................................................................... 51
Additional references for life cycle data ....................................................................... 53
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 7
Executive Summary
Bioenergy, or energy produced from biomass, receives a lot of attention
both at the policy level and from the public. Past OECD analysis on policies
supporting the production and use of liquid biofuels for transport (OECD,
2008) has shown that other forms of bioenergy, such as bioheat, biopower
and biogas, could represent economically more viable and environmentally
more efficient ways to reduce GHG emissions and fossil fuel use, two of the
high-ranking objectives behind most bioenergy support policies. The present
report aims to complement this first study in explicitly looking at those
forms of bioenergy and the policies supporting them.
Bioenergy represents a rather heterogeneous portfolio of different
biomass feedstocks and conversion technologies. While particularly firstgeneration liquid biofuels are dominated by feedstocks originating from
agricultural products, such as grains, sugar crops and oilseeds, nonagricultural feedstocks (such as forest products and residues, industrial and
municipal wastes) and, to a lesser extent, agricultural residues and wastes,
dominate in the generation of bioheat and biopower, resulting in
substantially less competition with the production of food and animal feed.
Commercialised biomass crops, which could compete with land use for food
production, are being developed, but today only play a minor role. Main
technologies to convert biomass to heat and/or electrical power include the
direct combustion (partly as co-firing with fossil fuels), the gasification and
the anaerobic digestion producing biogas. Combined heat and power
generation plants allow improving the energy efficiency with the use of the
remaining heat after power generation for space heating or in industrial
applications.
Being part of the renewable energy portfolio, heat and power generation
from biomass benefits from public support measures in many countries. The
objectives of such support are many fold and in particular include the
security of energy supply, environmental improvements, rural development,
and the generation of supplementary outlets for agricultural products. While
a number of countries have established national or regional targets for
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
8 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
renewable energy, only a few have defined specific targets for bioheat
and/or biopower, including Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway,
Romania and the US. The policy measures applied most commonly include
guaranteed prices for renewable electricity or gas fed into the grid, and
investment subsidies. The application of these measures differs across
countries, however, and is complemented by a large set of other support
measures.
To what degree does the environmental performance of the different
bioenergy chains meet the objectives behind the political support? While
many other factors are relevant in this context, the present study focuses on
two major variables: greenhouse gas (GHG) savings and energy balances.
A large number of studies providing life-cycle analyses (LCAs) for
bioheat, biopower and biogas chains were evaluated for this study, and the
results indicate that while there is substantial variation in the GHG and
energy balances, indeed most of these chains show important savings of
GHG emissions when compared to the main fossil alternatives. This is
particularly true for electricity production chains, where GHG savings
generally range between 63% and 99% when compared to the use of coal,
and between 37% and 98% when compared to the use of natural gas. While
still significant, savings were found to be smaller for heat applications,
though this may reflect on the lower efficiency associated with smaller
district, space heating and domestic heating systems. In either case, GHG
savings for most chains seem to be significantly higher than for liquid
biofuel chains.
While the average energy efficiency for most biopower chains ranges
between 0.3 and 0.8 MJin per MJout, with a few studies indicating values
above 1 MJin per MJout, this represents significant fossil energy savings
when compared to efficiencies of 2.1 MJin per MJout for natural gas, and
2.8 MJin per MJout for coal fired power plants. Similar savings in fossil
energy use are found for a range of bioheat chains when compared to natural
gas and fuel oil as feedstocks.
Data on the production of bioheat, biopower and biogas, and particularly
on biomass use, is scarce, but available data provide a couple of general
trends. First, on a global level, some 10% of total primary energy demand is
met by energy from biomass, but almost two-thirds of this come from nonagricultural solid biomass outside the OECD area. While detailed data are
lacking it can be assumed that much of this is traditional biomass, such as
firewood used in developing countries for cooking and heating. Within the
OECD, too, the vast majority of bioenergy is based on forest products and
residues. Agricultural biomass – crops, residues and wastes – only plays a
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 9
relatively small role, particularly after deduction of first generation liquid
biofuels.
Second, modern bioenergy has been gaining importance over the past
two decades, and particularly since the beginning of the century. This is
mainly driven by the rapid development of liquid biofuels for transport, but
biogas – mainly landfill and sludge gases, to a lesser extent gas from other
(mainly agricultural) biomass – shows a clear upward trend as well. Shares
of agricultural biogas in total primary energy supply of at least 0.1% are
largely limited to a few countries today, including Germany, Denmark,
Luxembourg and the Netherlands as well as, outside the OECD, China.
Third, on an aggregate level, implications of increased production and
use of bioheat, biopower and biogas for agricultural markets are likely to be
small for the time being. Exceptions at a local or national level could include
the increasing area used for biogas substrate production in Germany,
potentially competing with the production of food and feed, and a few other
countries where the use of sugar cane bagasse or straw as bioenergy
feedstock might have the opposite effect of raising incentives for commodity
production. A stronger focus on agricultural biomass crops in the
development of bioheat and biopower could, however, result in potentially
more significant implications. It has been shown in earlier OECD studies
that increased production of first-generation liquid biofuels results in higher
crop prices. The growth of growing bioheat and biopower markets may have
a similar, although probably less pronounced, effect through increased
competition for agricultural land and other resources, although this could not
be analyzed quantitatively in the present study due to data limitations.
Policies supporting bioenergy chains should therefore ensure that they do
not compromise the ability of the agricultural sector to provide food and
feed commodities in a sustainable manner.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
INTRODUCTION – 11
Introduction
Bioenergy – or energy produced from biomass – has been enjoying a
high degree of attention in recent years, both at a policy level and from the
public. An extensive analysis on policies supporting the production and use
of liquid biofuels was published in 2008 (OECD, 2008) concluding, among
others, that other forms of bioenergy may represent an economically more
viable and environmentally more efficient way to reduce GHG emissions
and fossil fuel use — two of the high-ranking objectives behind most
bioenergy support policies — without, however, providing any analysis on
bioheat, biopower or biogas. The present report aims to complement the first
study in explicitly looking at those forms of bioenergy as well as the policies
that support them.
Bioenergy comprises a fairly heterogeneous portfolio of different energy
forms produced from a large range of biomass feedstocks. In 2006, about
10% of global primary energy demand were met by energy from biomass
(data from IEA, 2008), amounting to some 48 exajoule (EJ), while another
14 EJ (slightly less than 3% of global primary energy demand) are provided
by other renewable sources (such as hydro, solar and wind energy). The vast
majority of the biomass used for energy is so-called traditional bioenergy
such as firewood which is used in developing countries for cooking and
heating; IEA data suggest that some 40 EJ worth of solid biomass were used
in the middle of this decade outside the OECD.1 Solid biomass also
represents the majority of the OECD’s biomass used for energy production:
6 EJ out of a total biomass supply of 7.6 EJ were estimated to come from
non-agricultural solid biomass in 2006.
―Modern‖ bioenergy still remains comparatively limited. Apart from
non-agricultural solid biomass commercialised in OECD countries (in
particular charcoal and firewood/wood pellets) which can be considered to
primarily pass ―modern‖ channels, this also refers to liquid (biofuels) and
gaseous (biogas) biomass-based energy carriers, both of which require the
biomass to be transformed in a chemical and/or biological conversion
process.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
12 – INTRODUCTION
Figure 1. Global primary energy supplies from renewable sources, 2006 (EJ)
6,079
7,312
0,834
6,861
1,969
0,206
0,361
0,324
40,121
Non-agriculture solid biomass,
Non-OECD
Other Renewable,
Non-OECD
Liquid Biomass Transport Fuels
Solid Biomass Non-Wood Vegetal
Gas from Biomass Other
0,243
Non-agriculture solid biomass,
OECD
Other Renewable,
OECD
Liquid Biomass Other
Gas from Biomass Landfill and Sludge
Non-agriculture solid biomass refers to solid biomass other than non-wood
vegetal according to IEA data. Due to data availability problems, it does contain
non-wood vegetal biomass for some countries. Numbers for OECD include nonOECD EU Member States.
Source: IEA (2008a).
The heterogeneity of the bioenergy portfolio is indicated in Table 1
below. Biofuels for transport have been analysed extensively in OECD
(2008), but biopower, bioheat and biogas, too, can be and are produced from
a large range of feedstocks, including agricultural food and feed
commodities as well as, more commonly, residues and wastes from
agriculture and forestry, wood and wood chips, non-food crops and industry
and municipal wastes. The potential implications for agricultural differ
significantly, ranging from the direct competition for food and feed crops to
area competition in the case of non-food crops, to virtually no link in the
case of industrial and municipal wastes to complementarities with food
production when agricultural residues and wastes are used as bioenergy
feedstocks. In consequence, any assessment of likely impacts from
expanding bioenergy supplies on agricultural markets has to take these
differences into account.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
INTRODUCTION – 13
Table 1. Sources and forms of bioenergy
Transport
Bioenergy
energy
form
(Biofuels)
Bioenergy
source
Agricultural
Ethanol (grains,
commodities
sugar crops,
edible part of
other starchy
commodities)
Biodiesel
(vegetable oils)
Biogas (grains)
Heat
(Bioheat)
Biogas (grains)
Combustion
(grains)
Biogas (grains)
Combustion
(grains)
Biogas
(grains)
Direct
competition with
other uses
Biogas
(manure, crop
residues etc.)
Combustion
(straw)
Biogas
(manure, crop
residues etc.)
Combustion
(straw)
Biogas
(manure, crop
residues etc.)
Co-production
with agricultural
or food
products;
potential
competition with
other uses
Forest products Second
generation
ethanol (wood)
Direct
combustion
(wood)
Direct
combustion
(wood)
Potential
competition with
agricultural land
use
Forest residues
Second
generation
ethanol (wood
chips)
Second
generation
ethanol (grasses,
poplar trees etc.)
BTL (any
biomass)
Biogas (any
biomass)
Direct
combustion
(wood chips)
Direct
combustion
(wood chips)
Little
Biogas (any
biomass)
Direct
combustion
(wood, wood
chips)
Biogas (any
biomass)
Direct
combustion
(wood, wood
chips)
Biogas (any
biomass)
Competition
with land use
for agricultural
commodity
production
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Little
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Biogas
Little
Residues and
wastes from
agriculture and
food industry
Dedicated
biomass crops
Industrial
wastes
Municipal
wastes
Biodiesel (used
cooking oil,
animal fats)
Secondgeneration
ethanol (straw,
non-edible part of
starchy
commodities)
Biogas (manure,
crop residues
etc.)
Gas
(Biogas)
Link to
agricultural
markets
Electricity
(Biopower)
Source: OECD Secretariat.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
14 – INTRODUCTION
Box 1. Definitions of key terms used in the work on bioenergy*
Bioenergy: renewable energy produced from biomass. Bioenergy includes biofuels,
biopower and bioheat (and biogas which, as mentioned below, can also go to the end
use directly). In addition, rural (off-grid) energy from biomass (also referred to as
traditional bioenergy, mainly in developing countries’ rural areas, e.g. firewood, dung)
could be added as a type of bioenergy but in general is not considered in this work.
Biomass: any organic material of plant and animal origin, derived from agricultural and
forestry production and resulting by-products, and from industrial and urban wastes,
used as feedstock for producing bioenergy and other non-food applications. In the
present work only biomass originating from agriculture or forestry, used as feedstock for
producing bioenergy, will be considered.
Biofuels: fluid or (less frequently) gaseous fuels used to power engines in private or
public transport. In particular, biofuels include:
• Bioethanol (in the following just called ethanol), ethylic alcohol produced from
starch and sugar crops (first-generation ethanol) or from cellulose and lingocellulose biomass (second-generation ethanol) and used in transport vehicles with
spark ignition engines;
• Biodiesel, generally produced by transesterification of vegetable oils and used
in transport vehicles with compression ignition engines;
•
Vegetable oils to be used without modification in compression ignition engines;
• Synthetic biofuels, also called Biomass-To-Liquid (BTL) fuels, synthesised fuels
produced from almost any form of biomass (via a gasification process) with the
possibility of tailoring the fuel to either spark ignition or compression ignition
engines;
• Biogas and hydrogen, gaseous fuels produced from almost any form of
biomass that require dedicated engines for gaseous fuels or fuel cells; biogas can
also be used to generate electrical power or heat.
Biopower: electricity produced from biomass, generally via combustion of the feedstock
or a derived product (e.g. biogas) driving power generating turbines. Biopower is often,
though not always, co-generated with bioheat.
Bioheat: thermal energy produced from biomass, used either for space heating or in
production processes requiring process heat such as steam, generally via combustion of
the feedstock or a derived product (e.g. biogas). Bioheat is often, though not always, cogenerated with biopower.
Biogas: methane or similar gas from anaerobe digestion of biomass. Biogas can be
used as a transport fuel in engines for gaseous fuels, as an input for the heat and/or
power generation, or can directly be used by the end user for heating or warm water
generation.
____________________________________
* Modified from OECD (2004) p.17.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
KEY ATTRIBUTES OF COMMERCIALISED BIOMASS CROPS – 15
Key attributes of commercialised biomass crops
Currently a large number of plant species are or could potentially be
cultivated for the purposes of energy generation. Due to the large number of
potential species detailed descriptions of the full list of these species would
go beyond the scope of this report. Discussions in this section shall therefore
highlight three non-food crop systems that have already been extensively
cultivated and evaluated for biomass production, and for which reliable and
published data on life-cycle GHG emissions and/or net energy yields are
available. These three crop systems are miscanthus, switchgrass and short
rotation coppice, based on both willow and poplar trees.
Miscanthus (Miscanthus sinensis, M.giganteus, M. sacchariflorus):
Originating from Asia, miscanthus is a woody, C4 perennial2, rhizomatous
species of grass, typically established from rhizome fragments. Sterile
hybrid forms are mostly used in field production. Once established the
3 metres tall crop can be harvested annually for 15-20 years. The crop dies
back in the autumn/winter and the dry canes are then harvested during the
winter or in early spring after leaf senescence and natural drying. Yields of
12-14 dry tonne of plant material per hectare are typical in temperate
climates for commercial operations on good quality land, in some case up to
16 t/ha can be achieved for older stands. The crop requires little input in
terms of nutrients and pesticides. Miscanthus can be used in the form of
bales, briquettes, pellets or ground for use in combustion and fossil-fuel cofiring systems.
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum): A perennial sod-forming C4 grass,
originating from North America. It grows up to 2.5 metres tall with
rhizomes spreading below ground. It can produce to 18 dry tonne per
hectare in temperate climates when harvested in winter (Price et al., 2004).
Once established, switch grass requires few inputs, apart from the first few
years when it requires weed management. A well-established crop can
remain productive for 10-15 years.
Short rotation coppice (SRC) (Salix spp and Populus spp): Willow
and poplar for SRC production is planted in spring from cuttings. After one
year’s growth it is cut back to ground level to encourage the growth of
multiple stems. The crop re-grows rapidly, reaching up to 8 metres in height.
The first commercial harvest usually occurs three years after cut back and
subsequently every three years, though harvest frequencies may vary
dependent on growth rates. The harvested crop is usually chipped and dried
then stored until needed. In northern temperate climates, yields from the first
harvest tend to be around 25-30 dry tonnes per hectare, and 30-35 dry tonnes
per hectare in subsequent harvests, giving an annualised yield of 10-12 dry
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
16 – CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
tonnes per hectare. Once established the crop can remain viable for 2530 years.
In all the above cases, the yields represent typical field yields obtained
from crops grown on reasonable /medium quality soils (it is unlikely that
perennial energy crops would ever be grown on the best quality land
reserved for high output, high quality food production). Such figures are
typically used in LCA’s to evaluate the potential of biomass supply chains.
However, production on low quality land (to avoid land use conflicts) is
likely to result in lower yields, particularly if water or other nutrients are
constrained. This will tend to lower the GHG savings that are achievable.
Conversion technologies
The main thermal processes by which dry biomass can be converted to
more useful energy forms in the power and heat sector are combustion and
gasification. However, within these two broad categories a range of systems
and technologies has been developed to convert biomass to useful energy
with relevance at different scales of energy generation. In contrast wet
biomass materials, such as fresh crop material or animal manures can be
utilised by biological anaerobic digestion systems to produce energy, where
otherwise the costs of drying would outweigh the benefits.
Combustion
The most common form of electricity generation from solid fuels from
both fossil and biomass sources is through combustion in a furnace to heat
steam to drive turbines (using Rankine cycle technology), where surplus
heat may be either captured or lost (see combined heat and power generation
below). Theoretical energy efficiency (useful energy out v primary energy
in) is high, though in practice rarely achieved. Older plants utilising such
technology for generation of electricity typically have energy conversion
efficiencies of around 30%. However, in newer dedicated biomass facilities
efficiencies of >40% are reported (pers. comm. Swedish Ministry of
Agriculture). There are a number of process modifications, varying in how
solid fuels are handled. Fuels may be simply piled in furnaces with air
blown through (pile burners), or fitted with sloping or vibrating grates to
improve material combustion through provision of a more even flow of
material into the furnace. Fluidised bed systems blast hot air through the fuel
material to aerate and mix the fuel and improve combustion, which is useful
in co-firing mixed fuel materials such as biomass and coal mixtures. Fuels
can also be ground and fired into furnaces using air (suspension fired), a
method often used in co-firing of coal and biomass mixtures. Pulverising
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES – 17
fuels can increase energy conversion efficiency (Broek et al., 1995) and
efficiencies of up to 42% are reported (Swedish Ministry of Agriculture).
Large quantities of biomass are co-fired with fossil fuels, as this is the
simplest and cheapest means of utilising biomass without the expense of
developing dedicated biomass facilities, though this tends to mean biomass
is utilised in less efficient and less modern plants. Biomass materials do
cause combustion problems, both in terms of production of corrosive gasses
that need to be scrubbed from the flue gas and in the different combustion
characteristics of biomass and fossil fuels that can lead to additional ash
problems (including slagging and fouling problems) and incomplete
combustion, reducing the overall efficiency. Dedicated biomass plants can
reduce such problems and optimise systems to deal with such issues.
However, the ability to supply biomass from the locality, affected by the
high bulk density and relatively low calorific value of biomass materials
compared to fossil fuels, typically limits the scale of biomass dedicated heat
and power plants to between 1 and 35 MWe which can reduce efficiencies
associated with scale of generation. However in areas with a large forest
industry, larger plants can be contemplated, for example there are plans for a
150 MWe plant in Stockholm, Sweden.
Gasification
Advanced natural gas technologies use so-called ―combined cycle
technologies,‖ whereby combustion of gas is used to drive a turbine to
produce electricity and the waste heat is re-used to generate steam and
additional electricity via a steam-driven turbine. In this case, high energy
efficiencies of around 60% are possible in theory, though in current practice
are more typically around 50%. Through the process of gasification,
biomass can be converted to gas to utilise the same technology.
In contrast to combustion, gasification takes place in a low oxygen
atmosphere, where heating of the biomass leads to charring of the biomass
and, through volatilisation, generation of hot fuel gases that can be cleaned
and fed directly into a gas turbine or a gas engine to generate electricity
directly or to heat boilers. The technology for biomass gasification is not as
well developed as traditional combustion technologies. There have been few
large-scale commercial examples of biomass gasification.
In the gasification process, dry biomass is first pyrolised in the absence
of air to produce gasses, tars and a solid char product. The ratio of these
depends on the fuel and combustion conditions. The gases are then allowed
to react with oxygen or air to give mainly CO, CO2, H2 and smaller
quantities of hydrocarbon gases, with composition and heating value again
affected by feedstock and reaction conditions (Bridgewater, 2006).
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18 – CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
Production of tars is a significant problem for turbines and engines. Other
contaminants also need to be removed from the gas (alkali metals,
particulates, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine). Energy efficiencies of up to
50% are predicted for the largest installations, but these are likely to fall to
35% for smaller installations (Bridgewater, 2006). A 2MWe gasification
pilot plant using a gas engine has been running successfully in Gűssing,
Austria, this represents the most advanced biomass gasification plant to date,
but efficiency is currently well below 50%.
Conversion efficiencies for thermal processes
The main advantage of gasification technologies over direct combustion
is the increased efficiency of these systems. The steam cycle used to
generate electricity in direct combustion systems operates at an efficiency of
typically around 36%. The fuel gases formed by gasification enable use of
gas turbine cycle technologies, with the most advanced gasification systems
estimated to have an overall energy efficiency in excess of 40%.
Gasification and pyrolysis technologies are still at a very early stage of
development, while direct combustion is a proven technology, it is cheap by
comparison and requires less technical knowledge to operate, and large
scales of operation can lead to high efficiency. Scale of operation is a key
factor affecting overall efficiency. Large co-firing plants may have outputs
of 600 MWe compared to the typical much smaller biomass dedicated
plants.
It should be clear from the above that when talking about biomass and
its use in combustion, gasification and even anaerobic digestion conversion
systems, this reflects a very generic use of terms. There are a wide range of
technology combinations and scale of operations within each of the generic
energy conversion systems that will have a significant impact on overall
energy efficiency.
Van den Broek et al., (1996), reviewed the efficiencies of a range of
existing and demonstration biomass combustion plants. It was concluded
that current biomass combustion technologies should deliver energy
conversion efficiencies above 30%, (ranging from 22 to 39%) with lowest
efficiencies associated with travelling grate systems, while fluidized bed and
vibrating grate technologies reached 33%. In large-scale co-firing plants
efficiencies of 37-40% can be achieved. Data for biomass gasification
systems with combined cycle technologies identified efficiencies of 40-42%
for basic atmospheric systems, rising to 45-46% for pressurized systems,
which compares well with figures for biomass gasification efficiencies
presented above by Bridgewater for larger systems (2006).
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CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES – 19
In this report reference to energy efficiency and conversion efficiency
relate to energy conversion efficiencies, i.e. the efficiency with the energy
delivered in the feedstock is delivered as useful power or heat.
Combined heat and power (CHP) generation (cogeneration)
Conventional electricity generation plants dissipate waste heat via
cooling towers. Energy efficiency can be significantly improved where the
heat from combustion of fuels can also be captured and utilized through
combined heat and power generation, where the heat can be used for space
heating or in industrial applications. Large scale CHP technologies
(>2 MWe) generally utilize steam or gas turbine generating technologies, but
smaller scale developments, where heat output is typically the primary
driving requisite, utilize a range of technologies in the drive to maintain
energy conversion efficiency. Overall, energy conversion efficiencies of
around 85% are possible with CHP operations.
Anaerobic digestion (AD)
AD is the most efficient means of generating energy from wastes with
dry matter contents below 30% (ideally in range 5-12.5%) such as manures,
sewage sludge, food and other organic wet wastes. The basic technology of
AD involves anaerobic fermentation of wet organic waste feedstocks to
produce methane and carbon dioxide, with the methane being used for
heating, electricity generation or as a transport fuel. ―Dry‖ AD methods for
biomass dry matter contents of around 30% or more, are currently being
commercialised in Germany using biomass crops as part of the feedstock
mix.
Digestion takes place in a warmed, sealed container (the digester) where
bacteria ferment the organic material in oxygen-free conditions. Heating for
the digester is derived from a methane-fuelled boiler or recovered heat from
the gas engine system. The temperature of the digester tank may be
increased to the mesophilic range (30-35°C) where the feedstock remains in
the digester typically for 15-30 days, or into the thermophilic range (5565°C) where the residence time is typically 12-15 days. Thermophilic
digestion systems offer higher methane production, but require more
expensive technology, greater energy input and a higher degree of operation
and monitoring. Typically, around 30-60% of the mass of the feedstock
biomass solids are converted into biogas (methane and carbon dioxide),
higher conversion rates rely on longer residence times.
The first stage of decomposition is enzymic hydrolysis, whereby
carbohydrates are broken down to sugars, proteins to amino acids and lipids
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
20 – CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES
to fatty acids. The products of hydrolysis are then further degraded by
acetogenic bacteria to volatile fatty acids, CO2 and hydrogen. Methanogenic
bacteria utilise the volatile fatty acids, hydrogen and CO2 to produce
methane, which is the main useful energetic output of AD.
In animal wastes, the highest proportion of AD biodegradable organic
matter is found in poultry waste (65%) with less in pig waste (50%) and
cattle waste (25-40%). Cattle manures have already undergone some
methanogenesis in the ruminant stomach, so, even though the organic matter
content of different manures can be similar, methane yields per unit of
feedstock, and rate of methane emission can be very different.
The output of methane is very dependent on the materials fed into the
system, how effectively the biological systems involved are optimised,
operating temperature and stability of temperature all of which can lead to
significant variation in efficiencies between systems.
The by-product of fermentation is termed ―digestate,‖ and consists of
fibre and liquid. More than 90% of nutrients entering anaerobic digesters are
retained within the digestate, which can therefore be used as a soil
conditioner and low-grade fertiliser.
Material preparation
Appropriate preparation of biomass materials can help improve
utilization. Ensuring biomass is as dry as possible (to increase its calorific
value) means that additional drying heat may be required. Pelleting biomass
provides advantages in aiding mixing with other materials, improving
compatibility with existing handling systems and reduces transport costs
(and transport emissions per tonne transported). However, there is a
significant energy input into the pelleting operation itself. There is
commonly little information available on energy inputs to pelleting
operations, that which is available is often conflicting and may not include
inputs associated with drying prior to materials preparation. In other work,
the authors have found GHG emission values for pelleting ranging from 38
to 469 kgCO2eq/tonne.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
BIOENERGY SUPPORT POLICY DEVELOPMENTS – 21
Bioenergy support policy developments
As outlined in OECD (2008), a number of objectives are mentioned in
the policy debate on support to bioenergy production and use. In particular,
these include the security of energy supply; environmental improvements,
including particularly the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and climate
change; rural development, employment and economic growth; and, to the
degree the bioenergy is based on agricultural feedstocks, the creation of new
outlets and demand for agricultural products to raise farm incomes. A (nonrepresentative) survey with OECD and several non-OECD governments
between October 2007 and April 2008 showed that the avoidance of GHG
emissions and the reduction of energy imports ranked high in their policy
priorities, even though it should be stressed that a ranking of policy
objectives not only differs by countries, but may also change in time and
across Ministries.
Besides mandates and non-obligatory targets for the use of biofuels in
the transport sector (defined either as shares of biofuels in the total transport
fuel mix, or as absolute consumption quantities), a number of countries have
also defined targets for the use of renewable energy sources (RES) and their
shares in total primary energy supplies. As Pons (2007) has shown, a
number of EU Member States have defined minimum targets for renewable
energy, ranging from 4% to 14% of total primary energy supplies for
different target years. With the Renewable Energy Directive of December
2008 (published on 23 April 2009), an EU-wide mandatory target of 20%
has been defined, applicable with individual targets to all Member States
ranging from 10% (Malta) to 49% (Sweden), with intermediate objectives
set to achieve these targets. Other countries, both within the OECD and
beyond, have established or announced such targets as well, including
New Zealand (targeting 90% of total electricity to be renewable by 2025),
the US (5% to 20% of renewable electricity in 20 states), China (16% of
renewable energy in the total energy mix by 2020), Russia (16% of
bioenergy by 2020) and others.
While in most cases, targets are unspecific with respect to the type of
renewable energy and hence cover other forms such as wind, solar or hydro
as well, energy from biomass is widely seen to provide an important
contribution in the future. Specific targets for bioheat and biopower have
been defined, however, only by a limited number of countries, as indicated
in Table 2.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
22 – BIOENERGY SUPPORT POLICY DEVELOPMENTS
Table 2. Specific targets for bioheat and biopower
Country
Targets for bioheat and biopower
New Zealand
19 PJ of bioheat and biopower by 2025.
Norway
Irrespective of end use (power, heat or transport fuel), the Government has
proposed development of bioenergy up to 14 TWh witihin 2020. The
proposal has yet to be discussed by Parliament.
Japan
Bioheat and biopower (including waste) supply: 2 580 Mil litres and 5.860
Mil litres of oil equivalent by 2010, respectively.*
United States
5% to 30% of bio-electricity in 20 states (including DC).
Germany
12% bioheat, 27% biopower by 2020.
Ireland
5% and 12% bioheat by 2010 and 2020, respectively. 30% biomass cofiring in Peat Power Stations (combined capacity: 360 MW) by 2015.
Romania
33% of gross electricity consumption by 2010.
* Japan has two target quantities in the “Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan”, denoting maximum
and minimum amounts (see Appendix 1,
http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/policy/ondanka/KP_Achievement_Plan_Appendix.pdf). Figures given here
correspond to the maximum introduction case
Source: Data from questionnaires provided to the OECD Secretariat between October 2007 and April
2008.
Support for the production and use of bioenergy is provided at all levels
of the chain, beginning with the production of biomass and ranging over
infrastructure, the conversion of biomass to usable energy forms and the
distribution of bioenergy to support to final consumers of bioenergy.
Similarly, programs supporting bioenergy supply and use are often run by a
range of government departments and ministries at both national and sub
national levels, and may apply to all forms of renewable or bioenergy or
may focus on certain production chains such as biomass-powered CHP
plants or biogas. A number of examples for support at various levels of the
production chains are listed by OECD (2008), based on Pons (2007).
Among the many different support measures, capital grants or loan
guarantees for bioenergy production plants, and feed-in tariffs for renewable
electricity, are among the most common ones, provided by a large number
of countries both within the OECD and elsewhere (Figure 2). Capital grants
or loan guarantees allow reducing the start-up costs for the bioenergy
industry, thus both reducing bioenergy production costs and the failure risk
faced by the industry. As shown in the figure, capital subsidies, grants or
rebates are applied in 25 of the 30 OECD countries as well as in 12 nonmember economies including large ones such as China, India and Russia.
While these numbers refer to grants given for any type of renewable
electricity, as is the case for many other support policies in this area,
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
BIOENERGY SUPPORT POLICY DEVELOPMENTS – 23
producers of biomass-based power (and in many cases heat as well) can
benefit from these programmes in some form or another.
Figure 2. Frequency of policy measures to promote renewable power generationError!
Bookmark not defined.
50
45
Number of countries
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
OECD countries: National level
OECD countries: State or province level only
Non-OECD - developed and transition countries: National level
Non-OECD - developed and transition countries: state/province level only
Non-OECD - developing countries: National level
Non-OECD - developing countries: State or province level only
* Tax reductions include reductions of sales taxes, energy taxes, excise taxes and/or VAT
Non-OECD developed and transition countries covered here include Croatia, Cyprus,a, b Estonia,
Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Romania, Russia, Slovenia; non-OECD developing countries
covered here include Algeria, Argentina, Brazil, Cambodia, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Ecuador,
Guatemala, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Morocco, Nicaragua, Panama, Philippines, South Africa,
Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tunisia, Uganda.
a) Footnote by Turkey.
The information in this document with reference to “Cyprus” relates to the southern part of the
Island. There is no single authority representing both Turkish and Greek Cypriot people on the
Island. Turkey recognizes the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and
equitable solution is found within the context of United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position
concerning the “Cyprus issue.”
b) Footnote by all the European Union Member States of the OECD and the European
Commission.
The Republic of Cyprus is recognized by all members of the United Nations with the exception
of Turkey. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the
Government of the Republic of Cyprus.”
Source: Based on REN21 (2007, 2009).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
24 – BIOENERGY SUPPORT POLICY DEVELOPMENTS
Guaranteed feed-in tariffs (minimum prices producers receive when
feeding their renewable energy into the grid, set by governments above the
market price of the energy type) provide producers of renewable electricity
including biopower (or, in similar ways, biogas) with stable and plannable
returns if they sell their energy to the grid. Feed-in tariffs are often
differentiated relative to a number of factors, including plant capacity,
technology (often related to production costs), location and/or
environmental and energy performance, and may be defined directly as
feed-in price per kWh or as premiums above the grid price. Furthermore,
they may be degressive over time.
Feed-in tariffs are common support measures in many countries. Apart
from a number of OECD countries – in some of which it is applied on a
provincial or state level rather than the national level, this policy is applied
frequently in Central Europe as well as in a number of developing countries.
Furthermore, a number of other countries are discussing the introduction of
such feed-in policies.3
A number of OECD countries as well as several non-member economies
have provided detailed information on support policies for bioenergy in their
countries.4 These data confirm the large range of applied policy measures
found by REN21 (2007, 2009) and provide information on the aims and
volumes of various support programmes particularly on capital grants.
While it is not possible to estimate the overall spending for measures
supporting bioheat, biopower and biogas, the data would suggest that the
various support measures represent an important driver for the development
of these chains.
Many of the existing policies supporting the production and use of
renewable energy in general, and of bioenergy in particular, have been in
place for a number of years. For instance, the United States Energy Tax Act
of 1978, superseded by the Energy Policy Act 1992, first constituted tax
credits for households and business investing in renewable energy, as well
as an excise tax exemption for fuel use of ethanol and methanol (IEA online,
2010). The Brazilian ProAlcool program promoting the use of sugar-cane
based ethanol even dates back to 1975 (e.g. REN21, 2005, p. 25). However,
the number of support measures has significantly increased over the past
several years, and targets for renewable energy were enacted or revised. For
instance, within the 63 countries or subnational units having had enacted
feed-in policies by early 2009, 50 were added after 2000 (REN21, 2009,
p. 26),
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS – 25
The environmental performance of alternative bioenergy chains5,
GHG savings
While there is considerable variability in the effects between scenarios it
is clear that there is a general consensus that all of the biomass conversion
systems studied delivered very positive average GHG savings, ranging from
63-99% when compared to use of coal for electricity generation (Figure 3),
and from 37-98% when compared to use of natural gas for electricity
generation (Figure 4). However, as highlighted earlier, there are significant
levels of uncertainty associated with such estimates and such results should
be used cautiously when using such data to determine policy actions.
Figure 3. GHG savings for biomass energy chains
relative to the use of coal for power generation
100
90
% Saving
80
70
60
40
Miscanthus
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB)
Biomass (nonspecified) (COMB)
Switchgrass
(COMB)
Miscanthus
(GAS)
Straw
(GAS)
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS)
Miscanthus
(COF)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COF)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COF)
Animal slurry
(AD)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB) CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB) CHP
Straw (COMB)
CHP
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS) CHP
Ley crops (GAS)
CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS) CHP
Straw
(GAS) CHP
Sugar beet
(GAS) CHP
50
# data*)
6
2
7
5
1
1
1
1
6
4
2
5
6
4
3
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
# unique *)
3
2
4
4
1
1
1
5
3
1
2
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
* “# data” refers to the number of data points collated within each scenario while “# unique” refers to the
number of unique reverences providing data for each scenario, to provide an indication of the reliability of
the results.
COMB = direct combustion, GAS = gasification, COF = co-fired with fossil fuels, AD = anaerobic
digestion, CHP = combined heat and power.
Source: Compiled from various studies providing results of life-cycle analyses. See Annex 1 for more
details.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB domestic)
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB)
Ley crops
(COMB)
Liquid manure
(AD)
Long logs
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
Sugar beet
tops & leaves
(COMB)
% Saving
20
20
Miscanthus
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB)
Biomass (nonspecified) (COMB)
Switchgrass
(COMB)
Miscanthus
(GAS)
Straw
(GAS)
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS)
Miscanthus
(COF)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COF)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COF)
Animal slurry
(AD)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB) CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB) CHP
Straw (COMB)
CHP
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS) CHP
Ley crops (GAS)
CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS) CHP
Straw
(GAS) CHP
Sugar beet
(GAS) CHP
% Saving
26 – THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS
Figure 4. GHG savings for biomass energy chains
relative to the use of natural gas for power generation
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
# data*)
6
2
7
5
1
1
1
1
6
4
2
5
6
4
3
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
# unique *)
3
2
4
4
1
1
1
5
3
1
2
3
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Figure 5. GHG savings for biomass heat supply chains relative
to the use of fuel oil for heat applications
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
# data*)
2
9
2
2
1
1
4
5
2
# unique *)
1
5
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
For Figures 4 and 5, see notes and sources to Figure 3.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS – 27
Figure 6. GHG savings for biomass heat supply chains relative
to the use of natural gas for heat applications
100
90
80
70
% Saving
60
50
40
30
20
10
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB domestic)
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB)
Ley crops
(COMB)
Liquid manure
(AD)
Long logs
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
Sugar beet
tops & leaves
(COMB)
0
# data*)
2
9
2
2
1
1
4
5
2
# unique *)
1
5
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
See notes and sources to Figure 3.
Surprisingly, the savings were lower for heat applications, though this
may reflect on the lower efficiency associated with smaller district, space
heating and domestic heating systems. Use of biomass resulted in average
GHG savings ranging from 50-89% when compared to use of fuel oil for
heating (Figure 5), and ranging from 31-84% compared with use of gas for
heating (Figure 6). Again this is an area where studies are limited and would
benefit from further work to clarify impacts.
Ranges of GHG savings tended to be greatest where larger numbers of
data points were derived from more than one reference source, indicating
that LCA methodologies and approaches had a significant impact on the
results and this makes it very difficult to compare differences in detail
between studies. From first principles one might expect that:
1.
For the same energy conversion system, high yielding low input and
perennial biomass sources should deliver better GHG savings than
annually harvested crops.
2.
―Waste‖ materials from agriculture or the food industry (e.g. straw) and
forest residues should perform particularly well as only a proportion of
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
28 – THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS
the agricultural and forestry inputs should be allocated to energy
feedstock production and no land use change element is involved.
3.
Coppiced wood should perform as an intermediate to 1) and 2) above.
4.
Based on energy conversion factors for different technologies GHG
saving performance in the sequence combustion ≤ co-firing
< gasification < CHP is anticipated.
It is difficult to see any such clear trends in the data collated, however
CHP systems perform consistently well across a range of scenarios returning
GHG savings ranging from 84-99% compared to use of coal and 68-97%
compared to use of natural gas for electricity generation. There was little
evidence that gasification is likely to perform better than combustion
technologies. However, this may reflect on the lack of significant numbers
of gasification examples in practice on which to draw data, such that many
LCAs covering gasification are indicative only and include assumptions on
energy conversion efficiency. In some cases, as shown earlier, this may not
be significantly greater than the efficiencies obtained through large-scale
combustion operations. Co-firing operations also show a wide range of
GHG savings and this reflects the wide range of technologies involved as
well as the greater study of such systems.
Biomass utilized for heat applications shows a wide range of GHG
savings, with much overlap between feedstock types, though smaller
domestic applications fare less well than large scale applications, though all
perform particularly well.
Although the data sets are limited, AD systems (utilizing animal slurry)
perform well against both electricity and heat only applications, providing
average GHG savings ranging from 90-95% against fossil-fuelled electricity
production and 80-85% against fossil-fuelled heating systems. The analyses
studied also did not take account of the mitigation of emissions that would
have otherwise arisen if the manure had been stored and spread to land,
taking these into account would boost the overall GHG savings further.
To try to overcome some of the problems associated with drawing
comparisons across different studies, where assumptions and approaches
differ, data was drawn from one comprehensive open study (Elsayed et al,
2003) to compare the GHG savings for different biomass sources and
conversion chains (Figure 7). Across all scenarios, GHG savings from use of
biomass ranged from 92-99% compared to use of coal for electricity
generation and from 84-98% compared to use of natural gas for electricity
generation. Combustion of straw was the lowest performing, while figures
for GHG savings arising from combustion of miscanthus, forestry residues
and short rotation coppice (SRC) for electricity were very similar (94% vs.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS – 29
gas and 97% vs. coal). In this study, gasification performed slightly better
than combustion with GHG savings ranging from 98% vs. natural gas to
99% vs. coal. GHG savings form CHP applications were also high (97-98%)
as well as for small scale heat applications (96-97%).
Figure 7. Comparison of GHG savings of bioheat and biopower chains
relative to fossil fuel chains
v. coal or heating oil
v. gas
100%
95%
90%
% Saving
85%
80%
75%
70%
65%
60%
55%
Small scale heat
from forestry
residues
CHP from
small scale SRC
gasification
CHP from
large scale
forest residue
combustion
Electricity from
gasification of
SRC
Electricity from
gasification of
forestry residues
Electricity from
combustion of
SRC
Electricity from
combustion of
forestry residues
Electricity from
combustion of
straw
Electricity from
combustion of
miscanthus
50%
Black bars compare to coal power or oil heating applications; white bars compare to natural gas power
and heating applications.
Source: Elsayed et al., (2003).
In terms of actual carbon abatement potential, the potential abatement
savings possible are higher than those that would be achieved by use of the
same feedstocks for liquid biofuel production for use in transport, even
when considering the developing second-generation technologies (Fischer
Tropsch diesel (biomass to liquid) and lignocellulosic fermentation
technologies) (Figure 8). However, the number of alternative viable options
for renewable alternatives in the transport sector is much more limited.
Initial construction and ongoing cost of advanced biomass energy
technologies will also have a significant impact on the marginal cost of
carbon abatement. New technologies are likely to be significantly higher
than those of current technologies.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
30 – THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS
Figure 8. GHG savings per hectare of biomass crop production
for different bioenergy chains
SRC - large scale CHP
SRC - small scale heat
SRC gassification
Miscanthus combustion
SRC combustion
Wheat straw combustion
SRC Fischer-Tropsch diesel
SRC lignocellulosic ethanol (lignin for energy)
Sugar beet ethanol
Wheat grain ethanol
Rape methyl ester
Wheat straw lignocellulosic ethanol
0
5
10
15
20
25
Tonnes CO2 avoided per hectare
SRC = short rotation willow or polar coppice
Source: Data derived from Woods and Bauen, 2003 and Elsayed et al, 2003.
The GHG savings quoted are based on the assumption that there is no
impact of land use change, which can have a significant impact on the GHG
balance. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
published a methodology for accounting for land use change and the
following default values for emissions from land use change (Table 3) are
used in climate change agreements. It should be noted, however, that the
estimation of GHG effects related particularly to indirect land use changes
— changes induced by, but geographically separated from, the production of
biomass for energy — is subject to substantial methodological problems and
topic of numerous research projects. Such estimates consequently carry
significantly lower levels of precision than those for direct land use changes
(where the use of land is changed from high-carbon covers such as forest or
grassland to planted biomass crops).
Comparing the above figures with data presented in Figure 8 shows that
in the medium-long term (20 years or less) conversion of land with high
carbon stocks to inappropriate energy cropping can negate any carbon
savings achieved by displacement of fossil fuel heat and power
technologies. The IPCC does calculate country-specific defaults. However,
the actual impacts will depend on locality, soil carbon content associated
with current land use and impacts of the new land use. It is therefore
important to identify land areas where bioenergy production is likely to
occur and whether this involves any change in land use. Avoiding unsuitable
land will ensure positive GHG savings can be achieved within a reasonable
timescale.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
30
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS – 31
Table 3. Range of IPCC default values for annual CO2 emissions
associated with land use changes
Original land use
Forest land
Grassland
New land use
Annual
cropland
Perennial
cropland
Annual
cropland
Perennial
cropland
Annualised CO2
emissions
15-37 t
CO2eq/ha
14-31 t
CO2eq/ha
2-10 t
CO2eq/ha
1-18 t
CO2eq/ha
Default year of 2005, all soil carbon change figures amortised to 20-year time period. Ranges reflect
differences reported across countries and continents .
Energy balance
All biomass electricity and CHP supply chains show improvements in
energy balances over fossil-fuelled electricity production (Figure 9), with a
great deal of overlap between different biomass conversion chains. All show
a mean energy balance of less than 1 (MJ in per MJ out) compared to a
figure of 2-3 for fossil-fuel derived chains, though there are a few examples
where the range of data within some biomass conversion combination
exceed 1 MJ in/MJ out.
CHP chains perform particularly well, with mean energy balances
ranging from 0.07-0.68 MJ/MJ. However, it is difficult to discern other
trends within the data sets available.
Mean energy balances for biomass heat applications are also very
positive compared to fossil fuel chains, ranging from 0.1 to 0.63 MJ/MJ
compared to >1 for fossil fuel chains. Again there is considerable overlap
between studies which makes it difficult to discern any key trends.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB domestic)
Wood chip
(forest residues)
(COMB)
Long logs
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB domestic)
SRC
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
0
# Data*)
2
7
1
1
3
2
# unique *)
1
3
1
1
2
2
Fuel oil
Miscanthus
(COMB)
Straw
(COMB)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB)
Miscanthus
(GAS)
Straw
(GAS)
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS)
Miscanthus
(COF)
Wood chip (SRC)
(COF)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COF)
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (COMB) CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(COMB) CHP
Straw
(COMB) CHP
Wood chip (forestry
residue) (GAS) CHP
Wood chip (SRC)
(GAS) CHP
Straw
(GAS) CHP
# data*)
4
2
5
3
1
1
3
3
2
4
4
3
2
1
2
2
1
# unique *)
2
2
3
2
1
1
3
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
Natural gas
Coal
0
Natural gas
MJ/MJ
MJ/MJ
32 – THE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOENERGY CHAINS
Figure 9. Energy efficiency (MJin/MJout) of electricity and CHP supply chains
for coal power, natural gas power, biomass power and CHP chains
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
Figure 10. Energy efficiency (MJin/MJout) of heat production supply chains
using natural gas, fuel oil and biomass
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
See notes and sources to Figure 3.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT – 33
Market developments in the overall bioenergy context
The importance of modern bioenergy is increasing in a large number of
countries. Within the OECD, biomass based energy supply amounted to
some 7.8 Exajoule (EJ) in 2006, up from 5.5 EJ 16 years earlier. Since 2003,
the share of bioenergy in total energy supplies exceeded that of other
renewable energy sources, with total renewable energy representing 6.3% of
total OECD energy supplies in 2007 (Figure 11). Within the OECD, the
share of renewable energy varies significantly, ranging from less than 1% in
South Korea to more than 75% in Iceland (Figure 12), where virtually all of
the domestically produced primary energy comes from renewable sources,
particularly the hot springs in the country.
Agricultural biomass only plays a relatively small role in total bioenergy
supplies, which are dominated by forest products6. Much of the growth in
recent years comes, however, from increased use of liquid biofuels in
transport, showing a strongly increasing trend. As discussed in OECD
(2008), the production and use of biofuels in the OECD transport sectors,
most notably in the US and the EU, are rapidly increasing, driven
particularly by strong public policy support and increasing crude oil prices.
For the OECD as a whole, liquid biofuels represented 0.42% of total
primary energy supply (0.4% of which were used in the transport sector); in
the US and the EU, these shares were 0.6% and 0.5%, respectively. Given
that the transport sector accounted for about 23.5% of the OECD’s total
primary energy demand (2006 data), the share of biofuels in the transport
energy mix was 1.7%-2.1% in both the US and the EU.7 All these shares
have increased further, and while the IEA (2008b) estimates the biofuel
shares in the US and EU to reach 5% and 5.5% by 2020, respectively,
OECD and FAO (2009) expect these shares to grow to 5.8% and 7.1% by
2018, respectively.
Biogas represents another form of increasing energy supply. Mostly
from landfill and sludge, it is also derived from agricultural biomass. For the
OECD as a whole, biogas only represented about 0.17% of total primary
energy supply (of which 0.14% are from landfill and sludge gases), but this
share varies significantly across countries, with Germany and the UK
heading the list with biogas shares in total primary energy supplies
exceeding 0.7% in both countries (Figure 13).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
34 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
16,00
6%
14,00
12,00
5%
10,00
4%
8,00
3%
6,00
2%
4,00
Gas from Biomass
- Landfill and Sludge
Liquid Biomass
- Other
Other Renewable
Gas from Biomass
- Total / Other
Solid Biomass
- Vegetal, eg. Wood
Total Renewable (right axis)
2006
2007e
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
0,00
1994
0%
1993
2,00
1992
1%
Total renewable energy supply (EJ)
7%
1991
Share in total primary energy supply
Figure 11. Renewable energy supplies in the OECD
1991-2007
Liquid Biomass
- Transport Fuels
Solid Biomass
- Total / Other
Source: IEA (2008a).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT – 35
Figure 12. Renewable Energy Shares in Total Primary Energy Supply 2007 (2006 where more recent data is missing
50%
75.5%
45%
Other Renewable
Other Biomass
40%
Solid Biomass
- other than non-wood vegetal
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
Source: IEA (2008a).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
Brazil
Argentina
Russia
India
Indonesia
People's Republic of China
South Africa
Non-OECD Total
EU-27
Japan
Korea
Australia
New Zealand
Canada
United States
Mexico
OECD Total
World
0%
Austria
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Turkey
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
5%
36 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
Figure 13. Shares of biogas, biofuels and non-wood vegetal solid biomass in Total Primary Energy Supply, 2007
(2006 where more recent data is missing)
4,5%
Solid biomass - non-wood vegetal
4,0%
Liquid biomass - other
Liquid biomass - transport fuels
3,5%
Gas from biomass - other
Gas from biomass - landfill and sludge
3,0%
2,5%
2,0%
1,5%
1,0%
0,5%
Non-OECD Total
EU-27
Japan
Korea
Australia
New Zealand
Austria
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
Turkey
Norway
Switzerland
Brazil
People's Republic of China
Source: IEA (2008a).
Canada
United States
Mexico
OECD Total
World
0,0%
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT – 37
Looking at the question where the biomass for energy purposes is used,
available data suggest that the different forms of biomass are distributed
quite differently across the sectors in the OECD. While on average, biomass
use in heat and power generation represents about a quarter of total biomass
use for energy, with residential and other sectors representing some 30% and
46%, respectively, liquid biomass is essentially used in the transport sector
(Figure 14). In contrast, biogas use is largely concentrated (75% in 2006) in
the generation of heat and power. Residential use of biomass is focused on
solid biomass.
Figure14. Distribution of the biomass use for heat and power generation,
residential use and other sectors, 1991-2006
2006
All biomass
Heat & Power
Residential
Other (mainly industry, transport)
Solid biomass
Liquid biomass
Biogas
2001
All biomass
Solid biomass
Liquid biomass
Biogas
1996
All biomass
Solid biomass
Liquid biomass
Biogas
1991
All biomass
Solid biomass
Liquid biomass
Biogas
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
Source: IEA (2008a).
Within the 15 years covered by available data, few clear trends can be
detected. While overall biogas use remains concentrated in the heat and
power generation, data suggests that this sector is particularly increasing
importance for biogas made from agricultural biomass, whereas the share of
landfill and sludge gases used by other sectors, notably the industry, is much
higher today than a decade ago. Similarly, the use of bio liquids is no longer
restricted to the transport sector, as increasingly liquid biomass is used to
generate heat and power.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
100%
38 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
Looking beyond the OECD, biomass use in non-OECD economies is, as
mentioned above, largely focused at solid biomass, roughly three quarters of
which are used at the residential level, thus confirming the hypothesis that
this concerns mainly traditional biomass used for cooking, heating and light
at the household level. Though not very strong, however, there can be seen a
slowly declining trend since the beginning of this decade in the share of
solid and overall biomass used at the residential level, while slightly larger
shares are used by other sectors, notably the industry. Small but increasing
shares (about 1.2% in 2006) are also used in the generation of heat and
power for delivery to the grid.
From these data it can be concluded that while the majority of biomass
is used at the residential level in non-OECD economies, the energy use of
biomass more or less related to agricultural production is, for the time being,
largely an OECD topic. Bioheat and biopower — heat and electricity
generation on the basis of biomass — represent a major outlet for biomass
both in liquid form and as biogas, and the role of agricultural biomass,
though still small relative to woody and other non-agricultural biomass
sources, is gaining in importance. This is particularly true for the use of
biogas, three quarters of which are used for heat and power generation. A
similar share of all biogas other than landfill and sludge gases in the OECD
is used in CHP plants, highlighting the strong links between agricultural
biomass and heat and power generation — even though heat and power
generation represents only one fourth of overall biomass use for energy.
While a significant share of biomass in general, and of biogas in
particular, is used in heat and power applications, the share of heat and
power produced from biomass is still much more modest. Despite
substantial increases over the past 15 years, in 2006 bioheat and biopower
still represented less than 2% of the heat and power generation on average in
OECD countries (Figure 15). While the bulk of this biomass used in the heat
and power generation is solid, increasingly biogas as well as, more recently,
liquid biomass, is used as well increasing their share in the total bioheat and
biopower generation from 5.3% in 1991 to 18.3% in 2006. Contrary to the
trends in total primary energy supplies overall, the share of other renewables
(such as hydro, solar and wind) in the OECD’s heat and power generation
has fallen between 1995 and 2001 and remained largely unchanged
thereafter. Nevertheless, the use of these resources has increased strongly in
absolute terms.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT – 39
Figure15. Renewable energy use in OECD heat and power generation
1991-2006
1,8%
20%
Solid biomass
Liquid biomass
Gas from biomass (all origins)
Other renewables (right axis)
18%
1,6%
16%
1,4%
14%
1,2%
12%
1,0%
10%
0,8%
8%
0,6%
6%
0,4%
4%
0,2%
2%
0,0%
0%
Share of other renewables in Total Heat&Power
Generation
Biomass share in total heat and power generation
2,0%
Source: IEA (2008a)
While projections for biomass-based energy production are scarce, IEA
estimates in their Reference Scenario8 total world energy use from biomass
and waste to reach 1604 Mtoe by 2030, equivalent to roughly 67 EJ or about
36% above the corresponding 2007 figures. Potentially, the use of biomass
for energy might grow much higher, however. Collecting the results of
various biomass potential scenarios, IEA Bioenergy (2007) shows that, as an
―average potential‖, global bioenergy production could reach 200-400 EJ
per year by 2050, while in a ―most optimistic scenario‖ the global potential
could be as high as 1100 EJ, more than twice the world’s current total
primary energy demand. It should be noted, however, that these estimates
rest on a number of crucial assumptions and are significantly affected by
economic and environmental factors, as these high potentials would involve
significant competition with other economic activities (food production,
biodiversity, etc.) for land, water and other production factors (IEA
Bioenergy, 2007, p. 3). The Dutch National Institute for Public Health and
the Environment (RIVM) estimates the biomass supply potential for 2050
realistically ranges 200-500 EJ per year, of which some 40-170 EJ per year
could come from forest and agricultural residues and other organic waste
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
40 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
(RIVM 2008, p. 25). Total biomass used for energy purposes is, however,
estimated to reach only levels between 50 and 250 EJ per year by 2050
(ibid.). Regional estimates differ significantly, too. For Europe (EU-27 plus
Norway, Switzerland and Ukraine), Smeets et al. (2007, quoted in BEE,
2008, p. 116) estimate a total bioenergy potential for 2050 to be between 18
and 59 EJ per year, with the higher value found for a scenario with high
energy crop yields and the land use for food production reduced by 50%
compared to today.
Costs of bioheat, biopower and biogas production
Data on the production costs for bioheat, biopower and biogas are
scarce. Indicative values for typical energy costs (reflecting best conditions
including system design, siting and resource availability) are given in
REN21 (2007, p.14) and shown in the Table 4 below.
Table 4. Typical costs of biomass-based power and heat production
Technology
Typical
characteristics
Typical energy costs
(U.S. cents
per kilowatt-hour)
Biomass power
Plant size: 1-20 MW
5-12
Biomass heat
Plant size: 1-20 MW
1-6
Size: 20-5 000 kW
8-12
Biomass gasifier (rural, off-grid)
Source: REN21 (2007) p. 14.
Actual production costs can be lower for particularly favourable
conditions, but substantially higher, depending on a range of factors
including the system size, location, etc. The values shown in Table 4 can be
compared to typical wholesale power generation costs from conventional
fuels, ranging between 4-8 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour for base-load power,
but higher values for off-grid power. Particularly for off-grid biomass
gasification, however, there could be a significant potential for future cost
reductions with further technology development (REN21, 2005, p. 13)
Implications for agriculture
As demonstrated above, bioenergy contributes an increasing share to
total primary energy supplies of both OECD and non-OECD countries,
although overall shares tend to remain relatively small in most countries,
particularly when it comes to energy based on agricultural biomass. The
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT – 41
implications of growing production and use of bioenergy for agricultural
production systems are, however, of great interest, both considering
historical developments and future changes. It has been shown in the context
of liquid biofuels that this growing industry and the policy support measures
behind this growth can result in increased use of agricultural produce for
non-food purposes, higher agricultural commodity prices at regional and
international levels, and, in a regionally differentiated manner, expanded
land use for agricultural production with potentially negative effects for the
environment.9
Data on agricultural feedstock use for biopower, bioheat and biogas are
scarce, particularly when it comes to aggregated information for countries
and larger regions. While numerous studies provide estimates on biomass
potentials10, information on actual use of agricultural biomass remains
sketchy and largely anecdotal.
As indicated above, the bulk of the biopower and bioheat output is
directly or indirectly based on forest products. Wood, pellets, wood waste,
and saw dust represent important sources of raw materials for bioenergy.
Unsurprisingly, therefore, this form of bioenergy is particularly important in
countries with relatively large forest areas, including Brazil, Finland,
Sweden, China and Austria, each of which producing between 10% and
27% of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) by non-agricultural solid
biomass. While short-rotation coppice with fast-growing tree species are an
option for agriculture to participate in this markets (see section above on
commercialized biomass crops), data on actual planting area are not
available.
Data on energy supplies from ―non-wood vegetal solid biomass‖ suggest
that the use of straw and other crop or food industry residues for energy
production plays a significant role (more than 1% of national TPES) only in
a limited number of countries, including Denmark, Portugal, Australia,
Mexico and Turkey. Sugar cane bagasse is the dominant feedstock for
biopower generation in Australia,11 and the co-generation of electricity and
heat in cane-based ethanol plants provides important additional revenues (as
well as other benefits).
In Germany (which produced some 1.8 million tonnes of oil equivalent
or 42 PJ worth of agriculture-based biogas in 2007), an estimated
500 000 ha were cultivated to produce plants used for the generation of
biogas in 2008, up from 400,000 ha in 2007.12 In 2008, this represented
about 29% of the total area used for energy crops – with the bulk of the
remainder being used for ethanol and biodiesel (including vegetable oils for
fuel use) production, 7.1% of total land under cereals13, or 4.2% of total
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
42 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
arable land. Germany is by far the largest biogas producer in the OECD and
second in the world after China.
According to IEA statistics, China had produced 4 million tonnes of oil
equivalent or 171 PJ worth of biogas in 2006. While the available data does
not allow distinguishing between landfill, sludge and other forms of biogas,
an estimated 26.5 million households were equipped with biogas digesters in
late 2007, producing some 400 PJ worth of biogas. Another 26 576 small
and large biogas plants were installed on husbandry farms.14 Detailed data
about feedstock use are not available, but it seems likely that the plants will
be fuelled largely with manure and other agricultural and (organic)
household wastes. In contrast, the area specifically used to produce biogas
substrates instead of food or feed crops is probably fairly limited.
In the UK and Ireland, a total of 11 large-scale anaerobic digestion
plants were listed to produce biogas or to be at some stage of the planning
and construction process.15 Eight of these are (to be) fuelled entirely or
mainly with animal manure and slurry, with the remaining three (to be)
using biodegradable municipal waste as feedstock. None of the listed plants
is supposed to use crop products or other plant matter.
Overall, the implications of increased production and use of biopower,
bioheat and biogas for agricultural markets are likely to be minimal to date.
A few exceptions at a local and national level could include the increasing
area used for biogas substrate production in Germany which may compete
with the production of food and feed, and countries such as Australia and
Brazil (cane) or Denmark, Mexico and Turkey (grains), where the use of
bagasse and straw as bioenergy feedstock might have the opposite effect of
raising incentives for commodity production. A stronger focus on
agricultural biomass crops in the development of bioheat and biopower
could, however, result in potentially more significant implications for
agricultural markets and, eventually, food supplies, as this has been
discussed with greater emphasis for the production of liquid biofuels
particularly of the first generation. Policies supporting bioenergy chains
should therefore ensure that they do not compromise the ability of the
agricultural sector to provide food and feed commodities in a sustainable
manner.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
NOTES – 43
Notes
1.
IEA data does not allow distinguishing between traditional and modern
biomass use; it is assumed that all energy use of solid biomass in nonmember economies is traditional biomass. The Global Bioenergy
Partnership (GBEP, 2007) confirms that currently more than 85% of
world biomass energy is traditional biomass, ―as solid fuels for cooking,
heating and lighting, often with low efficiency‖, providing for substantial
shares of primary energy consumption in developing countries (p. 1).
2.
C4 carbon fixation is a more efficient metabolism to bind the gaseous
CO2 for the production of plant sugar, compared to the C3 carbon
fixation operating in most plants. C4 carbon fixation is used by many
grasses, including (besides miscanthus) maize, sugar cane, and many
other tropical grasses.
3.
REN21 (2009)
4
The compiled dataset can be made available upon request.
5.
This section provides an overview on results from various life-cycle
analyses (LCAs) about the GHG and energy balances of different
bioenergy chains, mainly focusing on biopower and bioheat. Some
technical remarks on LCAs can be found in Annex 1. It should be noted
that the environmental performance of these chains is also determined by
numerous other factors, such as the emission of fine particles and other
harmful substances, biodiversity issues etc., not covered here.
6.
Note that some countries explicitly aim to increase the use of agricultural
biomass. Poland, for instance, has legislated the obligation to increase the
share of agricultural biomass (energy crops, residues or wastes both from
agricultural production and the processing industry) in the process of
biomass combusion to at least 20-25% in 2010, and 60-100% in 2017,
depending on the size of the power generation unit (Ordonance of the
Polish Ministry of Economy, 14.08.2008).
7.
According to the database of OECD-FAO (2009), the shares of biofuels
in total transport energy use in the USA and the EU were even higher in
2007 at 2.8% and 2.2%, respectively. This latter source only considers
gasoline, ethanol, diesel and biodiesel fuels, however.
8.
IEA (2009) p. 622.
9.
OECD (2008).
10.
See, for example, IEA Task 41 (2007).
11.
Schuck (2006).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
44 – MARKET DEVELOPMENTS IN THE OVERALL BIOENERGY CONTEXT
12.
FNR (2009). Note that renewable raw materials represent only 26% of all
substrates used in German biogas plants, with 48% from animal
excrements and 26% from other organic wastes and residues. At the same
time, biogas yields per tonne of fresh mass are generally higher, but
methane contents (and hence energy density) in the final biogas lower for
plant
substrates
than
for
manure.
See
http://www.fnrserver.de/cms35/index.php?id=399 for more information.
13.
Plant matter for biogas is mainly constituted from green maize and other
cereals harvested as whole plants. Gras silage represents an alternative
source for biogas plant matter.
14.
Methane to Markets (no date): country profile of China.
15.
Methane to Markets (no date): UK response.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
ANNEX 1. TECHNICAL REMARKS ON LIVE-CYCLE ANALYSES – 45
Annex 1.
Technical Remarks on Live-Cycle Analyses
Total GHG emissions and primary energy inputs are calculated by life
cycle assessment (LCA) methods. This is an established approach, specified
by International Standard ISO 14040 series to provide a consistent
framework for evaluating the environmental impacts of the complete life
cycle of any given product or supply chain. The definition of the boundary
for an individual LCA study is critically important in defining the impacts
that will be covered in the assessment.
LCA studies do not provide definitive, universal results, but results
specific to the system studied and the particular assumptions made in the
assessment. Factors affecting the LCAs of biomass energy technologies
include many site-specific factors such as fertiliser application rates, crop
yields and distance to processing plants that will affect outputs. In recent
years choice of appropriate reference system has become increasingly
important to take account of any impacts on GHG emissions arising from
land use change. However, many studies identified in this review took little
or no account of such change and its implications for the LCA in terms of
any GHG trade-offs.
Similarly, in defining the impacts of fossil fuel reference systems there
are further considerations. There are very few truly transparent LCA studies
published for conventional energy technologies. This is perhaps because it is
known that their GHG and energy balances are considerably less attractive
than those for most new energy technologies. Also, in some cases, e.g. for
nuclear electricity they are contentious (Scottish Government Research,
2006). As a result, fossil fuel reference values depend on agreed emission
values for primary delivered energy, or for electricity derived from primary
energy sources after accounting for losses along the supply chain (see
section on fossil fuel reference chains).
It is important to ensure commonality in LCA approaches to treatment
of soil carbon sources and sinks in relation to land use change, and also in
accounting for nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soil. These are currently
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
46 – ANNEX 1. TECHNICAL REMARKS ON LIVE-CYCLE ANALYSES
areas of contention and debate in biomass LCA circles. Both N2O and
methane (CH4, the third major greenhouse gas) have different global
warming effects as well as different atmospheric lifetimes, so any
aggregation over different greenhouse gases requires the use of standard
multiplier values that average the warming potential of each gas over a set
period of time. This study uses values taken from the Second Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1995),
suggesting that 1 kg of N2O and 1 kg of CH4 can be expressed as 21 and
310 kg of CO2(eq).1
As an LCA does not provide universal answers relevant to all
circumstances, it is often necessary to interrogate the basic parameters and
assumptions in an existing LCA, and it may also be necessary to modify
data and inputs to examine impacts under a different set of circumstances,
scenarios or situations. How any co-products are dealt with can also have a
significant impact; by-products should attract an allocated proportion of the
burdens incurred in producing the main product, but may also deliver credits
where they displace use of fossil fuels or avoid emission of GHG’s. The way
such credits are apportioned should also be clear. LCAs need to be as open
and detailed as possible; transparent in the parameters, inputs and units used
and any assumptions should be clearly defined. Unfortunately very few meet
these criteria and this causes problems in trying to interpret the breadth of
coverage and level of inclusion of individual LCAs, this affects the ability
and confidence with which comparisons can be drawn across a range of
different studies.
As noted, nitrous oxide (N2O) has a significant global warming impact,
much greater than that of CO2, such that small differences in N2O can have
very significant impact on GHG balance assessments. A significant source
of N2O is emissions from soils, where formation of N2O occurs as part of
the nitrogen cycle under low oxygen conditions (denitrification). Applying
fertilizers significantly increases the risk of N2O loss. The actual level of
loss will depend on individual soil factors and soil conditions. In the absence
of actual data, standard figures have been derived for N2O loss associated
with fertilizer use. Many studies use the standard values calculated for use in
accounting methodologies developed by the Inter-Governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC default methodology proposes a value of
0.0196 kg N2O per kg N applied, equivalent of a global warming potential
of 6.1 kg CO2-eq per kg N applied. However, these figures are subject to
significant ongoing discussion. Use of different emission factors between
studies can lead to discrepancies when allocating GHG impacts to
production of biomass, particularly where nitrogen fertilizer inputs are high.
Importantly, the choice of fossil fuel chains used as a reference for
comparison can have implications for findings on relative bioenergy
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
ANNEX 1. TECHNICAL REMARKS ON LIVE-CYCLE ANALYSES – 47
performance with respect to GHG emission and energy balances. It is a
common argument that support for biomass-based systems will actually
result in displacement of the most expensive forms of fossil-fuelled energy
generation, which tend to be the most advanced, energy efficient and
cleanest systems such as combined cycle, natural gas-fuelled electricity
generation. It may equally be argued that new efficient biomass plants will
lead to the retirement of older inefficient plants. Therefore any energy or
GHG savings from use of biomass should be compared and contrasted with
the system replaced. To enable a meaningful comparison of fossil and
biomass technologies, emission factors for coal-fired (large-scale,
pulverized coal injection; 0.837 kg CO2/kWh delivered) and natural gasfired (large-scale combined-cycle gas turbine; 0.418 kg CO2/kWh delivered)
electricity generation were calculated separately in this study, to represent a
high and low-emission fossil-fuelled energy system. This also reflects the
lower energy efficiency for coal powered plants of 2.8 MJin/MJout compared
to gas-fired systems (2.1 MJin/MJout2), accounting for direct and indirect
energy losses associated to the production, transport and conversion of the
feedstock and transmission to the end user. Similar emission values were
calculated for heat delivery from natural gas or fuel oil, to represent
typically encountered ―low‖ and ―high‖ emission comparators.
For Combined Heat and Power (CHP) technologies, reference is
assumed to relate to outputs and efficiencies for large scale generation
(>2 MWe) with 30% of output as electricity and 70% as useful heat. Such
figures are typical for existing large-scale biomass-fired CHP plants
operating in Denmark (Nikolaisen et al, 1998). For each KWh of energy
output (KWhe or KWhh) an average CO2eq GHG emission factor was
calculated based on the above 30:70 split in output and associated GHG
emissions/KWh for the electric and heat generation chains in CHP systems
where these were identified separately.
For the review in this report, fourteen databases, spanning energy,
agriculture, bioscience, engineering and environment fields were searched
for data on the following key search terms: ―biomass, energy crops‖ +
―electricity, power generation, combustion, pyrolysis, gasification‖ +
―energy balance, carbon balance, greenhouse gas‖. The search was restricted
to papers published after 2000, to identify those papers reflecting the latest
research approaches and thinking in relation to energy and green house gas
accounting methodologies. This identified 526 abstract items that were then
individually assessed for relevance, and appropriate full references sought
where deemed appropriate to the project. The individual references were
examined to determine; whether the feedstock was specifically identified,
how crop and machinery inputs were accounted for, how GHG losses from
soils were treated, energy conversion methods used and efficiency
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
48 – ANNEX 1. TECHNICAL REMARKS ON LIVE-CYCLE ANALYSES
assumptions used, inputs to building and processing, ability to separate
bioenergy from fossil fuel components in co-firing examples and how
transport was accounted for. There are few studies where transparency is
apparent for all such factors.
After review, it was found that very few of the above studies covered the
technologies or feedstocks of interest; were of sufficient detail or
sufficiently open in terms of methodologies, assumptions or data used, or in
terms of using common boundaries to the analysis (i.e. what was or what
was not included in the analysis) to enable comparison and aggregation of
studies. This has been a recurring problem for other reviews of bioenergy
technologies (e.g. Scottish Government Research, 2006). In addition, very
few appropriate and detailed studies were found covering AD technologies.
Where suited to analysis, data on total GHG emissions and energy
balances (MJ energy in per MJ energy out) were derived from each selected
reference. GHG emission data is presented as % saving in GHG emissions
compared to the appropriate fossil fuel reference system (Table 3). Results
are presented on GHG savings in Figures 3 and 4 for power applications and
Figures 5 & 6 for heat applications. Energy balances are presented in
Figure 9 for power and CHP applications and Figure 10 for heat-only
applications.
Where more than one data point was sourced for a particular
combination of biomass type and energy conversion system, the range (max
and min value) and mean value for each data set is presented. As a single
reference may cover more than one scenario, the header for each figure
provides an indication of the number of unique references providing data,
and the number of data points collated within each scenario, to provide an
indication of the reliability of the results presented.
A wide range of biomass type and conversion methods [combustion
(COMB), gasification (GAS), co-firing (COF), anaerobic digestion (AD)
and combined heat and power (CHP)] systems were covered.
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
ANNEX 1. TECHNICAL REMARKS ON LIVE-CYCLE ANALYSES – 49
Notes
1.
Subsequent Assessment Reports of the IPCC provide slightly different
multiplier values, with a somewhat lower multiplier for N2O at 298 as
indicated in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC (2007, see OECD,
2008, p.47). Given that many LCAs evaluated here do not provide
individual data for the different greenhouse gases, a recalculation was not
possible, but would yield only slightly different overall results.
2.
Derived from BEAT 2 model ((BEAT 2, 2008).
BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
REFERENCES – 51
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BIOHEAT, BIOPOWER AND BIOGAS: DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE © OECD 2010
Bioheat, Biopower and Biogas
developments and implications for agriculture
This report complements earlier OECD work on liquid biofuels and provides
information on biomass based heat and power, as well as on biogas. It discusses the
heterogeneous portfolio of different biomass feedstocks, conversion technologies,
and pathways of utilisation. It also shows that governments in many countries provide
substantial support to the production and use of renewable energy in general, and
bioenergy in particular; these support measures are highly diverse and are given at
national and various sub-national levels.
The results of a large number of life-cycle analyses of various bioheat and biopower
chains reviewed in this study indicate that the objective to reduce GHG emissions and
fossil energy use is met; indeed the savings estimated for most chains are substantial
when compared to fossil alternatives. At present, most of the chains examined do
not compete with food and feed production, and thus the implications for agricultural
markets are small. It is clear, however, that if a stronger focus on agricultural biomass
crops is to be developed, this will require careful design of support policies so as to
avoid compromising the ability of the agricultural sector to provide food and feed in a
sustainable manner.
www.oecd.org/publishing