49860749-Byrne-Teaching-Writing-Skills

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NEW
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Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers
Donn Byrne
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First published1988
Sixth impression1993
Data
British Library Cataloguingin Publication
Donn, 1929Bvme,
-Teaching
writing skiils'-Newed'handlooks for languageteachers)'
fi""g*it
i. Eriglishlanguage-Writing-Stud.v
and teaching
I. Title
808',.042',07 PE1404
rsBN 0-58e-?'1b51-5
Data
Library of CongressCatalogingin Publication
Bvrne.Donn. 1929Teachingwritrng skills'
languageteachers)
frong*i" handbooksfor
and
inclulesbibliographies index' , .
and teaching-Foreign
i. englittt language--Study
c.-.Studvand
tanguage-Rhetori
Engiistr"
t.
,p;;kd
and exercises
;;;;hl;;. i. rnltitt' tanluale-c-omposition
II'
Title'
I'
--StuOy-unO
teaching'
!erle^s,^
87-4238
808','042
pE1128.A28938 i988
l-5 (Pbk.)
ISBN 0-582-7465
Pte Ltd
Producedby Longman SingaporePublishers
Printed in SingaPore
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Acknowledgements
to reproduce
We are gratefulto the following for permission
coplrighl illustrativematerial:
the FoundationSeries'
CassellPLC fbr page 39 (top) (TakenAom
for page24 (Taken
t4tririnsI by Louise wooitj;'iollins Publishers
Cripweli;
and
gooi{'
Foll
t bv Vincent'
r,rsiitn
rt"^?nrh,
wr.iting in
(Taken
from
page
58
PubiishersLi-it.o io.
Macmillan
';;;i;;i;t
for pages
Limited
Sons
and
Ne6ol
Thomas
Anita Pincas;
bv
Reprinted
page 94;
i4rl Functr pruii.utlo"t Limited for
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122'
and
pages
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Contents
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Preface
1 The nature and purposeof writing
1.1 What is writing?
1.2 What do we write?
1.3 Speechandwriting
1.4 Why writing is difficult
1.5 Learningto write:mothertongueandforeignlanguage
situations
compared
1.6 Why teachwriting?
Discussion/Exercises/References
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2.1 Understandinghow the written languagefunctions
2.2 The reseurces
of the writtenlanguage
Discussion/Exercises/References
3
4
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Writing in the early stages
4.1 Somebasicconsiderations
4.2 Copyingasa writing acrivity
4.3 Reinforcement
activities
4.4 Sentence
linkingactivities
4.5 Communication
activities
4.6 Writingfor fun
Discussion/Exercises/Refere
nces
L.
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5
Generalprinciplesfor teachingwriting
3.1 Approaches
to teaching
writing
3.2 The stateof the art
3.3 The role of guidance
3.4 The needsof the learners
Discussion/Exercises/Refere
nces
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Learningto use the resourcesof the written language
5
D e v e l o p i n gs k i l l s
5.1 The importanceof demonstrating
progress
5.2 Reinforcement
activities
5.3 Sentence
linkingandsequencing
activities
5 . 4 R e p r o d u c t i oenx e r c i s e s
5.5 Communication
activities
5.6 Writingfor fun
Discussion/Exercises/References
iii
6
C o ntextsfor wr iting: the use of texts
6 .1 The textascontext
activities
6 .2 Com Pr ehension
(r.3 Note- taking
andsum m ar ising
rences
rcises/Refe
DiscussioniExe
7
C o ntextsfor wr iting: the use of visualm ater ial
7 .1 Somegener alconsider ations
1 .2 The role of the teacher
7 .3 The useof visualm ater ial:som eexamples
Discussion/Exercises/References
In tegr atedskills
of integratingskills
8 .1 The impor tance
t ork
8 . 2 P r o j e cw
8 .3 Skillsequences
asa frameworkfor rvritingactivities
8.4 Simulations
Discussion/Exercises/References
Writing at the post- inter mediatelevel
9 .1 Pr oblemar eas
9.2 Remedialwork: the valueof a functionalapproach
procedures
9.3 Freewriting:somesuggested
nces
Discussion/Exercises/Refere
1 0 Correctingwritten work
10.L Errorsandmistakes
1,0.2Teacherand studentcorrection
10:3 CorrectionProcedures
erences
rcises/Ref
D iscussion/Exe
1 1 Wr iting activitiesfor childr en
wr iting
for teaching
1 1.1 Reasons
I 1 . 2 W r i t i n ga c t i v i t i e s
Discussion/Exercises/References
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1 2 T e achingthe Englishscr iPt
1 2.1 The needsof the lear ner s
12.2 Letter shapes
L2.3 Proceduresfor teachingscript
Discussion/Exercises/References
devices
Appendix:Cohesive
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BibliographY
I
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Preface
The mainpurposeof thisbookin its revisededitionremainsunchanged:
to
various
writing
kindsof
showhow
activities,
both guidedexercises
to develop
particularskillsandcommunication
tasksinvolvingfreeexpression,
canbe
built up into a coherentwritingprogramme.
Throughsucha programmeit is
intendedthat the learnersshouldnot only makesystematic
progress,through
their growingmasteryof the writtenlanguage,but alsoseehow writing is used
for the purposeof communication.
The book hasbeenextensively
revisedto ensurethat it reflectscurrent
practice.Integrated
methodological
skills,highlightedevenin the firstedition,
now havea chapterof theirown.The numberof examples
hasbeenexpanded
throughout,so that the book canbe usedfor resourcematerial.In particular,
the activitiesin the Writingfor/un sectionsshouldprovea usefulandflexible
additionfor any teachingsituation.Correctingwritten work and teaching
handwritinghavenow beenexpanded
into chapters,andthereis a completely
new chapteron teachingchildren.
The substance
of thisbook is basedon.teacher-training
courses,
seminars
and lecturesgivenoverthe lastfifteenyears.A seriesof seminars
on teaching
writing which I had to givein Latin Americain the earlyseventies
setme
thinkingaboutthe subject,whilethe interestand encouragement
of the
studentsof 'Course317'on 'Composition'whichI taughtat Concordia
University,Montreal,in 1976,obligedme to givemy viewson teachingwriting
a little more cohesionand coherence.
However,a spellbackin the classroom,
and children,mademe appreciateonceagainwhat every
with adolescents
teacherknows:that it is not enoughto do the'right' things.The 'writingfor
fun' activitiescamedirectlyout of that experience.
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Thenatureandpurposeof writing
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1.1
What is writing?
that is, lettersor combinations
of
Whenwe rvrite,we usegraphics1'rnbols:
rve
when
we
make
speak.
On
one
level,
to
the
sounds
then,
letterswhichrelate
writingcanbe saidto be the actof formingthesesymbols:makingmarkson a
flat surfaceof somekind. But writingis clearlymuchmorethantheproduction
of graphicsymbols,just asspeechis morethanthe productionof sounds.The
to form words,
to certainconventions,
according
symbolshaveto be arranged,
we canbe
although
again
to form sentences,
andwordshaveto be arranged
'writing'
of
if we aremerelymakinglistsof words,asin inventories
saidto be
lists.
itemssuchasshopping
or evena numberof
we do not writejustbnesentence
As a rule,horvever,
arrangedin a
of sentences
We produce a sequence
unrelatedsentences.
particularorderand linkedtogetlterin certainways.The sequencemay be very
- but, because
of theway the
short- perhapsonly trvoor threesentences
they
form
a coherent
linked
together,
put
in
order
and
been
have
sentences
whole.They form lvhatwe maycalla'text'.
a text,
Not a greatdealis knownaboutindividualmethodsof composing
-.professional
rvritersamongthem wouldagreethatit is
but mostpeople
writingcomes
activitv.Sometimes
usuallyneitheran easynor a spontaneous
'mood'
needto
perhaps
pressing
or havea clearand
easily,if we arein the right
mentaleffort:we
but asa ruieit requiressomeconscious
something,
express
'think out' our sentences
andconsidervariouswaysof combiningand arranging
them.We rereadrvhatwe haverl rittenasa stimulusto furtherwriting.Other
aremakingnotes,draftingandrevising.We mayevenrvrite
commonpractices
with the result.Noticc'for
severalversionsof a textbefore\\'earesatisfied
andmodifiedhis draftof the textt'rttpage2.
example,how the rvritercorrected
The reasonfor thisis thatwe are writingfor a reader.Writinginvolvesthe
of somekind: that is, we translateour thoughtslnto
encodingof a message
of thismcssaqe.
involves
the decodingor interpretation
Reading
language.
- lrtlr
nhen rvearewritingfor ourselvs5
But. exceDton thoseoccitsions
GK I L L S
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N S
shoppinglist may h:tvebeenfor this purpose- the readeris someonewho ls
present.This, after all. is why we normally choosethis particular
not physicall.v
channelof communicationrather than the more common one of speech.And
becauseour readeris not present.and in somecitsesmay not even be known to
u s , w e h a v et o
ensurethat what we
4{2.rA
write can be
T-h.ere{6i€re ninety cases of polio occurri'ig
/
'-(rh,/
understoodwithout
lf '
e{ v..ti}.tf,r*
L^n"^
any further help
from us. This is the
^49days@
reasonfor the care
we have to take
f+dtb€€tl
hfilee'lre*c
with writing. It is
LE L^
by the organisation
hie hei*c'mctc+
a n o t h e r personnecef
of our sentences
into a text, into a
ad received the Cutter vaccine,
coherentwhole
which is as explicit
as possibleand
In seventy-one of these cases *,her
completein itself,
;f
that we are able (or
Ci=essc t'hea+ c o n n e c t i o n c o u l d b e s h o w n
hope to be able) to
A
communicate
successfullywith
tlrct with particular Iots of the vaccine6
our reader through
the medium of
M
writing.
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1.2
What do we
write?
1.3
Spe e c ha n d
writing
2
It is helpfulto keepin mind someof the manyuseswe are likely to makeof
writing.For example,on a personallevel,mostof ususewritingto makea note
(thingswe haveto do or wantothersto do, like our shoppinglist),
of something
and
andto keeprecordsof thingswe wantto remember.We sendmessages
write lettersto friends,anda few of uskeepdiaries.Most of ushaveto fill in
- for example,for insurance
applications
formsfrom time to time (especially
- or questionnaires)
we writeformalletters(for example,if
andoccasionally
u'echangeour job). Apart from this,the amountof writingwe do regularlywill
life. Somemightspenda gooddealof time writing
relateto our professional
reports.etc.For othersthiswill onlybe an occasional
letters,instructions.
activity.
Few of us,on the otherhand,arelikelyto spendanytimewritingpoetry
or fiction.And, outsidethe classroom,
we neverwrite 'compositions'(My daily
routine,My favouritepastime,etc.) of the kind that arestill a featureof many
examinationsl
A comparison
betweenspeech
some
andwritingshouldhelpusto understand
of the difficulties
we experience
whenwe write.The tableon the nextpage
highlightsthe maindifferences.
Note,however,thatit doesnot takeinto
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T H EN A T U R EA N D P U R P O SO
E FW R I T I N G
accountcertainsituationsin whichthe spokenlanguageis used,suchas
telephoning
and lecturing.
Althoughwritingis clearlymuchmoredependenton how effectively
we
usethe linguisticresources
of the language
(see1.4.2),it wouldbe wroneto
concludethat all the advantages
areon the sideof speech.While it is tru! that
in writingwe havethe taskof organising
our sentences
carefullyso asto make
our meaningasexplicitaspossible
withoutthe helpof feedbackfrom the
reader,on the otherhandwe do not normallyhaveto write quickly:we can
rewrite and reviseour sentences
until we are satisfiedthat we haveexpressed
'our
meaning.Equally,the readeris in a moreprivilegedpositionthanthe
listenerto someextent:he canreadat his own paceand rereadasoften ashe
likes.In thisway, then,someof the disadvantages
of communicating
through
the writtenmediumareoffset.
SPEECH
WRITING
1 Takesplacein a context,which
often makesreferencesclear(e.g.
'
fhatth i ng over th ere'I
1 Createsits own contextand
t h e r e f o r eh a st o b e f u l l y e x p l i c i t
2 S p e a k ea
r n d l i s t e n e r ( si n)
c o n t a c t I. n t e r a cat n d e x c h a n q e
roles
2 R e a d e rn o t p r e s e n ta n d n o
i n t e r a c t i o np o s s i b l e
3 U s u a l l yp e r s o na d d r e s s e d
is
soecific
3 Readernot necessarilyknown to
writer
4 l m m e d i a t e f e e d b a cgki v e na n d
expected
( a ) v e r b a l :q u e s t i o n sc, o m m e n t s
. . . m u r m u r s g, r u n t s
(b) non-verbal:facial
expressions
4 N o i m m e d i a t ef e e d b a c kp o s s i b l e .
Writer may try to anticipate
r e a d e r ' sr e a c t i o n sa n d
incorporatethem into text
5 S p e e c hi s t r a n s i t o r yI.n t e n d e dt o
b e u n d e r s t o o di m m e d i a t e l vl .f
not, listenerexpectedto interact
5 W r i t i n gi s p e r m a n e n tC
. a nb e
rereadas often as necessarvand
at own soeed
S e n t e n c eo
s f t e ni n c o m p l e t ea n d
s o m e t i m e su n g r a m m a t i c a l .
H e s i t a t i o nas n d p a u s e sc o m m o n
a n d u s u a l l ys o m e r e d u n d a n c y
and repetition
6 Sentencesexpectedto be
c a r e f u l l yc o n s t r u c t e da,n d l i n k e d
a n d o r g a n i s e dt o f o r m a t e x t
7 Rangeof devices(stress,
i n t o n a t i o np, i t c h ,s p e e d ) t oh e l p
c o n v e ym e a n i n g .F a c i a l
expressions,body movements
a n d g e s t u r e sa l s ou s e df o r t h i s
pu rpose
D e v i c e st o h e l p c o n v e ym e a n i n g
a r e p u n c t u a t i o nc, a p i t a l sa n d
u n d e r l i n i n g( f o re m p h a s i s ) .
S e n t e n c eb o u n d a r i e sc l e a r l y
indicated
F
NIG SKILLS
TEACHING \^JRiTI
1.4
WhYw r i t i n g i s
difficult
1 . 4 .1
Psychological
problems
F
writing is a difficult activityfor most
we can norvbegin to understandwhy
F
p e o p l e . b o t h i n t h e m o t h e r t o n g u e a n d i n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g-e . W e s h a l l l o o k a t
headings
three
under
rvriti'g
irr" irour"rns which are causedby
F
psychological'Iinguisticand.ognitiu.-althoughtheseinevitablyoverlapto
F
s o m ee x t e n t .
F
Speechisthenaturalandnormalmediumofcommunicationforusinmost
c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d a c c u s t o m s u s b o t h t o h a v i n g S o m e o n e p h y s i c aon
l l ythe
present E
feedbackof somekind. Writing,
getting
to
and
lunguug"
use
we
when
and the fact that we are required t<;
F
other hand. is essentiallya solitary activity
or the benefit of
interaction
of
possibility
the
without
own,
write on our
feedback.initselfmakestheactofwritingdifficult.
E
1A1
Linguistic
problems
F
o.finteractionand' except
a process.
oral communicationis sustainedthrough
t^heparticipantshelp to keep it
in specialcircumstances.such as a lecture,
we have little time to pay
going. Becausespeechis normallyspontaneous'
s t r u c t u r eo r t o c o n n e c t i n go u r
a t t e n t i o ne i t h e rt o o r q a n i s i n go u r s e n t e n c e
of
the latter is maintainedthrough the process
sentences:to some
F
"it.nt
ald so on, dependingonhow
interaction.We repeat.backtrack,expand
p e o p l e r e a c t t o w h a t w e s a y ' I n c o m p l e t e a n d e v e n u n g r a m m a the
t i c asample
l u t t e r aof
n c e s -F
illustratedin
are
features
these
of
Some
usuallypassunnoticed.
ts
below:
conversationu'hichhasbeen transcribed
E
-t
p i a n o 'l s t h a t h o w y o u
P e t e y, o u c o m p o s e dt h i s p i e c ea t t h e
work?
normallY
b e t h a t T i g f ' ] c h a n g et n
A l w a y s ,U p t o t h i s p o i n t ,a l w a y s l' t m a y
k n o w 'w o r k i n gf r o m
t h e f u t u r e ,w h e n t f e l m o r ei n t o ,y o u
I do write at the
r.iurct.rwitfr syntn'uritttt,but at the moment
u n t i lI
' ra r d l yr e a l i s e cl 'ld w r i t t e nt h i s
p i a n p .A c t u a l l yr o i o n ; t . . - . h
o
f tlre
o
u
t
j u s td r o p p e d
h a d! ( L a u g n s .Ot n eo i t h o s et h i n g st h a t
skvI
W e l l ,h o w d i d Y o us t a r t t, h e n ?
m u s i c afl l a v o u rt h a t w e
E r ,w e l l ,w e d e c i d e do n a , e r m ,a s o r to f
a n d 'e r m ' j u s t
; ; ; ; i J ; ; " p t f o r ,t o t l t ' ' i t ' p a ' t i c u l anru m b e yr 'o u k n . o . wE'r ' w e ' ' '
f o l l o w e dw h e r em y f i n g e i st o o k m e ' .r e a l l y '
a n dd o o d l i n ga t t h e
i , f n u O i n i n t r ol ' d l ' ' f i u u t ; u t tn o o d l i n g
p i a n ow i t h t h i s ' ' ' l s o u n do f p i a n o l
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at our disposal .
rangeof devices
As we haveseen,we alsohavea considerable
to h e l p g e to u rmeaningacr oSS.Inwr iting,wehavetocom
p.ex T :" -open
I^" ::l :.!
the chamelof communicati<ln
we haveto t
of thesefeatures:
absence
""p
!n
t h r o u g h o u r o w n e f f o r t s a n d t o e n s u r e ' b o t h t h r o u g h o usequencecl'
r c h o i c e o fthai
sente
togetherand
linked
ur"
senten..,
our
way
the
by
and
structure
E
on its own'
the textwe producecanbe interpreted
1.4.J
Cognitive
probierns
spendmuch of our i
We growup learnrngto speakandin normalcircumstances
t i m e d o i n g i t . W e a l s o a p p e a r t o s p e a k w i t h o u t m u c h c o n swhich
c i o u are
s e fof
f o r t o! r to, aboutmatters
want
*.
becau,"
talk
we
generally
and
thought
:
A
t.
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T H EN A T U R EA N D P U R P O SO
EF W R I T I N G
l_
E
interestor relevantto us sociallyor professionally.
Writing,on the other hand
is learnedthrougha processof instructiorz:we have to masterthe written form
of the languageandto learncertainstructureswhich are lessusedin speech,or
perhapsnot usedat all, but whichare importantfor effective.o.muni.ution in
writing. We alsohaveto learnhow to organiseour ideasin sucha way that they
can be understoodby a readerwho is not presentand perhapsby a readerwho
is not known to us.
Finally,writingis a taskwhichis often imposedon us, perhapsby
circumstances.
This not only hasa psychological
effect;it may alsocausea
problemin termsof content- what to say.Beingat a lossfor ideasis a familiar
experienceto mostof us whenwe are obligedto write.
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1.5
Learning to
write: mother
tongue and
foreign language
situations
compared
So fa'rwe havelookedat writing in general,without drawingany distinction
betweenwriting in the mothertongueand writing in a foreignlanguage.
Clearly,however,thereare importantdifferences,particularlyin the learnine
situation,andattentionis now drawnto these.
Most childrenlearnto writein theirmothertongueat school,generally
betweenthe agesof five and seven.By this time they havea well-developed
commandof the spokenlanguage,
adequate
at leastto their socialneeds,but
their experienceof the writtenlanguageis still very limited. Most childrenwill
of coursehavebeenexposedto it to somedegreethroughbeingreadto aloud.
writing itself,however,is a totallynew experiencefor mostof them.
Most childrenacquirethis new skill fairly laboriously.On the other hand,
they are requiredto makeregularuseof it, both in classes
devotedto writing
practiceand, astheir educationprogresses,
in other lessons(history,
geography,etc.) whichinvolvesomeform of relatedand purposefulwritten
work. Certaintypesof writing,particularlythosewhichinvolveprojectioninto
adult-typeroles,tendto causethem difficulty.Many children,in fact, simply
do not enjoy writing,partlybecauseof the natureof the taskandpartly
because,out of school,it haslittle valuefor them asa form of social
interaction,althoughin mostculturesthe ability to write carriesprestige.Very
few childrensucceedin becomingreallyproficientat writing and manyceaseto
usethis skill oncetheyleaveschool,or useit only occasionally-for
specialised
purposes
(e.g.fillingin forms).
In the light of this,we should,asforeignlanguageteachers,be ableto
makecertainassumptions,
subjectof courseto culturalvariations,and to avoid
makingothers.Most of our studentswill alreadybe familiarwith the processof
writing, unlesstheyarevery young,in whichcasewriting will not - and should
not - figurevery prominentlyin the foreignlanguageprogramme.Thev may
haveto learna new scriptbut writing itselfwill not be a new experience
for
them. They are alsolikely to havehad a fairly wide experienceof written
languagethroughreadingin their mothertongue.They may alsobe at an age
when they canlearnthroughreadingand perhapsthe written languagehas
cometo havesomepsychological
valuefor them asa form of supportwhen
learningsomething
new.
We shouldnot assume,
however,that theyareproficientat writingin their
mothertongue,or thattheyalreadypossess
skills
the necessary
organisational
for writingeffectively.
Nor shouldwe assume
that the abilityto writein the
mothertonguecanbe transferred
to the foreignlanguage,
althoughsome
_5
J
W R I T I N GS K I L L S
TEACHING
J
global transfer,as with readingability, often seemsto take place(that is,
their own languageeasilybecomeliterate in
ieopte who are highly literatein
to
nnoiher;. It is alsopossiblethat the students'previousexperienceof learning
write and of practisingwriting in their own languagewas frustratingor
unrewarding.At for their attitudestowardslearningto write in a foreign
may
language.we are rarely in a positionto make any assumptionsat all: these
,un"g"fiom no interest at all to a firm belief in its value to them as learners.
One very significantfactor which affectswriting in the foreign language
time
classroomis that. even if we delaythe introductionof writing for some
disposal
(see4.1), the amountof languagewhich the learnerswill have at their
it
io, *riting will be very limited - so limited that it might seemto make
impossibleto introduce any meaningfulform of writing practice' At thesame
time, the learners,being more mature than they were when they learned to
write in their mother tongue, are consciousof the limitations which the foreign
it
languageimposeson the expressionof their ideas.To resolvethis problem
going
will be necessaryto strike some sort of balancewhich preventsthem from
beyond their linguistic attainmentin the foreign languageand yet will still
provide them u,ith writing activitieswhich satisfythem on an intellectuallevel.
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1.6
Why teach
writ in g ?
withoutlearninghow
to learnto speaka foreignlanguage
Clearlyit is possible
perhapseventhe majorityof them,
to wriie in iiand for manyof our students,
writing will be the skill in whichthey arenot only leastproficient,evenafter
practice,but alsothe onefor whichtheywill havethe leastuse.
considerable
The situationis not sovery differentin the mothertongue,aSwe havealready
capacity'
Seen,exceptfor thoseof uswho usewritingin someprofessional
Because,therefore,writingis a skillwhichis both limitedin valueand difficult
to acquire,we shouldbe very clearaboutour purposein teachingit'
of a courseorientedtowardsoral proficiency,writing
tn ttreearly.stages
purposes:
servesa variety of,pedagoglcal
(a) The introductionandpracticeof someform of writing enablesus to
providefor differentliarning stylesandneeds.Somelearners,especially
thor. who do not learneasilythroughoral practicealone,feel more secure
if they are allowedto readandwrite in the language.For suchstudents,
writing is likely to be an aid to retention,if only becausethey feel more at
easeandrelaxed.
(b) Written work servesto providethe learnerswith sometangibleevidence
that they aremakingprogressin the language.It is not likely to be a true
need'
a psychological
but onceagainit satisfies
indexof their attainment,
(c) Exposureto the foreignlanguagethroughmorethan one medium,
especiallyif skillsareproperlyintegrated,appearsto be more effective
than relyingon a singiemediumalone.Evenat an elementarylevelthere
are manyopportunitiesfor activitiesthat effectivelyintegrateskills'
activities,servingasa breakfrom
(d) Writing providesvarietyin classroom
orat*ori (andis thereforea quieterandmorerelaxedtime for both
the amountof
studentsandteacherl).At thesametime,it increases
languagecontactthroughwork that canbe setout of class.
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(e) Writingis oftenneededfor formaland informal.testing.
Althoughin
generaloral abilityshouldbe measured
throughoral tests,in practicewe
areoftenobligedby circumstances,
suchasthe amountof time we haveat
andthe numberof students
our disposal
thereare in the class,to usesome
form of writtentest.In somecases,of course,a writtentestmay evenbe
appropriate:
for example,makingnoteswhilelistening.
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Theseconsiderations
stronglysuggestthat, while we shouldstill concentrateon
we canmakegooduseof writing,aspart of
aural-oralskillsin the earlystages,
an integratedskillsapproachto languagelearning.Although at this stage
writing activitieswill be largelya reinforcementof languagelearnedorally* , this
neednot imply that writing hasto be an unsatisfying
or evenrigidly controlled
aclivity(see3.3).It canalsobe taughtin sucha way that it preparesthe
learnersfor more realisticformsof writing at a later stage.
As the learnersprogressto the intermediate
stagesof languagelearning,
factorswhichwe havenotedabovestill applybut, in addition,
the pedagogical
we canprovidefor writtenwork on a more extensivescaleand in particular
integrateit more effectivelywith other skills(seeChapter8). At this level,the
written languageitselfwill alsoprovidecontextsfor learning- through
maybe relatedto these.At the sametime,
reading- andwritingactivities
writingmay becomea goalin
both hereandat the post-intermediatelevel,
itself. Althoughin languageprogrammeswhichdo not havea specific
orientationwe are not in a positionto predictwhichstudentsare likely to have
a needfor writing asone of the outcomesof their course,moststudentswill
haveto do someform of writtenexaminationand this will increasetheir
motivationto learnto write well. In addition,we canidentifyand concentrate
on formsof writing whichhavea procticalvalue,the relevanceof whichshould
be easilyapparentto the learners.Specificneedscanalsobe met because
writing practicecanto someextentbe individualised.
Clearly,however,thesituationis so complexthat thereis no onesetof
althoughthisappliesto the teachingof otherskillstoo. But on
answers,
pedagogicalgrounds
aloneit rvouldseemthat writingis a skillworth
in the foreignlanguage.
developing
Our problemis how to do thisin sucha way
that the learnersseethepurposeof writingand makemeasurable
progress
throughthe performance
of realisticandrelevanttasks.
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D i s c u ssi o n
Whichof the differences
betweenspeechandwriting,listedin the tableon
page3, do you think areespecially
importantwhenteachingwriting?
From yourown experience
of teaching(or learning)a foreignlanguage,
do
you agreethat writing is worth teachingon pedagogical
groundsalone?
Exercises
It wassaidin 1.1thatrvedo not know muchaboutindividualmethodsof
a text.Note dorvnsomeof the thingsyou do whenyou arewriting
composing
andcomparethemwith a friend.
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*This term is usedhere and elsewhereto refer to languagewhich is presentedand practisedorally
( f o r e x a m p l e .t h r o u g hd i a l o g u e sa n d r e l a t e da c t i v i t i e s )I.t d o e sn o t i m p l y t h a t t h e l e a r n e r sh a v en o t
seenthe written [orm.
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N G
4
2 Weproduce a sequenceof sentences. . ' linked togetherin certairtways'
Reiead 1.1 and make a list of someof the linking devicesused.
Make a list of the thingsyou usewriting for' Arrange them as follows:
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Compareyour list with a friend.
betweenthe two speakersin 1.4.2in
Write out a versionof theconversation
normalwritten ProsestYle'
References*
The correcteddraft on page2 comesfrom J BarzunandHF Gtaff' The
(1970).The transcriptof spokenEnglishon page4
ModernResearcher
Show(i985),in whichDavidFreeman
comesfrom the DavidFreernan
musicians'
interviewsprofessional
F Smith
On writingseeJ Brittonin A Davies(1975):TeachingWriting;
(1982),S i(rashen(198a)pages4-19 andY Zamel(1981and 1983).
featuresseeD Abercrombiein J Laver and S Hutcheson
bn paralinguistic
(1,91
2): Paralanguage.
organisethoughtpatternsin differentways
bn tne waysin whichlanguages
seeR B Kaplanin K Croft (1980):CulturalThoughtPatternsin InterCulturalEducation.
valueof writingseeC Bratt Paulston(1972)pages33-6'
On the pedagogical
For a more extremeviewof the valueof teachingwritingseeM Sharwood6)pagesI'7-19.
Smith(1,97
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2.1
Understanding
how the written
language
functions
One of our major tasksis to familiarise
fhe learnerswith the devicesthat are
neededfor effectivecommunication
throughthe mediumof writing.In extent,
this is not unlikethe taskwe havein teachingthe appropriateuseof stressand
intonationfor oralcommunication.
In both casesan awareness
of how
languagefunctionsasa communicationsystemcanonly be taughtthrough
adequateexposureto the languageand throughactivitieswhich leadto an
whichthe language
of the devices
understanding
employs.Of the two,
exposureis themoreimportant.
For this reason,readingwill play an extremelyimportantpart in the
development
of writingabilitybecause,
althoughin itselfit will not produce
goodwriters.it appears
to be an essential
pre-condition.
Readingmayof
coursebe a goalin its own right and in any caseislikely to be a more important
one thanwriting.But the two skillscanandshouldbe developed
in close
In anycase,trueunderstanding
collaboration.
of a text- anytypeof text
rangingfrom an informalletterto the formalexpositionof somehighlyfactual
topic- dependson an appreciation
of the deviceswhichthe writer has
employedin orderto conveyhismeaningthroughthe mediumof writing.This
is an importantsteptorvards
appreciation
effectivewriting.
it is not enoughto focusattentionon those
To developthisunderstanding
bitsof informationwhichthe readercaneasilyretrievefrom the text at a
levelof understanding.
Thistypeof activitymay be a useful
superficial
for
certain
kinds
expedient
of oraipractice,
but it doesnot significantlv
helpthe
how the rvriteris gettinghismeaningacross,and
learnersto understand
therefore.in the longrun, doesnot contributegreatlyto readingefficiency.
We
needto getthemto examinethe textat a muchdeeperlevel.In time it is hoped
that theyrvillbeginto do thismoreor iessintuitively.
of horvtextscanbe dealtwith for thispurposeareqiven
Two examples
on the nextpage.
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GK I L L S
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N S
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Personal
communicatiot-t
T h e f i r s te x a m p l eu ' e s h a l l e x a r n i nies a l e t t e r .T h e t e x t i s a p i e c eo f p e r s o n a l
communication:the u'riter knou'Shis readerand u'e may assumethat he had
to l-rimdirectly (for example,
reasonsfor n,ritirtgto him. ratherthzrnspeaAirig
on thephone).
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What,then,arethe kindsof thingwe cando in orderto getthe learnersto
approachis
A possible
look at thisletterasa pieceof personalcommunication?
outlinedhere.
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LEABNING
T O U S ET H ER E S O U R C EOSFT H EW R I T T E N
LANGUAGE
(a) Whatis the writer'spurpose?
That is, we wantthe students
to decidewhy Nick is writingto Mike. If they
canrecognise
thatNick is apologising
andgivinghis reasons(or excuses!)
for not doingsomething,
thentheyhaveidintinio ttreoverall
communicative
purposeof the letter.In thiscaseit is fairlyobvious,but in
othercontextsit maybe harderto elucidate.
The point or tne activityis to
demonstrate
thatunderstanding
the writer'scommunicative
purpos.i, un
essential
part of understanding
the text.
(b) How doesthe writerachievehispurpose?
Here we getthestudents
to considersomeof the waysin whichthe writer
doesthis. For example,how doeshe apologi.se?
How doeshe try to assure
Mike that he intendedto cometo hispartyi Ho* doeshe assurehim
that
he tried to get in touchwith him? whar is the significanceof: well, I
couldn't refuse,could I? andI know you needeimy record.s?
why doeshe
mentionthat he had sucha boringeveninghimself?It is throughquestions
of this kind that w: canbeginto get the studentsto understandwhy
the
writerwrotecertainthingsandexpressed
themin a certainway.
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(c) How doesthe writerestablishand maintaincontactwith hisreader?
Herewe cangetthe students
to look bothat the language
in generalandat
particularexpressions
to draw their attentionto the waysin whichhe does
this. In this letterit is donepartly throughthe informalstyle,which
reflects
certainfeaturesof conversational
English(for example,the useof
contractedformssuchaswasn't,couldn'tand ellipsis:sorry I wasn,t
able)
and partly throughappealingto his readerdirectly with: well, I couldn,t
refuse,could I? andI hopeyou,ll understand..
(d) what typicalfeaturesof written English are therein the text?
Herewe will getthe students
to look at featuressuchaslinkingdevices,
sentence
structureandinter-sentence
structure.while we wouldnot
expectto find a greatmanvsamples
withinthe contextof an informalletter
suchasthis(thethird sentence
provicles
the bestexample.with cohesion
throughthe useof the pronounhe andthe structureof the sentence
itself),
we want them to appreciatethatthisis not speechwrittend.own,horvever
informalthe stylemay be and horvevermuchit reflectscertainfeatures
of
conversational
English.To reinforcethispoint,we mightgetthemto
transformthe letterinto a conversation,
which,event[ough it is
hypothetical,
will underlinethe differences
betweenthe two mediumsof
communication.
A conversation
betweenNick andMike mighthavegone
something
like this:
Nrcr: Look, Mike. I'm terriblvsorryI couldn'tgetto your party
...
Irrrp: Yeah . . . why didn'tyou phone?
N l c x : W e l l ,I d i d t r y . . . I j u s tc o u l d n 'gt e tt h r o u g h. . .
Irrre: Sowhathappened,
then?
Nrcx: well, just at the lastminute. . . I rvasjust aboutto leavein fact . . .
and the phonerangand.ri'ell.I've got thisfrienclin Teheran.vou
see,and...(etc.l
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GK I L L s
T E A C H I NW
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Finally, we might get the studentsto comparethis letter with a formal note
of apology.suchas this:
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to w h i ch yo u so kindly invited me, due to
Flease
ci rcu msta n ce s beyond-my contr ol.
accept my sincere aPologies.
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in whichsucha
We mightalsoaskthemto considerthe circumstances
notemighthavebeenwrittenandwhy. unlikeNick' the writerdoesnot go
for hisnot goingto the party'
into the reasons
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Non-personai
communication
For our secondexample,u'e shalllook at a pieceof expositorywriting.* Unlike
the text in7.1..i, it is not addressedto a personknown to the writer'
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E l e c t r i c i tiys t h e m o s tu s e f u fl o r m o f e n e r g yt h e r ei s .l t i s e a s yt o
p r o d u c e ; ' ci ta nb et r a n s m i t t eodv e rl o n gd i s t a n c e si t; i s c l e a nt o u s e
. b o v ea l l ,i t i s c o n v e n i e n t '
a n d i t h a sn o s m e l l A
p
T h e e l e c t r i c i t y r o d u c e db y n a t u r e- l i g h t n i n g i s a d i f f e r e n t
k i n do f e l e c t r i c i tfyr o m t h a tw h i c hf l o w st h r o u g ha n e l e c t r i cl i g h t
b u l b .l t i s c a l l e ds t a t i ce l e c t r i c i t yb,e c a u s ei t e x e r t sa f o r c ew h i c h i s
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b u l bg l o w u n t i lb u l ba n db a t t e r ya r el i n k e db y w i r e st h r o u g hw h i c h
t h e e i e c t r i c i t cy a nf l o w .T h i sk i n do f e l e c t r i c i tiys o f t e nc a l l e dc u r r e n t
e l e c t r i c i t yt H
; ew i r e ' c h a n n e l ' t h r o u gwhh i c hi t f l o w si s k n o w na s t h e
c i r c ui t .
This kind of textis clearlyverydifferentfrom the onein2.1.1.As we have
anyonein particular,at leastnot anyone
noted,the writeris not addressing
thathe hassomesorto.f
However,we mustassume
knownto him personally.
readerinmind. andthatthisis relevantto thewayhe writes.We mightbegin.
to identifywhatsortof personthisis. If
therefore,by tryingto getthestudents
somebasic
we examinethe text.we findthatthewriteris presenting
then,
The readerhe is addressing,
informationon rhesubjectof electricity.
who knowslittle
someone
whomhe keepsin mindthroughout,is presumably
goal,is to
or nothingaboutthesubject.andhispurpose,hiscommunicative
inform him of somebasicfacts.
thewriter'sintention.we mightthengetthe students
Havingestablished
thesebasicfactsto the reader.We
to considerhowhe goesaboutpresenting
in a generalway,on the basisof their
couldbeginby invitingthemto consider,
whatwe normallydo in a situationlike thiswhenwe wantto get
experience.
* F r o m T h e S a m p s o nL o u ' G r e a tW o r l d E n c - v c l o p a e d(i1a9 7 5 ) '
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LEARNING
TO USETHERESOURCES
OFTHEWRITTENLANGUAGE
acrosssomeinformationto a personwho is unfamiliarwith the subiect.
wouldbe:
to askthe students
Someusefulquestions
- How importantis it to sequence
the variouspiecesof information?(What
for example,if thevariouspiecesof informationarejumbledup?)
happens,
- How doesit helpto compareandcontraslcertainitems?
-
What is the purposeof.giving examples?
-
How importantis it to definenew termsand how do we do it?
We canthen movefrom the generalexperienceof the studentsto an
examinationof the text itself.At this stagesomeusefulquestionsto askwould
be:
- How hasthe writersequenced
hisinformation?
-
onepieceof informationfrom another?(How hashe
Hai he separated
doneit?)
L-
-
(How do thesehelpthe reader
or contrasts?
Hashe madeanycomparisons
the subjectmatter?)
to understand
-
Hashe definedanyterms?(Horvhashe doneit?)
L.
of the text alongtheselinesshouldhelpthe students
Our examination
to see,in
that
the
structuring
the
paragraphs
particular,
of
secondand third
is quite
deliberate:the writermighthavegoneaboutit in a differentway but whathe
choseto do wasto dealfirstwith one type of electricityand then with another,
the two kindsandsupporting
eachwith examples.
contrasting
We candraw attentionto the overallstructureof the text throughsome
analysis.
For example:
sort of diagrammatic
U
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f
f-"
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l-
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B
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tr
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Paral: Introductorystatementaboutthe valueof electricity
Supporting
statements
asexamples
of its value
Para2: First typeof electricitycontrastedwith the second
Definitionof term
Example
Para3: Secondtypeof electricity
Example
Delinitionof terms
not only
to appreciate
Evena simplebreakdownlike thisrvillhelpthe students
structttrebut alsothat it is this structure,
that the text hasan identifiable
rvhichit is realised,that enablesthe writer
with
the
language
through
together
with hisreader.
effectively
to communicate
to look at someof the linguisticdevices
Finally.we cangetthe students
whichthe ivriterhasused.Someof theseserveto unifythe text,whileothers
structureoutlinedabove.Thesedevicesare
realisethe organisational
examinedin greaterdetailin2.2.2.Here,however,we mightnotethe variety
to the reader.
of waysin whichthe writer presentshis examples
statements.
Purul: He usesa seriesof supporting
Paru2: He makesa directappealto the readerto carryout a simple
experiment.
Pura3: He providesa concreteexample.
IJ
r Lnvt
_-E
rllru
_4
suchas Theotltar
We shouldalsonotehorvireunifieshistextthroughdevices
kind of . . . Thiskind of . . . andthroughthe useof the pronounform ir
*'ith repetitionof the keylexicalttentelectricitt'.
alternated
y
_1
+
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F
I. L,J
Pedagogical
implications
2.2
The resourcesof
the written
language
-t+
of textsalongtheselinesrvillb,yitsef enable
We cannotpretendthatanall,sis
through
Thiscanonlybe achieved
the studentito learnto u,riteeffectively.
practice'
backedup by appropriate
to thervrittenlanguage
exposure
adequate
writing'
of
medium
the
oneselfthrough
But, giventhe problemsof expressing
through
of howwe communicate
it wouldseemthat someexplicitexamination
to
it
serves
part of theprogramme'In particular,
writingis an indispensable
makeihe studentsawarethatanypieceof writingis an attemptto communicate
something:thatthewriter hasa goalor purposein mind; thathe hasto establislt
and maintaincontactv,ith hisreader;thathe ltasto organisehismaterialand that
devices.
he doesthisthroughtheuseof certainlogicalandgramn"tatical
We shallof coursehaveto examinea greatmanydifferentkindsof writing
of textsalongtheselineswouldbe an
that the analt,sis
andit is assumed
ongoingactivity.carriedout at differentlevelsof difficultyat differentstagesof
we shallhaveto usethe students'mother
In the earlystages
the"pro"grarn.n..
theymaymissthe finerpointsof the
tongu.ior thispurpose.otherrvise
Lateron, we shallalsowantto refineour two typesof writingand
analysis.
differentkindsof letters"reports.narrativetextsandsoon'
.rtublirh sub-types:
in
whichhasbeendrawn- betweenthosesituations
But the basicdistinction
he knowsandthosein whichhe is
someone
whichthe writeris addressing
writing in somekind of institutionalcapacity- is a fundamentalone. Each
writingskillsand
type oTwritinghasits ownvalue,bothin termsof developing
for the learnersPersonallY.
this shouldnot be
Whenwe speakof the u,rittenlanguageandits resources,
takento imply that we candraw anysharpdividingline betweenthe language
usedin writing.Rather,we havetwo
usedin speechandthe language
forms,embodied,at the levelof phonologyand
but interrelated
independent
the writtenforms
in two differentmediums.Both thespoken.and
graphology.
its grammarand
of thelanguage,
can drawon the samelinguisticresources
lexis,but the extentto whichthey drawon Somelesourcesratherthan on
othersrelateslargelyto the natureof the two channels:speechasthe languaee
writingasthe wayof makingcontactat a
of immediatecommunication;
distance.
clauses
suchasnon-restrictive
structure,
Thus,certaintypesof sentence
quite
(for example:Thistypeof clause,whichis rarelyheardin speech,is
commonin writing)aremoretypicalof the rvrittenlanguage,butthey may
clauses,
However,to takethe exampleof non-restrictive
occurin speech.
For example:
constructions.
speechhasits ownwavof handlingparenthetic
quite
commonin
is
ilrit ryp, of clause you don'toftenhearit in speech
writing.
logical
andthoseusedto express
devices
Similarly,mostsentence-linking
of
nature
of
the
but, because
relationships
alsooccurin thespokenlanguage
thel'
of interaction),
of the listener,the possibility
the channel(theimmediacy
for the construction
arelessfrequentthanin u,riting,wheretheyareessential
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LEARNING
TO USETHERESOURCES
OFTHEWRITTENLANGUAGE
tr
r_f-
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of a textwhichhasto be understood
withoutfurtherhelpfrom thewriter.
In general,therefore,it canbe saidthatour purposein selecting
certain
typesof sentencestructureratherthan othersund in makinggreateruse
of
linkingandotherdevices
is determined
by the needto makeihe meaningof the
text asexplicitaspossible.Thusin speechan utterancesuchas:
Johnmay go.
.1
L_-
r_r_-_
r_
-I
is clear.In writing, however,we may haveto usea differentkind of modal
construction
whichdoesnot dependon intonation.For example:
,.-
l--t-
Thereis a possibilitythat Johnwill go.
L_U
Similarly,in speech:
D.I
John didit.
+-;
g
I_.-
is clear,but in writingwe canhelpour readerby usingan alternative
construction
suchas:
It wasJohnwho did it.
U
L-
In the writtenform of the language,
then,thereis greaterrelianceon the
structuralelementsaloneandthis,togetherwith the time the writer hasfor
organising
histext,accounts
for thehighi:rfrequencyof certainstructures.
r-{
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2.2.1
Graphological
resources
Theseincludespelling,punctuationand other deviceswhich the written
language
makesuseof in orderto conveypatternsof meaning.Thissectionis
not intendedto providea spellingor punctuationguidebut ratherto assess
the
valueof thesefeaturesaspart of the resources
of the written form of the
languageandthereforetheir relativeimportancein a writing programme.
(a) Spelling
Nlasteryof the writing systemincludesthe ability to spell.However,
because
in Englishthe relationship
betweensoundandsymbolis a
complexone,* spellingis a problemfor manyusersof the language,
native
and non-native
speakers
alike,andmostof usareoblieedto consulta
dictionaryfrom time to time.while we do not wantto-encourase
the
learnersto be indifferenttowardsspelling,we shouldacknowledge
that
mis-spelling
rarelyinterferes
- in fact,English
with communication
spellingwasnot standardised
until the eighteenth
century- anymore
than,on a phonemiclevel,mistakes
of pronunciation
greatlyafiect
intelligibility.
It is inappropriate,
therefore.in a writingprogramme,to adopttoo
prescriptive
an attitudetowardsspelling.Thistendsto be encouraged
by
\
the factthatwritingis opento inspection
andis usedin testsand
examinations.Responsibility
for ensuring an adequatemastervof spelling
shouldbe dividedbetweenthe teacherandthe learner:it is the teacher's
responsibility
to provideguidance
in key areas,throughrules,since
Englishspellingis by no meansunsvstematic
and muchhelpcanbe givenin
*There are forty-four
phonemesin Englishand trventy-sixlettersof the alphabet. In the
orthographics)'stt-m'lettc-rsare combineclto form different symbols(e.g. n and ng) while
some
s v m t r o l sc l od o u b l cd u r v ( c . g .- ] , r e p r e s c n b
t so t h t h c r i l a n dl i l p h o n c m e s ) i
15
E
GK I L L S
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N S
-.d
this way, rvhileit is the learner'stask to consulta dictionarvfor guidancc'
This habit rvill be greatlyencouragedbv dran'ingattentiorlto mistakes
rather thancorrectirlgthem (seeChapter10). On the whole. however.
spellingefficiencyand irnprovententis likely to relateto reading(i.e. the
the importanceof readinc
amount of exposure)and this againemphasises
in developingwriting abilitY.
(b\ Purtctuatiot"t
!z
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Except in a few areas.the conventionsgoverningthe use of the visual
devicesknown as punctuationare fairly well established,although
P
to the sameextent as spelling.
punctuationhasneverbeen standardised
ltz
Attitudes, therefore,tend to be fairly prescriptive,extendingeven into
the
that
is
this
of
areaswhere variationin usageis tolerated.The result
-ts
learnersare inclinedto treat punctuationas somethingthat can be done
'extra' rather than as an essentialpart of the writing
mechanicallyand as an
-ts
system.
valueof punctuation needstobe demonstrated-!l.J
The cornrnunicatit,e
For example,it is preciselybecausethe readerexpectssentence
-!'J
boundariesto be marked (with a capitalletter at the start and a full stop, or
Someequivalentdevice,at the close)and becausehe expectsquestionsto
t-d
symbol
of
this
presence
l
the
though
even
mark,
question
a
with
signalled
be
FJ
igncired.
be
cannot
conventions
*uy b. redundantin most cases,that these
Similarly,at a higherlevel, the readerexpectsto have paragraphsmarked FJ
for him, normally by findingthe openingsentenceindentedand the rest of - ' I
E
the line after the last sentenceleft blank. These conventionstell him that
other
the
i
On
together.
taken
to
be
sentences
of
this
set
the writer intends
.J
l-r
great
hand, with devicessuchaScommasand semi-colons,there is
I
variationboth in how they are usedand the extentto which they are used' ;r
and this should be freely acknowledged.We should also admit that there
J
are areasof difficulty for most of us, such as the use of hyphensin
Fcompoundnouns.where recourseto a dictionaryis the only solution'
>-a
In the areaof punctuation.then, we can besthelp the studentsif we
provide them with guidancethat is not too rigidly prescriptive,and at the
Sametime encouragethem to considerthe effect on the reader if, for
:
Likewise.
>z
example, sentenceand paragraphboundariesare not marked.
I
'too long', we
.)
insteadof criticisinga sentenceor a paragraphfor being
>.d
might ask them to considerwhetherit placesa strainon the readerin any -)
*uy. So-. punctuation devicesadmittedly call for a cautioususe (for
>-r I
is
no
there
here
and
dashes)
and
marks
exclamation
of
use
the
example,
)
harmln telling our studentsto usethem sparingly.On the other hand, it
=
would be wrong to deny the learnersan expedientsuchas underlining
equivalent
the
this
is
since
emphasis,
special
for
call
that
phrasis
words or
.)
of italicisationin Print.
-J
-,-J
Lu
Fl
(c) Other graphologicalresources
Other graphologicalresourceswhich form part of the wide rangeof devices:
availableto us in the writing systemincludethe useof headings,footnotes.
=
tablesof contentsand indexes.Thesewill not be relevantto all our
>J
students.but at leastthev shouldbe awarethat a headingenablesthe
)
t6
=
T
=
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LEARNING
T O U S ET H ER E S O U R C EOSFT H EW R I T T E N
LANGUAGE
.-4tt'
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writer to givehis readersomeadvancenoticeof what to expect,while a
pieceof informationfrom
footnoteenableshim to extracta supplementary
the text andstillmakeit accessible
to the reader.
2.2.2
Rhetorical
resources
This term is usedto refer to all the deviceswhich are neededin writing in order
to producea text in whichthe sentences
are organisedinto a coherentwhole,in
sucha way that they fulfil the writer'scommunicativepurpose.This sectionis
intendedto providea brief surveyof theseresources.A more detailedlist,
togetherwith examples,is givenin the Appendix.
Rhetoricaldevicesare lookedat hereunderthree headingslogical,
srammaticalandlexical.
( a ) Logical devices
Logicaldevicesarewordsor phraseswhich indicatemeaningrelationships
Theseincludethoseof addition,comparison,
betweenor withinsentences.
and so on (someof thesewe havealready
contrast,result,exemplification
looked atin2.2.2). It is throughdevicessuchasthesethat the.writeris able
to organisehis ideasand to help his readerfollow him from one sentenceto
another.
To expressaddition,we may, for example,usethe co-ordinatorand,
but other devicesare availableto u's,suchas/urthermore,moreover,
in addition(to . . .), whatis more,etc. The appropriateuseof one
besides,
are intendedto be taken
of thesedevicestellsthe readerthat two sentences
together.For example:
The publiclibraryhas21,000bookswhichcanbe takenout on
loan. In addition,thereis a referencesectionof over 6,000
volumes.
Similarlywith the relationshipof contrast:this may be signalledthrough
the co-ordinarorbut or by usinghowever,yet, while,on theotherhand, etc.
above):
For example(to continuethe sequence
. . . In additionthereis a referencesectionof over 6,000volumes.
Many of the booksin this section,however,are not kept on the
shelvesand are only availableto the publicon request.
Throughthe useof howeverthe writer hassignalleda differencebetween
the part of the librarywhichcontainsthe booksthat canbe borrowed(and
section,wheresomebooksarestored
andthe reference
areon the shelves)
separately.
We haveseenin 2.l.2how importantthesedevicesarein presenting
ideasso that the text hasa clearstructure.This helpsthe readerto follow
the writer'sthought.In certaintypesof text, it would be extremelydifficblt
to organisethe contenteffectivelywithout the appropriateuseof devices
for enumeration(first(ly), in thefirst place,second(ly). . . finally, lastof all,
etc.) and for summarising(in short,on thewhole,etc.).
L.J
L.
tr
l:
LJ
L.
r
1-
( b ) Grammaticaldevices
by
of a text arethe linksestablished
Equallyimportantfor the cohesion
devices.
suchasthose,for example,whichsignal
certaingrammatical
17
l\J
ll
.G
(or anaphora).
bv meansof.back referettce
relationshipsbetrveensentences
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a il n s t a n c eos f t h i st y p e o f l i n k i n gi n t h e t e x t i n 2 . I . 2 . F o r
example:
-E=
.
-F
.
tz
Elefiricitf is the mostusefulform of energvthereis.
F
can be transmittedover lone distances(etc.).
->
is establishedthrough the use of
Here the link betweenthe sentences
the pronominal form it. The examinationof almost any text will reveal that
this is an extremely common way of binding sentencestogether and giving
a text cohesion.It is not a device,however,whosevalue is immediately
appreciatedby non-nativeusersof the language.
Back referencebinding two sentencestogether may also be effected
by means of.a deictic,suchas a demonstrativeadjectiveor pronoun or an
article.For example,in (a) abovewe had:
In addition, there is a referencesectionof over 6,000volumes.Many
of thebooksindfriE6ilon.however.. . .
v
v
.-J
.
P
v
F
-
.
v
In thetextin 2.7.2wehad:
.
>
'willcharsethe comb
.
>z
with staticelectricitv.
-1
one.
Tftls links the secondsentencewith the whole of the preceding
F
Compare,for example:
.F
Go to the relerencesectlon.
need.
I
is whereyou will find the booksyou
I
Ld
I
lz
the
Here the link throughthists only with part of the precedingsentence:
referencesection
The text in 2.1.2alsoprovidesan exampleof the anaphoricuseof.the.
I
)-z
-1
v
-1
)1
-1
Rub
with staticelectricity.
lJ
-1
I.J
Here the use of.thesignalsto the readerthat the writer is referringto the
combmentionedin theprevioussentence.
arefrequentlylinkedthrougha
Finally.we shouldnotethat sentences
phrase
for
example,
by placinga word or phrase
word
or
order:
changeof
in the front positionin the sentence:
I
]-t
I
F
-1
La
1
Go to the referencelibrary.
youwill findthe booksyou need.
Johnworkedin the librarvbetween1970and 1975.
library. . .
the
v
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)-l
1
Iu
-1
I-.
i8
l-.
I-.
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LEARNING
TO USETHERESOURCES
OFTHEWRITTENLANGUAGE
1-
(c) Lexicaldevices
t_-_
H
g
l_
l_
l_
l_
Almostanytextdisplaysa greatdealof cohesionon a lexicallevel.
To
someextentthismightbe felt to be inevitable,but nevertheless
thisis
anothersignificantway in whichsentences
are linked together.
Key words,for example,areoften repeated:erectriii| occursten
timesin the textinz.r.z althoughit is alsoreplacedby ir to give
grammaticalcohesion.Key itemsare alsorepeatedin differentforms:
thus,in the text in2.I.2 we havenot only electricitybut alsoelectricand
electrostatic.
Another commondeviceis the useof a synonymousword or
phrase.For instance,in the firstexamplein (a) abovewe havebooks
in the
first sentenceand volumesin the second.
l,-----
L<
L<
tr
l-Lr-
t--t-._
L_
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2.2.3
Pedagogical
implications
The pedagogical
problemswe arefacedwith in this areaare clearly
considerable.
For the mostpart, oral work will havefocusedmainiyon a
masteryof sentence
structure,whichin itselfis a formidablelearningtask,with
little or no attentionbeingpaid to the way in whichsentences
are linked or
sequenced.
In anycase,aswe haveseen,the natureof the mediumcallsfor a
differentkind of organisation,
muchmore rigorousthan in speech,so that,
evenif the learnersarefamiliar with someof thesedevic"s,they will still have
to learnhow to usethemin writing.The writingprogrammerequires,
therefore,both an extensive
understandihg
oftheseresourcesand considerable
practicein usingthem in appropriateformsof written expression.
Analysisof textscancontributesignificantlyto the learners'understanding
of thesedevices.In particular,we might note that manystudentsaresimply
noT
aware,for example,how the useof the pronominalforms and other
substitution
devices
contributeto the cohesionof a text (in theirmothertongue
the subjectpronominalformssuchashe,she, it,theymay evenbe optional
elementsin sentencestructure).The useof adverbialwordsand phiasesin the
front positionin the sentence(referredto on page1g)will probablyrequire
specialteaching,
sinceon the wholethis will havebeendiscourage
dfoi orat
production.In oralwork,it is oftena problemto get the learnersto use:There
wasa book on thetable,whereas..
on thetabletherewasa book misht be the
appropriate
form in a writtensequence
of sentences.
The logicaldevicesmayalsopresentproblemson a conceptual
level.The
learnershaveto understandnot only the semanticdifferencesbetweenone
typeof deviceandanother,but alsothe differentshadesof meaninsbetween
one item andanother,sincetheyarenot allfreelyinterchangeable,-There
is
obviouslyconsiderable
danger,therefore,in exposingthe stirdentsto too many
of thesedevicesat onetime (for example,in the form of a list).Their
introductioninto thewritingprogrammemustbe gradualandsystematic.
At
the sametime,however,sincea[ the devices
- logical,grammatical
and
lexical- occursimultaneously
in a text andsincesentenies
intendedto be \
takentogethercommonlydisplaymorethanone linkingfeature,it doesnot
seemfeasibleor evendesirableto try to dealwith thesedifferentkindsof
linkingdevices
separately.
Thisprobremis rookedat asainin 3.3.
L-
rL.
l-.-
r---!
L
tr
r9
E
GK I L L S
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N S
D is c us s i o n
1 Do you agreethat readingis an importantfitctor in leachingrvriting?
) Wtry is it important to trv to get studentsto understanda writer's
?
communicativePurPose
to pay atteutionto spellingand
Do you agreethat it is necessar)I
punctuation?
do you
i..o- your experienceof teaching(or learning)a foreign language.
(e.g. from
think that the rhetoricaldeviceslisted in2.2.2 could be picked up
reading)or need to be taughts1'stematicalll'r
Exercises
RepeatExercise2 on page 8, which you first attempted after reading
Chapter1.
of a conversationbetweenNick and
Ln2.L1 (d) you havethe beginning
how it mightcontinue.
Mike. Suggest
Readthe followingtext carefullY:
is a sourceof
for somepe-rople.
be a pleasure
Srfoking$hiclmay
S
mo ki n g ,
f ort tot@fe IIows.lFurtFe medicaI authorit i es express
seri ousdi scrc-m
theirconcernaboutthe effectof smokingon the healthlnotonljlof those
who mustinvoluntarilyinhalethe contribution
who smokelU[falsolthose
of the smokersto the atmosPhere.
numberof our students
As you are doubtlessaware,a considerable
havejoined togetherin an effortto pelsuadethe universityto ban
I believethey areentirelyright in their aim'
smokingin the classrooms.
However,I would hopethat it is possibleto achievethis by an appealto
reasonandto concernfor othersratherthanby regulation'
Smokingis prohibitedby City by-lawsin theatresandin hallsused
wheretheremay be a fire
for showingfilmsaswell aslaboratories
hazard.Elsewhere,it is up to your own goodsense.
'No Smoking'in the
I am thereforeaskingyou to maintain
andseminarroomswhereyou teach.This proof of
auditoria,classrooms
your interestfor their healthandwell-beingis very importantto a large
numberof our students.
hasbeenindicatedby meansof a circle
backreference
In the firstparagraph,
havebeenboxed.Mark the restof the
andan u.ro*. Otherlinkingdevices
text in the samewaY.
E.,1
EFz
F
F.'
Fd
.-'
F.<
'-'
F
_z
F
EF
F
-trt
.)
-FJt
)
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2
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2
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References
of a text, seeA Daviesand
1 On the importanceof teachingcomprehension
H G Widdowsonin J P B Allen andS Pit Corder(1974)Readingand
Writing.
2 Ontp"lling, seeJ Pealcein P Doughty,J Pearceand G Thornton(1972)
SpoienondWritt,z.For spellingrules,seeR A Close(1975)andE Abbott
( 1e7e).
seeR Quirk et al (1972)andR A Close(1975).
3 On punctuation,
of the writtenlanguage,seeA Tadrosin
4 On ihe rhetoricalresources
D L Bouchardand L J Spaventa(1980)andV Horn (1972).The divisioninto
givenby Tadros.
andlexicalis basedon the description
logical,grammatical
seeR Quirk (1912)Sentence
of cohesion.
treatments
For moreextensive
C o n n e cri oann dM A K HallidayandR Hasan( 1916) .
y
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2
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F
/
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2
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2
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)
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)
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3.1
Approachesto
teaching writing
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Focuson accuracy
Attemptsto teachrvriting- sincethe time whenstudentsweremerelygivena
topicof somekind and askedto producea 'composition'
withoutfurtherhelp
- haveusuallyfocusedon someparticularproblematical
aspectof thervriting
situation.Somekey approaches
areexaminedbelow.
Mistakesshowup in rvrittenrvork(especiallv
sincethisis usualli,'subject
to
rigorous'correction')
andnot unnaturally
cometo be regardedasa major
21
.iE
GK I L L S
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N S
p r o b l e m .I t w a s a s s u m e dt h a t s t u d e n t sm a d em i s t a k e sb e c a u s et h c y w e r e
approachcsherve
allowedto rvriterl'hatr/ro,u'anted.and accuracy-oriented
thereforestressedthe importanceof control in order to eliminatethem from
w r i t t e n w o r k . S t u d e n t sa r e t a u g h th o w t o u ' r i t ea n d c o m b i n ev a r i o u ss e n t c n c e
gil'e them thc
like the one belorvarc usedtc-r
typesand manipulationexercises
experienceof u'riting connectedsentences.
A ( 1 )m a n ( 2 ) w a l k e d( 3 )d o w nt h e s t r e e tA' ( 4 )g i r l ( 5 ) w a sw a i t i n gf o r
sh
, es m i l e d( 7 ) a n ds a i d '
h i m o u t s i d ea ( 6 )s h o p .A s h e a p p r o a c h e d
' H e l l oH
. o wa r ey o u ? '
( 1 ) t a l l ,y o u n g ,w e l l - d r e s s e d
( 2 ) w i t h a b e a r d i,n a b l a c kh a t ,w i t h s u n g l a s s e s
( 3 ) r a p i d l yh, u r r i e d l yi m
, patiently
( 4 ) p r e t t y f, a i r - h a i r e dd,a r k - s k i n n e d
( 5 ) i n h i g h - l r e e l esdh o e sw
, i t h a n u m b r e l l ai ,n a p i n kh a t
g
r
o
c
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s
,
(6) chemist's,
bicYcle
( 7 ) p l e a s a n t l ya,t t r a c t i v e l yi n, a f r i e n d l ym a n n e r
areaskedtq
Graduallythe amountof controlis reducedandthe students
choice(in the exampleabovetheydo not haveto think
meaningful
exercise
At a stilllaterstage.theyma1'begivena
andtheycannotmakemistakes).
andcontent.but allowedsome
with larrguage
gooddealof guidance
for self-expression.
6pportunities
wasverymucha productof the audioapproach
Thiscontrolled-to-free
learningandformal
lingualperiod,with its emphisison step-by-step
werecarefullythoughtout and.althoughno
Many suchschemes
correctness.
theyproducedmanyusefulideason howto guidewriting.
longerfashionable,
3.1.2
Focuson fluency
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In contrast,thisapproach
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feel
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importantthingis to getone'sideasdownon paper.ln
'exercises'
of somekind; thev
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Y
(see4.1),it drau's
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write badl'v'
attentionto certainpointswe needto keepin mind.Many students
i
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because
theydo not u'riteenoughandfor the samereasontheyfeelinhibited
rvhentheirpick up a pen.Mostof uswritelesswell if we areobligettto write
E
a b o u tso me th i n s'Afluenc1' - appr oach.per hapschannelledintos om ethi ngl i
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keepinga diary.canbe a usefulantidote.
3.1.3
Focuson text
E
asthe basicunit of
T-hisapproachstresses
of the paragraph
theimportance
writtenexpression
andis thereforemainlyconcernedtoteachstudentshow to
F
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P
combination.
suih us'
- formingparagraphs
from jumbledsentences,
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- writingparallelparagraphs;
>a
---- developing
(withor withoutcues)
paragraphs
from topicsentences
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Onceagainthis approachidentifiesand triesto overcomeone of the central
problemsin writing: gettingstudentsto expressthemselves
effectivelyat a level
beyondthe sentence.
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Focuson purpose
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3.2
The state of the
art
In real life, aswe haveseen,we normallyhavea reasonfor writing and we
write to or for somebody
. Thesearefactorswhich haveoften beenneglectedin
teachingand practisingwriting. Yet it is easyto devisesituationswhich allow
studentsto write purposefully:for example,they canwrite to one anotherin
the classroomor usewriting in roleplaysituations.
Although, like fluencywriting,this approachdoesnot solvespecific
problemswhichstudentshavewhenhandlingthe rvrittenlanguage,it does
motivatethem to write and showshow writins is a form of communication.
Althoughsomewriting schemes
andprogrammeshavetendedto rely largelyor
exclusivelyon one or other of theseapproaches,
in practicemost teachersand
textbookwritershavedrawnon morethan one and havecombinedand
modifiedthem to suit their purpose.
In recentyearsclassroommethodologyhasbeenheavilyinfluencedby the
communicative
approach,with its emphasis
on task-orientedactivitiesthat
involve,wherepossible,the exchange
information
of
and the free useof
language,without undueconcernfor mistakes.Receptiveskillsare alsogiven
more prominenceand studentsareexposedto a wide rangeof spokenand
written language.A gooddealof recommended
writing practicedirectly
reflectsthe main concernsof this approach,althoughin practiceboth teachers
and textbookwritersdealwith the classroomsituationpragmaticallyand
thereforeretaina gooddealof controlledpractice.In general,however,
attentionis paid to motivationand thereis usuallysomeroom for selfiven at the lowerlevels,asthe .*u*iI., on page24 show.
expression,
No lessinterestingand significantare someof the 'sideeffects'of the
communicative
approach.For example:
- Students
getmoreopportunities
to read(andalsoto readmoreinteresting
andnaturallywrittentexts)andthiskind of exposureto the written
language
is beneficialtowriting.
- Both listeningandreadingmaterialhave
relatedactivities(see6.3.1),many
of whichleadto incidentalwritingof a naturalkind, suchasnote-taking.
This in turn canleadon to furtherwriting, suchasusingthe notesto write a
report.The factualnatureof muchreadingand listeningmaterialis also
usefulfor relatedwritingactivities.
- Learnersareencouraged
to interactandthe activitiesrequiredfor thisoften
involvewriting(e.g.questionnaires,
quizzes,
etc.).Many of theseactivities
'fun',
involvean elementof
sothatstudents
oftenenjoywriting(without
perhapsrealisingit).
- Students
areencouraged
to work togetherin pairsandgroupsandto share
writingtasks.Thisremovesthefeelingof isolationwhichbothersmany
learners.
In spiteof these.advances,
however.rvritingskillsarestillrelativelyneglected
in manycourses.
Objectives
arerarelyspeltout asclearlyastheyarefor oral
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for
\ \ , r i r t e na b i l i t y .I t i s l i k e l l ' .t h e r e f o r e t. h a t n t a n yt e a c h e r s r v i rl l e e dt o l o o k
w a v so f s u p p l e m e n t i n tgh ei r c o u r s c b o o k isf t h c t ' \ \ ' a n t h ei r s t u d e n t st o b c c o t ' n e
p r ; f i c i c n t i J w r i t i n g .T h i s . i n a n v c a s e .r v i l l a l u ' a v sb e n e c e s s l l r va.s w i t h o r a l
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3.3
The roleof
g u i d a nce
with whichthe studentsarefacedin learning
In viewof the manydifficulties
principleof guidingthemin
the fundamental
how to write a foreignlanguage.
variouswaystowardsa mastervof writingskills,andsometimes
controlling
we
what theywrite, is not one canlightlydismiss,evenif the principlehasto
(for example,in tryingto eliminatemistakes).
someextentbeenmisapplied
we
consider
more
carefullywhat kind of guidancewe should
Rather, should
givethem,particularlyin relationto the variousproblemstheyhavewhen
w r i t i n g( s e e1. 4 ) .
On a linguisticlevel,sinceour aim is to developtheir abilityto writea text,
andthereforeof providingguidance,
one way of helpingthe students.
is by
practice,
evenin the early stages.While
usfngthetextasour basicformotfor
practice,whichmay be necessary
thisdoesnot rule out somesortof sentence
for the mastervof certaintypesof compoundandcomplexsentence
structure,
bestpractisedthroughwritingbecausethey are mostcommonlyusedin writing
(see4.4),we do not needto buildinto the writingprogrammea step-by-step
practiceto
approachwhichwill take the learnersin easystagesfrom sentence
the productionof a text. With the text asour basicformat for practice,we can
- logical,grammatical
all the rhetoricaldevices
teachwithinits framervork
and lexical- whichthe learnersneedto master.While we mustbe carefulnot
at anyonetime (see2.2.3),there
to overwhelmthemwith too manydifficulties
justification
is no apparent
for attemptirlgto separatefeaturesof the written
whichgo naturallytogether.
language
By usingtexts(lettersandreports,for example- evendialogues
in the
asour basicpracticeformat,ratherthansomeotherunit suchas
earlystages)
we canmakewritingactivitiesmuchmore
or eventhe paragraph,
the sentence
andtherebyincrease
theirmotivationto writewell.
meaningfulfor the students
The text providesctsettirtgvvithinwhichtheycanpractise,for example,sentence
combination.
paragraphconstruction,
etc.in relationto
completion,sentence
lo-ngerstretchesof discourse.In thisway they canseenot only why they are
ryritingbut alsolvrite in a mannerappropriateto thecommttnicative
goal of the
text.
This,then.is onewavof helpingthe learners:by makingwritingtasks
purposeinsteadof askingthem
by relatingpracticeto a specific
morerealistic,
to writesimplyfor the sakeof rvriting.In orderto find our contextsfor rvritten
for integrating
work, we shallalsoneedto exploreopportunities
it effectively
activities
involvinqnot only readingbut alsospeakingand
with otherclassroom
to the levelof exercises
partlvbecause
listening.Writingtendsto getrelegated
to the lessonratherthanasa rvorthwhile
learning
it is treatedasa compendium
activityin itself.Whileit is convenient,
(see1.6(d)),
aswe haveacknowledged
to be ableto setrvrittenrvorkashomeworkandwhilewritingmay not come
very highon the listof priorities.thisdoesnot meanthat it cannottakeits place
of learningactivities.
aspartof a naturalsequence
A lvritingactil'ity,for example.canderivein a naturalrvayfrom some
prior activitysuchasil conversation
or somethingread.As in reallife. it canbe
of a certainsituation.We seean advertisement
for a job, for
the consequence
We talk aboutit andperhapsphoneup about
example,whichinvolvesrentlirtg.
andlisrening.
We thendecideto applyfor the job it. rvhichinvolves.speuking
w h i c hi n v o l v e sw r i t i r t gA. l t h o u g hp. e r h a p sw, e c a n n o ct o m p l e t e liyn t e g r a t e
(see
rvithcrut
rvithotheractivities
r.vriting
a raclical
changein materialsclesign
25
JJ
T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L 5
8.3), there is much \\1ecan do to relateit more effectivelyto other classrclom
activities:for example.b1'extendingthe contextsu'hichwe have set up for oral
work, through simplerole-playactivities,to provide a meaningfulsettingfor
writing activitiesas u,ell.In this \\'aVwe can hope to overcomeSoffleof the
difficultiesrvhichthe learnershaveu'ith role projectionfor writing tasks.
So far we have looked at guidancein terms of u'hat kind of framework
linguisticand contextual- \ /e can provide in order to make writing tasks
more purposefulrather than in termsof the actualsupportwe can give the
studentsin order to ensurethat thev completetheir taskswith reasonable
success.Sincethe major part of this book is concernedwith an explorationof
the varioustechniquesand procedureswe can use,at this stagewe shallonly
stressthat we need a v,holerangeof techniques.each appropriate to specific
goalsand needs.Variety is important,as in oral work. This is essentialfor the
sakeof interest:the learnersget bored if they are constantlyaskedto perform
the sametype of task. But anothersignificantfactor is that certaintechniques
are effectivefor developingparticularwritin-eskiils.For example.texts (read
or heard) provide the right sort of contextfor note-taking:they nct only lead
on to meaningfulwriting tasksbut alsoprovide a model for the kind of writing
expected.Visual material.on the other hand. properly used (seeChapter 7)
providesa more open-endedframeworkfor writing activitiesof different kinds
at different levels,but it is lesssuitedfor elementarywriting activitiesthan is
often assumed.Particularkinds of visualmaterial.suchas diagramsand tables,
are valuablefor developingorganisationalskills.Clearly, then, our approach
shouldbe as eclecticas possible,usingthoseforms of guidancervhichare
appropriate to different kinds of writing at different levelsof attainment.
One thing that needsspecialemphasis,however,is that guidanceneed not
- indeedshouldnot - imply tight control over what the learnerswrite. If . for
example,we acceptthat errorsin speechare not only inevitablebut are also a
natural part of learninga language,then we shouldacceptthat they will occur,
and to some extent shouldbe allowedto occur,in writing too. Unlessthe
learnersare giveri opportunitiesto write what theywant to write, they will
never learn this skill. As in speech,when we provide opportunitiesfor free
expression,errorswill occur,but this is a situationwhich we must accept.
Perhapsit is largely out attitudetowards theseerrors that is wrong: because
they occur in writing, we feel that they must be corrected,whereasin speech,
perhapsbecauseit is more transient,we are inclinedto be more tolerant.
This is far from suggestingthat free expressionis the solution to learning
to write: on the contrary,the learnershave needof guidance,as they do with
oral work. They must alsobe encouragedto look criticallyat what they write
and taught to draft, corlect and rewrite. But sinceno approachto teaching
writing hasyet been devisedwhich will take them smoothlyfrom writing under
control to free expression.it seemsreasonableto provide someopportunities
for writing freely, even in the early stages,as we do for oral work. This will not
only enableus to seewhetherthe studentsare making any real progress;it will
also ensurethat thev become learnersrather lhan leaners.
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GENERALPRINCIPLES
FORTEACHING
WRITING
3.4
The needsof the
learners
In this sectionsomeof the mainissuesof Chapters1-3are reviewed.They are
now presentedin the form of guidelinesfor a writing programme.
(a) Teachthe learnershow to write.
The ability to write is all too often assumed,especiallyif the learnersare
mature,canwrite reasonably
well in their mothertongueand havealso
acquiredsomeproficiencyin the spokenlanguage.But oral skills- both
listeningand speaking- haveto be taught,throughappropriate
techniquesand throughappropriateformsof practice.Sincethe spoken
and written formsof the languageare not the sameand sincewriting is a
different way of communicatingfrom speech,it follows that writing skills
requirespecialteachingtoo.
(b) Provideadequateand relevantexperienceof the writtenlanguage.
We work on the principlethat oral ability requiresa firm foundationin
listeningand that the lattermustbe on a broaderbasisthan speaking.
Similarly,writing hasto be precededand accompanied
by wide exposure
to appropriatemodelsof writtenlanguage.If the learnershaveonly seen
dialoguesin their textbooksand narrativeprosein their readers,they
cannotbe expectedto produceother varietiesof the written language
appropriate,for example,to letters,orreports.
(c) Showthe learnershow thewrittenlanguagefunctions as a systemof
communication.
ExposuretoJhe writtenform of the languageby itselfis not sufficient.The
learnersalsohaveto be madeawareof how we communicatethroughthe
written mediumand how thisdiffersfrom speech.In particular,they need
to be shownthat anypieceof writing, whetheror not it is addressed
to a
specificreader,hasa communicative
purpose.They needto understand,
therefore,how the resources
of the written languageare usedto fulfil this
purpose,by establishing
andmaintainingcontactwith the readerin order
to getone's'message'
across.
(d) Teachthe learnershow to writetexts.
' '''
W. havealreadyseenthat writing, at leastin any significantform, involves
the ability to organisesentences
into a coherentwholeor text. Most
writing practiceshouldfrom the startaim to teachthosedevicesof the
written language(asidentifiedin2.2.2)which are neededto write various
typesof text. The practiceof thesedevicesshould,whereverpossible,be
goal,so
within the frameworkof a text whichhasa definitecommunicative
that the learnersseethepurposeof what they are writing. The learners
must alsobe givenopportunitiesto practiseorganisingtheir ideasto
paragraphs.
form acceptable
(e) Teachthelearnershow to writedifferentkinds of texts.
The learnerscannotbe expectedto masterall the differentvarietiesof the
written form of the language.Many of them, in any case,would not be
relevantto theirneeds,to theextentthat thesecanbe identifiedin a
writingprogramme.At thesametime,it is not enoughto try to teachthem
a kind of 'neutral'generalpurposeform of writtenexpression.
As in
27
E
T E A C H I N GW H I I I N ( j b K I L L S
-1
speech,theyhaveto someextentat leastto be ableto selectan approprlate
on *'hat theyarewritingaboutand
siyle,formalor informal,depending
andto be ableto presentthisto the readerin an
rvhomtheyareaddressing.
form. suchasa letteror a report.Althoughit cannotbe said
appropriate
rvhichthe learnershavein thisarea
ttratttrisis easy.manvof the difficulties
of the natureof thewritingtasks:for example,simplybeing
arisebecause
out of context.Also, thiskind of taskdoesnot
askedto write a paragraph
Likewise,it might
themto thinkof rvritingascommunication.
encourage
be noted,our goalshouldnot be to teachdifferentkindsof writing(suchas
andsoon) but ratherto seethat these
expository
narrative,descriptive,
withinthewidercontextof a text.For example,a lettermay
arepractised
whi l ea
theletterin2.I.1) or ' descr iption"
i n vo l veso me 'nar r ation' ( see
writing.
reportmightprovidethesettingfor someexpository
(f) Make writing tasksrealisticand relevant.
All too oftenwritingtaskslackrealityfor the learnersbecausethey do not
They are
givethemthe feelingthattheyarewritingto or for somebody.
for the benefitof the teacher,who reacts
donesolelyasa form of exercise
to themmorelike a judgethana genuinereader!The useof textsasthe
basicformatfor practice(see(d)) is onlypartof the solution.We mustalso
attemptto identifythoseformsof writingwhicharemostlikely to be
needs,suchasvarioustypesof personal
relevantto the learnerS'
(formal
communication
(notes,letters)and'institutional'
communication
them (as
contextsfor practising
classroom
letters,reports)andto establish
in 4.5 and5.5).This does
in 3.3.Thisaspectis furtherdeveloped
suggested
noi rule out the possibilityof otherkindsof writing (for example,creative
writing, suchasstories,althoughof courseat a fairly low level),provided
the motivationfor thiskind of work canbe established'
(g) Integratewriting with other skilk.
'Cinderella'of the four skills(at leastat the lower
Writing tendsto be the
to the endof the teachingunit andused
levels)andis oftenrelegated
mainlyfor homework.Thisis unlikelyto makethe learnerswantto write.
that leadnaturally
we shouldintroducewritingactivities
Wherepossible,
onto or from the useof otherskills,sothatthe learnersseewritingasa real
activity.
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andpracticeformats(h) Usea varietyof techniques
the learnersgetboredwith the sametypeof
Thisis importantbecause
and
activity(howeverworthyl).Also, aswe haveSeen,sometechniques
formatsare appropriateto certainlevels.For example,letterwriting is
especiallysuitablefor usein the earlystagesbecauseit permitsthe learners
to makesomeuseof the spokenformsof the languagewithin a new
writing
that,in termsof developing
framework.We mustalsorecognise
is.
technique
any
single
skills,we cannotbe surehow effective
(i) ProvideapproPriatesuPPort'
of guidanceandhow,
We havealreadynoted(in 3.3)the importance
in the writingprogrammein a varietyof
broadly,it canbe interpreted
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ways.It hasbeenarguedthatguidance
shouldbe temperedwith
opportunities
for freeexpression.
we shouldremember,however,that
writing tasksaregenerallyimposedand that the learnersmay not have
eitherthe relevantideas,whenthisinvolvessomecontributionon their
part, or be sufficientlystimulatedby the tasksto think of them. The
problemis furthercompoundedby their havingto work on their own.
Clearlythereare manysolutionsto this problemand they needto be
exploredin a ffexibleway. In particular,however,the useof techniques
and procedureswhichhaveprovedvaluablefor oral work, suchaspair and
group work, needto be examinedwithin the contextof the writing
programme.Thereseemsno reasonwhy, in the classroomat least,writing
needbe a solitaryactivitv.
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(j) Be sympathetic!
we haveconsideredat lengththe manyproblemsinvolvedin writing and
theseare freelyacknowledged
to prevailwhen we write in our mother
tongue,not only in a foreignlanguage.Exceptin specialised
programmes,
heavilyweightedin favourof readingand writing skills,we cannotexpect
too high a levelof proficiency.with the help of a programmewhich takes
the learners'problems
into account,we canhopeto makewritinga more
rewardingactivityfor them,both in termsof attainmentand satisfaction.
But we needto surrender
our role as'judges',exceptwhenwritingis being
testedor examined,andviewwhat the learnerswrite asattempts,however
inadequate,to communicate.
Thereis alwaysa greattemptation,perhaps
a naturalinclination,to concentrate
on what is wrongin a pieceof writing,
mainlybecause,aswe havealreadynoted,it is therefor us to readand
reread.But if we are to be truly readersratherthan judges,we should
perhapslook not so muchat what the learnershave
failed to achievebut
ratherat what they haveactuallysucceeded
in doing.
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Discussion
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whv?
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1 which of the approaches
described
in 3.1do you think is mostimportant?
I
Q What reasonsaregivenfor takingthe text asthe basicformat for practice?
. Do you agreewith thisproposal?
3 From your own experience
of teaching(or learning)the written form of a
foreignlanguage,
do you agreethatfreeexpression,
aswell aswritingunder
control,shouldbe a featureof thewritingprogramme,evenin the early
stages?
4 In the guidelines
for a writingprogrammein 3.4why arethe followingpoints
emphasised?
(a) The learnershaveto be exposedto differentvarietiesof the written form
of the language.
(b) The learnershaveto be setrealistictasks.
(c) The learners'efforts
needto be viewedsympathetically.
Do you agreewith theseviewpoints?
29
J
i
F.d
Exercises
Examineanytextbookof your ownchoosing
to seewhatkindsof guided
writingexercises
areprovided.In particular,considerwhetherthe textbook F.<
writertendsto relyon a limitedrangeof exercise
typesandwhetherhe gives - ' ll
the learnersanyopportunities
for freeexpression.
EH
Rewritethe exercise
in 3.1.1sothat a meaninsfulchoicehasto be made
F.<
from the itemsprovided.
References
For surveysof teachingwriting,andin particularthe useof guidedwriting,
seeC Bratt Paulston(1912).Also A RaimesandM SharwoodSmithin
D L BouchardandL J Spaventa(1980)andW Slagerin TheArt of TESOL
(1982).Other accounts
of teachingwritingmaybe foundin G Broughtonet
al (1978)andA Raimes(1983).For a descriptionof the 'fluency'approach
seeBriere(1966).
The controlledwritingexerciseon page22 comesfrom DH SpencerGuided
(Longman1967).
CompositionExercises
Not all the exercises
in this book
are manipulative.
For the purposeof writingthischapter,the followingcoursesweresurveyed
for writing activities:B Abbs andI FreebairnStrategies
(variouslevels) ,
(Longman);S AxbeyJourneys(Longman);J BlundellVisa(OUP);
D Bolton and L PetersonBreakaway(Nelson);J CarmichaelWayAhead
(Penguin);M Ellis andP Elhs Counterpoint
(Nelson);J HarmerMeridian
(Longman);B HartleyandP Viney Streamline
English(OUP); R O'Neill
Kernel(Longman);MPalmerandD Byrne Track(Longman);M Swanand
C Walters TheCambridgeEnglishCourse(CUP); M Vincent et al Timefor
English(Collins)andN WhitneyCheckpoint
English(OUP).
The illustrativematerialon page24comesfrom M vincent et al Timefor
English(CollinsELT 1984)top; M PalmerandD Byrne Track(Longman
1982)centreleft;J CarmichaelWay
Ahead(Penguin1985)centreright, and
J HarmerMeridian(Longman1985)bottom.
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4.1
Some basic
considerations
In the earlystagesof a languagecourse,* the principalfactorwhich affectsboth
the quantityandthe kind of writing that canbe doneis the smallamountof
languagethat the learnershaveat their disposal- languagewhich to a large
extentthey haveacquiredorally and to a lesserdegreethroughreading.
The weighting,in favourof dialogueor narrative/descriptive
type texts,
may vary from one coursebookto another,but by and largewe may assume
that at this levelpatternstypicalof the spokenlanguagehavebeenselectedand
that theseare presentedin contextsdesignedto promoteoral fluency.We
shouldalsorememberthat the actualinput of languageis likely to be fairly
slow: the studentsarelearninghow to understandand how to makethemselves
understoodthroughthe spokenmedium.This is a situationwhichwe have
alreadycontrastedwith the one in the mothertongueclassroom,when the
learnersfirstgo to school(see1.5).
One solutionto thisproblemwouldbe to delaythe introductionof writing,
at leastin any significantform, until the learnershavea muchgreatercommand
of the language,in the form of a plateauon whichwritten work couldbe much
more easilybased.However,if we adoptedthis solution,we shouldfail to
satisfyneedswhichthe learnershavein the earlystagesand whichcanbe met
th;rcughwriting: reinforcementof materiallearnedorally,varietyof activityin
the classroomand increasedcontactwith the languagethroughwork that can
be doneout of class(seei .6). Theseare goodreasonsfor introducingwriting
and it would be wrongto ignorethem. In any case,althoughwe haveto work
mainly within the limitsof languagewhichhasbeenlearnedfor oral purposes,
it is possibleto introducea smallnumberof itemsneededspecificallyfor
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*The first75-90 hoursor approximately
the firstyearof a secondary
schoolcourse.In some
countriesit is commonfor schoolchildren
to havehadsomeoreviousinstructionin the lansuage
(e.g.at a middleschoollevel)wherethefocushasbeenmainlyon oralskills.
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writtenwork. Thesewill enableusto makewritingactivities
moreinteresting
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and alsopavethewayfor moreeffectivewritingpracticeat a laterstage.
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4.1.r
The main
features
of the rvriting
programme
!d
Althoughmostwritingat thisstagewill be undercontrol,we canandshould --1
avoidmanipulative
procedures
whichdo not encourage
the learnersto think :
aboutwhattheywriteandwhichin anycasedo not helpthemto understand -_1
*
how the writtenlanguage
functions.We mustalsointroduceactivities
which,
--.-a
howeversimple,demonstrate
thatwritingcanbe usedfor the purposeof
Id
communication.
Our objectives
at thisstage,however,mustnecessarily
be
--1
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modest.
.1
The followinggoalsaresuggested:
k
(a) Writingactit'itiesshould satisfyimmediateneedsby providing the learners
Ld
with opportunities
for handling,throughthemediumof writing, language
whichtheyhavelearnedorally.
f.r
For thispurpose.it is suggested
thatwe shouldusedialoguewritingasthe I
main typeof activity.Thisis a typeof textwhichthe studentsarefamiliar
with; it providesa contextfor reinforcingandpractisingsentencestructurek- - 1
andto someextentaliowsthemto be creative.
,1
-
(b) Writingactivitiesshouldalsobeforward-lookingb1,beginningto familiarise
..2
tul
the learnerswithpatternsof languagetypicalof the writtenmedium:in
particular,someof the devicesneededfor linking and sequencing
sentences. 1
Ld
For this purpose,letter-u,ritirzg
offersa formatwhichhasmanyadvantages.
_4
If the lettersareinformal,the languageusedcanto a largeextentbe based ffd
on what the learnershavealreadylearnedorally,but at the sametime we
_1
F
canintroducea smallnumberof linkingandsequencing
devices(see4.4).
,_1
For the mostpart,then,'exercises'to
practise
thesedeviceswill be
LG
embedded
withinthe contextsof letters.An importantpoint to noteis that
I
the studentswill alsobe learningsomething
--J
newthroughwriting:for
exampleitheIayoutof a letter,modesof address
andcertainopeningand --1
=
closingformulas.
(c) Writingactivitiesshould alsogivethelearnersopportunitiesto communicatert
throughwriting and, equallyimportant,simplyto enjoywriting.
-a
--we
Although cannotaffordto neglectothertypesof writing activityin the
classroom
situation,in the endfor manystudents
enjoymentmayproveto =
be the mostmotivatingfactor.
F
You will needto getthe nght balancebetweenthesevarioustypesof activitySo - -:
F
asto meetthe needsof vourparticularstudents.
E
41'.''
The role of the
teacher
After selectingthe
appropriate
writingactivity(see4.3for examples):
F
(a) Decidehow to presenttheactivityto the class.
'-i
For example,in the earlystages,it will help to do a certainamountof
writing with thestudents,on the boardor overheadprojector.This is
=
especiallyusefulfor the typeof activitydescribedin 4.4, wherethe
-=
studentsare learningsomethingnew,suchasthe useof certainconnectiver--_
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WRITINGIN THEEARLYSTAGES
:
or the layoutof a letter(etc).In particular,it alsoprovidesan opportunity
to discussalternativeanswers.reasonsfor certainchoicesand so on. On a
simplelevelwe canthusbeginto demonstratethat writing is a thinking
process.
r---r
(b) Preparethestudentsorally.
!--
This shouldbe regardedasa standardprocedurefor writing activitiesin
the earlystages(andlaterwhenintroducingany new type of activity).
Make sure,througha numberof workedexamples,that the studentsknow
exactlywhat theyhaveto do. Do not, however,go throughthe wholetask
orally becausethis will leavethe activitywithout any elementof challenge
and reduceinterestin the actualwriting task.
l-
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( c ) Decidehow thewritingtaskshouldbe carriedout.
An activitymay be doneindividually,in pairsor in smallgroups.
Collaborationon a task,for example,will help to reducethe feelingof
isolationwhichwe notedin 1.4.1. Studentsalsotendto getmoreinvolved
in an activityif they are allowedto talk aboutit togetherratherthansit in
silence.Someactivitiesmay be begunin pairsor in groupsbut concluded
on an individualbasis.In the earlystagesit would seemappropriateto
allow manyof the tasksto be donecollaborativelyexceptwhen feedback
on individualprogressis needed.
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(d) Decideon correctionprocedures.
It is not essentialor evendesirableto examineeverythingthe students
write, althoughmanystudentswill want to havetheir work lookedat.
However,theycanbe askedto exchangetheir completedwork and to
evaluateone another'sefforts.This helpsto train them to look at written
work ciitically,asreaders,andwill help them to view their own work in the
sameway at a later stagein the course.Work canalsoof coursebe
on a classbasisand the studentsaskedto maketheir own
discussed
corrections.
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4.1.3
The organisation
of written work
we shallbe askingthe studentsto carry
In the courseof the writingpro_qramme
will of coursehavemore
of
these
of
activities.
Some
various
kinds
out
permanentvaluethanothers,providing,for example,an indexof the iearners'
progress
in thisskill,whileotherthingstheywrite maybe neededfor reference
purposes(see,for example,4.2.I). The question,therefore,of how their
arrangetheirwrittenwork in theirbooksis an importantone. In anycase,if
on their
the studentsareallowedto be casual,imposingno sortof organisation
writtenwork, writingis boundto seemlesspurposeful.
Ideally,perhaps,writtenwork shouldbe doneon looseleafsheetsand
arrangedon a file,whichhasbeendividedinto appropriatesections.
booksmay be usedfor thispurpose.For
Alternatively,oneor moreexercise
material
example,onebook or onesectionof a book mightconsistof reference
anothermightcontainwork whichhas
whichcanbe usedfor oral activities;
combination
of
sentence
structure,sentence
a
mastery
beendoneto develop
for piecesof
whilea third onemightbe reserved
sequencing,
and sentence
(for example,
value
of
writing
the
communicative
demonstrate
which
writing
JJ
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4.2
Copyingasa
writing activity
suggested
in 4.5).In thisway,all the materialwhichthe
copiesof the activities
both for futureuseor reference.
studentsproduceis accessible
-
becauseit is sometimes
of the valueof copyingis necessary
Somediscussion
presentedasthe first stagein a writingprogramme.This of coursewill be the
level(thatis, if they
caseif the learnershaveproblemsat the graphological
haveto learnnew graphicsymbolsor how to write from left to right). This
aspectis dealtwith in Chapter12.
it
Equallycommonly,however,copyingis heldto be valuablebecause
structure.For example,we
helpsto teachspellingor to reinforcesentence
write wordsandsentences
on the boardand askour studentsto
sometimes
At
the
the
course,suchan activitymay havea
beginningof
copythem down.
certainnoveltyvalue,andcanof courseserveto introducethe learnersto the
written form of what hasbeenlearnedorally.But the noveltywill soonwearoff
routine.Besides,
what
andcopyingwill thenbecomejustonemoreclassroom
the learnerscopytendsto getlostin a jumbleof notesmadein the sameway.
One maywell wonderwhetherthis activity- like readingaloud- is not often
just a wayof fillingin a littletime in the lesson.
activity.Most of uswouldagree,on
Yet copyingneednot be a pointless
new,that copying
of tryingto learnsomething
the basisof our own experience
is an aid to retention.Furthermore,in real life, we frequentlycopythingsdown
the timesof
in orderto havea recordof them:for example,we copyaddresses,
trains,telephonenumbersaswell asotherbitsof usefulinformationor
materialfor whichwe think we mayhavea futureuse.For example,we quite
often makecopiesof songsandpoems.The studentscanbe askedto make
their own copiesof thistypeof materialin a specialnotebook.
Copying,then,canbepresentedto the learnersasa meaningfulactivity,
particularlyif we cangetthemto seeit asa wayof makinga recordof
somethingwhichis not otherwiseavailableto them (i.e. it doesnot appearin
the textbook)or is not availableto them rntheform in whichthey havecopied
it (i.e. they havebroughttogethercertaindatawhichis distributedin various
to them, throughsome
lessonsin their textbook).We mustalsodemonstrate
activityeitherat the time or later,that they havedonethe copyingto some
purpose.
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4.2.1.
An exampleof
meaningful
copying
Vocabularyis an areawhichgivesthe studentsvariouskindsof learning
problems,includingspelling.It is alsoan areawhereit canbe usefulfor them
to havereferencelists,in the form of lexicalsets,suchasclothes,furniture,
food, etc.Let ustake one suchset- furniture- and seehow we canpresent
the compilationof a list of itemsasa purposefulcopyingtask.The following
stepsare suggested.
(a) Ask the studentsto drawa planof a housewhichincludesthe following
dining-room,
bedroomandbathroom.Ask
rooms:kitchen,sitting-room,
of
the
rooms
plan.
in
the
names
on
their
to
write
them
(b) Ask them to dictateto you a list of items- furnitureand somesmaller
objects(suchaslamps,telephone,vaseof flowers,etc.)- whichcouldbe
found in anyof theserooms.Write theseon the board,askingthe students
to tell you how to spellthem.
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WRITINGIN THEEARLYSTAGES
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(c) Ask the studentsto usethe list on the boardto compilefive lists,one
for
eachroom of their house,on a roughpieceof pup"i. Each list should
containitemswhichmight be foundin that .oom. An item may of course
appearin morethanonelist (e.g.chair).
(d) Ask the studentsto put the itemsin eachlist in alphabeticalbrder
and to
copy theselistsinto their exercisebooks.Each fisl shouldappearunder
its
appropriate
heading(e.g.kitchen,sitting-room,
etc.).
(e) Ask the studentsto comparetheir listswith thoseof other studentsin
the
class.
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Thus,what the studentshavecompiledin their exercisebooksis a small
referencesectionon furniture,whichthey shouldbe encouragedto keep
up to
date by addingnew itemsastheylearnthem. Although the aclivitywas
primarily a copyingone- we may of coursealsoallow them to includeitems
which were not on the board- it alsoinvolvedthinking:they had to divide
up
the list on the board,decidewhichitemsto includemoie than onceand also
to
put them into alphabetical
order.
Now that the studentshavemadetheir referencelist, which might be only
one of manytopic areasdealtwith in the sameor in a similarway, they should
alsobe givenan opportunityto useit: eitherin a writing activity,perhaps
at
somelater stage,or in an oral activityfor whichreferenceto suctralist might
be calledfor. For example,listsof thiskind are usefulfor certaintypesof
languagegamewhichinvolvevocabularyrepetition(suchasvariationson:
^I
wentto themarketand I bought. . .).
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4.2.2
Othercopying
activities
Notice that someof the activitiesin 4.2.1mainlyinvolvecopying(e.g. (a)-(c))
sincethe studentsdo not actuallyhaveto contributeto the text.
(a) Puttinga listof wordsin alphabericalorder
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(b) Puttinga listof wordsin their coruectsequence
L--
(c) Putting words in categories
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For example,daysof the week,months,numbers.
For example,arranginga list
of wordsunderheadinss:
(d) Doingpuzzles
For example,hereare the
n a m e so f 1 l c o u n t r i e s :
Brazil, Egypt, England,
France,Greece,India,Italy,
Peru,Portugal,Spain,
Turkey.
Completethe crossword.
Which countriesare not
there?
35
SJ
frG
T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
>.4
(e) Playing Bingo
_1
This involvesselectivecopyingand is an excellentway of revising
vocabularvsets(e.g. colours.occupations.clothes,etc.) through a game'
A's list
J
shlrf
tocks
1uercoa,t
l earr'
glpres
t,ueafer
pul,lover
shoes
hat
overcoA.t
tockS
Write,with the helPof suggestions
from the class,12-16itemson the
board(e.g.for clothes:
iacket,hat,
etc.).Ask the students
shirt, socks,
to copyanywordsfrom the list.
Then readout the wordsfrom the
list lrr anyorder.The first studentto
hearall hiswordsreadout callsout
BINGO!
it shouldbe clearthatcopyingneedneverbe a
Fromthesesuggestions
particularlydialogue
boringactivity!Someof thefollowingactivities.
do not actuallyhaveto
writing,alsoinvolvecopyinglthestudents
contributeto the text.
4.3.1
Dialoguewriting
14
B ' lil l s t
t)
jacker
4. 3
Reinforcement
activities
ts
Variouswaysof reinforcinglanguagelearnedorallyin the earlystagesare
below:*
suggested
--1
ts
.1
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(a) Writingparalleldialogueswith thehelp of keywords
Readthisdialogue:
e: Giveme thatbook,Please.
n: Whichone?
a : T h e b i g b n e- on thetable.
n: Here you are!
a: ThanksverYmuch
Now usethesekeywordsto writesimilardiaiogues:
(a) umbrellaired/behind/armchair
toP of/cuPboard
(b) box/small/on
etc.
(c) hammer/heavylnearlwindow,
(b) Completinga dialogue,choosing
from a listof iumbledsentences
whicharenot in thecorrectorder, to completethe
UsetheseSentences,
dialoguebelow:
At Clarkson's
I've neverseenyou there
Do Youlike it?
I usuallytakemYcar
Mine'sJennie
Bob.
A : Mv n a me 's
B:
*Theseand all other examplesin the book are intendedto illustratetypesof actit'iry.The actual
Ianguage
u s e di n t h e e x a m p l e sd o e sn o t r e l a t et o a n y p a r t i c u l a cr o u r s c '
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W R I T I N GI N T H EE A R L YS T A G E S
t-=
a: Wheredo you work?
B:
!-_-
e: Really?I work theretoo.
l-"
B:
e: Well, it's a big placeandI onlystartedlastweek.
U
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t-
B:
R: It's not bad.Besides,I cannow go to work by bus.
B: ....
e: Do you?Well, perhapsyou cangiveme a lift!
The students
mayalsobe askedto write a continuationof the dialosue.
!-!-.-
(c) Puttingsentences
in order to form a dialogue
Insteadof providinga dialogueframe,asin (b), all the sentences
are
jumbledup. It helpsto numberthe firstitem, however,and alsoto limit
the numberof itemsto (say)eight.
H
t-
(d) Providethestudentswith a dialogueframe, similar to (b), which theyhave
to completewith ideasof their own.
H
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4.3.2
Parallelwriting
For this type of activitythe studentsare givena modeltext of somekind and
are askedto writea similartextwith thehelpof cues.Thesemaybe verbalasin
the first examplebelowor visualasin the second.The text may recycleitemsof
spokenor writtenlanguageand canbe usedasan introductionto organising
ideasin the form of a paragraph.
(a)
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Read this, then copy and complete the information.
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P e t e rS m i r h i s t h i r t y - n i n ey e a r so l d . H e i s a t a l l m a n
w i t h b r o w n e y e sa n d b r o w n h a i r .H e i s a b u s i n e s s m a n
f r o m E n g l a n db u t h e l i v e si n A m e r i c a .
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Address
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
y
(b)
V
Readabout Sn'itzerland:
llsc thcsentltcs:
a) Nolv lvrite abotrt.^\trstriil'
SWITZERLAND
{tttro
l z e c h o s l o v a k/i ac a s t :
n o r t h :G e r m a n yi t t r c C
H u n g a r y/ s o u t i r :\ ' u g o s l a v i i ar n d I t a l y , / n ' e s t
Srvitzerland
/ 7 nrillion ;' Certnan
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b) Now write about Yotlr or\rncountr\'.
_4
u
ts
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is in Europe.It standsbetn'een
Srvitzerland
Germanyin the north, Austria in the east,ltall'
in the south and Francein the rvest.About 5j
million peoplelive in Switzerlandand thel' speal<
French,German or Italian.
_-1
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4.3.3
Dictation as a
reinforcement
activity
4.4
S e n t e n c el i n k i n g
activities
The purposeof this short sectionis to indicatewhere dictation belongsin a
writing programme. Clearly it differsfrom the reinforcementactivities
describedabove, becauseit involveslisteningand the ability to transform what
is heard into its written form. However. sincea dictation should be basedon
languagewith which the studentsare alreadyfamiliar through other contexts
(that is, it is essentiallya re-presentationof known languageitems), it can be
useful as an alternativereinforcementactivity.
The difficultieswhich studentshavewith this type of exerciseshould not
be underestimated.An alternativeapproachto the'conventional' dictation is
to provide the studentswith an outline, in the form of an incompletetext,
which they filIin from what they hear read aloud. This permits a more natural
form of delivery, althoughlesswriting is involved. Texts ugedfor dictation may
also be in the form of notesand short letters,thus adding to the realismof the
activity.
Our goal through this type of activity is to begin to familiarisethe studentswith
the cohesivedeviceswhich are usedin composinga text. They can then begin
to combine structureswhich they havelearnedorally to form an acceptable
sequencein writing. For this purpose,in order to make any headway,it will be
necessaryto introduce a selectednumber of linking devicesand to practise
thesethrough writing. A basickil at this stagemight consistof the following:
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Co-ordinators and,but, or, so
Conjunctions although,when,until, sothat (etc.)
Sequencers then,afterthat,meanwhile,first,next,finally
moreover,however,therefore,asa result,in fact,of
Linkers
course.on theotherhand.etc.
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some proceduresfor practisingtheseare suggested
below.Although this
shouldnormallybe donewithin the contextof a text, suchasa letter,this does
not precludesomeinitial practicefor the purposeof familiarisingthe students
with linkingsentences,
asin the firstexamplebelow.
(a)
L-LL_
TYyand join theseparrsof sentencescorrectly to make one sentenceeach trmeuse hneslike thrs:
l--
Mary lkes tennrs.
I g o o n h o h d a yr n w l n r e r
I work rn slunmer
I hke my lob
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Tony hvesin London.
E
Shedoesn'thke lootba]l
I work rn a bank.
l-h;;;l
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He hkes brg crtres
The studentsthen haveto write four truesentences
aboutthemselves.
(b) Thestudentscompletea short text,rning suitablelinking wordsor phrases
from a given list.
For example:
L-
completetheletterbelow. usesuilablewordsor phrasesfrom this box:
l-,
ll--l_
L.1
although and
also
because
and
but
--1
by the way
however
so
so that
that
that
G{
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Noticethat'exercises'
like
these,in the form of a compiete
text, alsoserveto introducethe
studentto suchpointsasthe
layoutof a letter,different
modesof addressand
salutation,etc. Examplesof
theseshouldbe written up on
the boardand the students
askedto copytheminto their
notebooksfor reference.It is
important,therefore,to
incorporatea rangeof such
featureswhichwill be usefulto
the studentswhenthey
themselves
are askedto write
letters(ascommunication
tasks,for example).
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/a+n sedwLq qcl.Lr/rr/ tpu addrtrs,
... qou aom"niia tdmz. Of coptrse
I .i. !rq, .,. ytu,^i// cot"z try
nit/< its souia.
/ Li*c m.ot'ruw house, . . . ;t Lsvery
u.tisl/. ,. irt Lrruar a' marn rrrld .
. , . ,-tno1 be/'rcon is a,t. tiu back of
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thihoi'se,... ldan't h"earra,r1'4
vwise a.t ru46
trorvL is a't-thz frw,t .-.. sfu tet/' ...
shz ca*it skep/". . . ,the send'sy-ttrlur best wisfus, Writzsswt. /aot:
l,oTkkt4g fwAtr."d to hearing lron
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W R I T I N GS K I L L S
TEACHING
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artdserttences
(.) Thestudentscompletea text bt,insertingcluttses
frorn u
juntbled listof itents(see(b) page34) in the correctplaces.
' o u t l i n e ' f o rt h e s e c o n dp a r a g r a p hi n t h e l e t t e ra b o v e
F o r e x a m p l e t, h e
could be presentedas follows:
v
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although
.so.
However.
that..
because
...But
.....and
...Bvthewav.
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Throughoutthis stage.while rvritingactivitiesare still to a largeextentserving
4.5
C o m m u n i c a t i o n to reinforceoral work and rvhilethe foundationfor writing skillsis still being
importantto showthe students
Iaid (asindicatedin 4.1.2), it is nevertheless
activities
that writing can be usedfor the purposeof communication.The activities
simplein form and limited in
which we set up for this purposeare necessarily
towardslearninghow to
the
students
motivate
scopebut they will serveto
expressthemselvesthroughu'riting.Someexamplesare givenbelow.
(a) Thestudentswrite instmctionsv,hichother studentsin the class(or the
teacher!)haveto carry out.
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For example:
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Ta'fre//ou/r e4z,rcisz batk ^" .rd Pt^f
tt (rvLftP of th" c.tcpboa'rd.
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Go a4'rd. hn/d
6eorqe's harn"d. I
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to be
of instructions
Theymayalsobe askedto u'ritea sequence
carriedout. Thisis a usefuldevicefor practisingitemssuchasFirst. . .
N e x t . . . A f t e r t h a t.,. . F o r e x a m p l e :
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F irrsrt qo to n^e {ra<t 6f fhz c'dassfLw44 L;t7-ihe sahz'rh'imd sw fho
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Theseinstructions
maybe givento anyonein the classto perform.
Alternatively,theymaybe addressed
to someoneby name,in the form of
a noteor shortletter.For examole:
lted,tt,esd'ag
Dearr Anm,,
u
Drw,y .a plcfllyz oJ a Trroh,kq/l lf,i ti,ryi4.A
tTL a bo'x. a,fl^d, ti's wmrri*Q a- b-{g /.ra,f:
Yqwrt
Ft,;d
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PS lt's a brg lrt ot+lrry!
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Activitiesalongtheselinesare particularlyusefulfor practising
structuresand itemsof vocabuiarywhichhaverecentlybeentaughtfor oral
purposes.
r-{
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( b ) Thestudentswriteto one anotherto askfor information.
D-{
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Wha'sycLWfr'uowrtfusmgetr?
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l,Yh;ro/+monfh
^K/rx r4orLborn in?
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The studentwho getsoneof theserequests
cansimplywrite the
informationon the samepieceof paper.This enablesthe activityto go at a
muchfasterpace- whichis partof thefun!
( c ) Ask thestltdentsto writeshort messages
to one anotherin theform of a note
or short letter.
For example:
----
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ll_
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Dra,r M*rq,
qowr Taow cLress. W l+e,re
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otid yow
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Y'otrrs,
Ayun
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41
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
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'messages'must
be answeredby the studentsto whom they are
These
addressed.For examPle:
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F
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Dearr A'ruc,
<t
Tha,nA' UotLfn''futu
Uu,ur n'ote. I bou"qh't
fhz d"'issd,t
Poppy.fry ffre
wao,l, I li,kl qsur' n"e'u/Sweatetr Hou,
mirc/+ ohpf uf oas'L ?
yourrs,
Ma.ry
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roundthe
This activitycanquicklygeneratea flow of correspondence
class.
to writeshortlettersto oneanotherwhichinvolvesome
(d) Ask thestudents
form of roleplay.
For example,theymaysendoneanotherinvitationsto a party,together
maybe written on
with a requestto bringcertainitems.Relevantlanguage
the boardasa guide.For example:Wouldyou like to . . .? Will youplecse
b r i n g. . . ?
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parrft/ aw'5a't<urda'q Juurle 9 7 lt"
'starrts
o'"o{-oc'h
of
"ryM
lf taou,oan avvte, wW qau-p{"easz-
b-"tg s,i,x,p I'afus,'
fu .unj l'a-sies
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mustbe answered.The
(c),theseinvitations
As with the'messages'in
canacceptthe invitationor declineto
personto whomtheyareaddressed
the invitation,he shouldsay
If he accepts
come,givinghisreasons.
or only someof them.The
whetherhe canbringall the itemsrequested
activitymay be extendedto includegivingor askingfor directionsto get to
house.
somebody's
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WRITINGIN THEEARLYSTAGES
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4.6
Writing for fun
The activitiesin this sectionarenot intendedto help developthe learners'
compositionskills- becauseasa rule theywill not be writing a text in a
conventionalsense.For the mostpart theywill be writing thingsquestionnaires,
puzzles,programmes,
for example- which they cando
somethingwith. Usuallytheywill be workingtogether,in pairsor smallgroups,
and thiswill involvetalkingaswell aswriting. Studentsusuallyenjoy these
activitiesbecausethey seethe point of doingthem, like thosein the previous
section,and alsobecausein a smallway, evenat this elementarylevel,they get
the opportunityto expressthemselves
imaginatively.
(a) Writing questionnaires
The students,preferablyworkingin pairs,write questionnaires
whichthey
canuseto interviewone or moreother studentsin the class.Noticethe
varioustypesof questionnaire.
E
L
Hovegou got a- dog?
r----
l_
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L_
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LLL
L
L;
F/TVD 5O'IFOUE
WHO:
NAME
ca.*tplat/ thz guitar
alutagr goes to btd early
attd a pister
has o ffiher
likes qeng frT walhs
it intereited
irL tcih4ce
l---
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canfocuson specifictopicsand evenparticularitemsof
Questionnaires
language.This neednot makethe activitylessenjoyable.
( b ) Writing quizzes
Studentsenjoy writing questions.in the form of a shortquiz, on a text they
havejust read(asan alternative
to 'comprehension
questions'inthe
bookl).Theyshouldwork in smallgroupsfor thisand thenexchange
their
quizzeswith anothergroup.
GROUPS
G R O U P SE X C H A N G E
GROUPS
WRITE
Q U I Z Z E SA N D
W R I T EA N S \ \ ' E R S
CHECK
QUIZZES
ANSWERS
or
whichinvolveremembering
In the sameway theycanwritequizzes
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TEACHINGWHI I IN(J>I\ILLD
F
(a useful
looking for informationgivenin previousunitsin the coursebook
'generalk n o i l l e d g e q
' uizzes.
form of revision!)or
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Ca4L Pen ng sPea-/e SPa,rtisl't'?
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W/nt does 5 05 rn-ean'?
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2 Whal, langu.agedo rhz! speak h+ ?r*zil
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Whal s fhe cafr'hl
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(.) WritingPuzzles
or in pairs,writeoneor morepuzzles
u,orkingindividually
The students.
to answer'
like these.whichthel'giveto otherstudents
I
:
WHAT IS IT?
It Li,vesi,/( thl sga . /f nn's te'rt,artns.
/t loos not Laae alty bonzs. lf i,skaL efr'lh I
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'secretmessages'
for one anotherin
In the Sameway, studeirtscanwrite
somekind of code,whichother studentshaveto interpret.
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(d) Writing programmes
The students,working in grouPs
to sharetheir ideas,u'ritea
TV/radio Programmeto cover a
possibleevening'sentertainment'
Each studentthen makeshis own
copy of the Programme,which
can be usedfor Pairwork
activities,suchastellingYour
partnerwhat Yousawor listened
t o t h e P r e v i o u se v e n i n go r
to
agreeingu'hichProgrammes
evening.
watchor listento that
R
60
TV ChnnneL1
6.0 Ne.A/s
SporlsReport
6.io Sci.ence:
Tl+eSan
6.t5
7.ts
World.of
Dre orfs
8.O
8.30QuLz
lrr
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W R I T I N GI N T H EE A R L YS T A G E S
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( e ) Writingjumbled texts
The studentswork in pairsor smallgroupsto write a dialogueor a four-to
five-sentence
storysequence,
whichthey then cut up into separate
sentences
andgiveto anotherpair or groupto put together.
A/
,
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,rrct5 eta.r-p-.
t vlr(.,/L c.ot </drrt,
t s
Afterthot he slept!
7r"u'*":*w'
(0 Writing role descriptions
Normally,when we want studentsto do a roleplayactivity,we givethem a
descriptionof the role we want them to play. However,evenat an
elementarylevelthe studentscanwrite simplerole descriptions
for one
another.Incidentally,they involvelittle useof cohesivedevices.
Give the studentspictures
(maleor femalefaces)asa
stimulusand a list of the
itemsto be included(e.g.
n a m e .a g e .n a t i o n a l i t yj o, b .
Yowa'reMarytAomt"L&h.
interests,
etc.).Eachstudent
Yw a,re/hh,t//- tlree.
writesa role descriptionfor
one other specificstudentin
the class.This is important
becauseit addsto the fun:
Thsya,re all qr,r[s.
the studentsusuallywrite in
Yo;rrhutsba;d's rua,rnzLs
someunusualfeaturesfor
8 ill a4rd fu i,s o tazL
the partnertheyhavechosen
dri4v,r. Yawr hobbizs are
or beengiven!
(g) Wririrtgmystervstories
For thisactivitythe students
aregivena seriesof questions
w h i c ht h e ym u s ta n s w eirn
order. For example:Who was
theperson?Wherewasslhe?
Whatwasslhedoing?Whatdid
slhesay? Whatdid slhedo after
that?Eachstudentthen takesit
in turnsto answera question.
When the first studenthas
answered
hisquestion,he folds
the paperoverso that the next
studentcannotseewhathe has
written(andso on). Whenall
o!%
A futrvtorvw'rfh,by
\N0son \op of \he
Ynourfra
\n .
#e u.a.s o{4t2//r'g his
\
\
.
t
(( z
Y\O Sol,d" OotY\g vYv
r-tlo-t
so
\')
Tlrrru fu unvfcthpd.
TV.
the questionshave been answered,
the studentsunfold the sheetof paper and read their mvstervstorv
.15
,F=
T E A C H I N GW H I l l N U > K l L L r
_v
v
(h) Writirtg imaginar,r-diaries
THE PRIME MINISTER'5PIARY
frouoi/l / a+nntt wetl todayl
s/tlp wdd la,strualct,
Wtrot
about a b*nh,
Tntpnv
_u
I had a. bad' &rza+n-
lrkemzl A?rdlao+t Ukz4EeeaVtzl
Affi?riaa!_My
ary-q
@W
z
_v
The studentsmay of coursebe askedto keep real diartes at this stageor
perhapsslightlylater on in the course.but they will not want and should
not Ueaskedto showtheseto one another.On the other hand, writing the
imaginarVdiary for a famouspersonof their choiceor for a fictitious
chaiacteris somethingthey will be willing to shareand will very likely
The studentsshouldwork in pairsor groups
stimulatetheir imaginations.
(althoughthis is an activitythey could equallywell do on their own). They
may like to continuewriting about their characterfrom time to time.
_v
This is an activitYesPeciallY
intended to stimulatethe
imagination and self
expression.The studentswill
need a picture showinga
situationthat is likelY to
suggestdifferent
interpretations.Ask them to
talk about their Pictureand to
decidewhat the situationis
about. Then get them to write
down their ideas- without
4. 7
Writing in class
_v
Art
v
v
_v
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-
(i) Writing abourpictures
I want a-
y
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Theyshouldthencompare
connection.
worryingtoo muchaboutsentence
their ideaswith thoseof anothergroup.
Insteadof pictures,you canusespeechbubblesdrawnon the board.For
example,aboutthisonethe studentsmightwrite:A boy is in a shop.He
Hismotherbuysonebutit issmall.Sohe says:" . ......."
wantsan icecream.
areintendedto be donein class.Some
The activitiesin the lasttwo sections
Thisshouldrequireno justification
time.
couldeventakeup a fair amountof
generallythe studentsarealsotalking.However,the importantthing
because
is that activitiesof thiskind changestudents'attitudestowardswriting:they
throughwriting;how theycanuse
cometo seehow theycancommunicate
writingpurposefullyandhowit formsa naturalpart of certainactivities.In
with
additiontoihis, you canalsowork with thestudentseithercollaborating
themon a taskor joiningin an activity(e.g.youshouldalsowriteto your
studentsandgetthemto writeto you for the activitiesin 4.5;you canalsowrite
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WRITINGIN THEEARLYSTAGES
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questionnaires,
quizzes,
etc.).You will alsogetopportunities
to checktheir
work informallywhile the activityis still freshin their minds.This is very
differentfrom the typicalteacherrole of correctinghomeworkl
r--l
tr
l_-
Discussion
Reread4.1.1and4.I.2. What advicewouldyou givea fellowteacher(or
intendingteacher)aboutsettingup writing activitiesin the earlystages?
From your own experience,do you agreethat copyingis an aid to retention
in languagelearning?
From your own experience
of learningto write in a foreignlanguage,do you
think enoughattentionwaspaid to activities:
(a) to practiselinking sentences
and sequencing
ideas;
(b) to showhow you cancommunicate
throughwriting;
(c) to showhow writingcanbe enjoyable?
What is your view of the valueof dictationasa writing activity?
Exercises
Fxamineany coursebookto seewhat provisionit makesfor the presentation
and practiceof linkingdevicesin the earlystages.
Examineanycoursebookto seewhat provisionit makesfor meaningful
copying.
Devisea parallelwriting activity,for usein the earlystages,similarto those
in4.3.2.
Devisean exercisein linkingsentences,
for usein the earlystages,similarto
t h e o n ei n 4 . 4( b ) .
Suggesta writing activity,
to be usedin the early
stages,whichcouldbe
H tq H S-TREET
basedon thismao.
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Devisean activitywhichcouldbe usedin the earlystages
to let the learners
enjoywriting.
H
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References
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On the importanceof gettingthe learnersto evaluateoneanother'swriting
seeC Brumfitin S Holden(ed.)(1983).
For writingin the earlystages,
seeG Abbott and P Wingard(1981)Ch.6;
J Harmer(1983)pages65-75 P Hubbardet al (1983)pages61-71and
A P i n c a s( 1 9 8 2 ap) a g e s1 8 - 2 1a n d9 1 - 1 0 1 .
For examples
of writingactivities
in the earlystagesseeT Hedge(1983a);
A Pincas(1982b)andL Woods(1986).
Examplesof writing activitiesin thischapterhavebeentakenfrom
J Harmer:Meridian(Longman1985)(4.3.2(a));L Woods:WritingI
(Casselli986)(1.4(a)) andM PalmerandD Byrne: Track(Longman1982)
( 1 . 2 . 2( d ) a n d4 . 3 . 2( b ) ) .
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skills
Developing
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5.1
The importance
of demonstrating
progress
to intermediatelevel,* it is essentialthat.
At the post-elementary
whatever the scopeof the writing programme,it shouldnot lose direction and
momentum. This meansthat the writing programmemust be carefullyplanned
to develop a masteryof new skills, which the learnerscan usefor a continually
expandingrange of tasks.At the sametime, sincewriting will still be guided to
a lirge extent, we need to make the activitiesas varied aspossible,avoiding a
monolithic approachwhich relieson a limited rangeof exercisetypes.
v
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5.1.1
The main features
of the writing
programme
(a) The writing programme should continue to provide opportunitiesfor
reinforcing languagelearnedorally.
At the ru-. ii-e, however,we may assumethat the learners'arebeing
exposedto a greateramount of written languageeither through the type of
texts in their coursebookor through supplementaryredding.At this stage,
therefore, the amount of dialoguewriting shouldbe graduallyreduced,
althoughit shouldnot be abandonedaltogether,partly becauseit is one
way of getting the studentsto write material which they can use themselves
- for oral work, for example- and partly becausedialoguewriting may
be one of the requirementsof the examination.However, as the main
format for reinforcementpracticeat this level, we can now begin to make
greateruse of informal letter-writing,sincethis providesa convenientand
appropriateway of re-presentingmaterial learnedorally and of courseby
this stagethe learnersare alreadyfamiliar with this type of writing.
(b) The writing programme should be designedto include a greaterrange of the
resourcesof the written language.
The basickit, suggestedin 4.4 shouldbe expandedto incorporate,for
*90-225 hoursor approximatelvthe secondand third yearsofa secondaryschoolcourse.The
in this ihapter mustbe readin conjunctionwith Chapters6 and 7 on the useof texts
suggestions
and visualmaterial.
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
example,both a widerrangeof conjunctions
usedin compoundand
complexsentence
structures
andotherlinkingdevices.At the sametime,
we mustincrease
the learners'awareness
of rhetoricaldevicessuchas
comparison
andcontrast,definition,exemplification,
etc.(seethe
procedures
suggested
in2.1.2)andtheirabilityto usethese.For this
purpose,we shouldnow beginto introducea certainamountof
institutional-type
writing,suchasformal lettersand reports.As at the
previousstageof the programme,when the studentswereintroducedto
writing informalletters,thiscomponentwill teachthemsomethingnew
throughwritingand willthereforeincreasetheir interestand motivation.
H
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(.) Theamountof control over whatthe learnerswriteshould be reduced.
At thisstagetheyshouldlearnto respondto 'cues'whichstimulatetheir
imaginationsbut leavethemrelativelyor completelyfree to decidewhat
they actuallywrite and how theyorganisetheir ideas.
(d) Therangeof communicationtasksshould be extended.
Thus,alongsidethe guidedwriting activitiessuggested
in 5.2-5.4, the
learnersare alsogivenopportunitiesfor free expression.
Thesewill to
someextentinvolvegreaterrelianceon roleplaytechniques.
I -
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5.1.2
The role of the
teacher
It hasbeenemphasised
that thisis a delicateand crucialstageof the writing
programme.It is especially
important,therefore,to:
(a) Get the right balanceof writing activities.
For example,with regardto dialoguewriting, this shouldbe reduced
considerablyunlessit is an examinationrequirement.At the sametime, it
is importantto extendsystematically
the sentencelinking and sequencing
componentof the programmedescribedin 5.3. No real progresswill be
madeunlessthis is done.
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(b) Ensurethat thetypeof writing activiry*
and theformats usedto practisethese
are sfficiently variedso that thestudentsdo not get bored.
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Practicematerialsmay haveto be selected
and adaptedfrom a varietvof
sources.
(c) Gattgecarefullytheamottntof guidancerequired.
H
It is likelythat the amountof oralpreparationfor manywritingactivities
cannow be reduced.The amountof individualwritingmay alsobe
increased,
especially
whenthestudentsapproachthe time whentheywill
haveto do a publicwrittenexamination.
For certainactivities,
however,it
hasbeensuggested
thatpair andgroupwork will stillbe extremely
valuable.
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5.2
Reinforcement
activities
The needto provideopportunitiesfor practisingwhat hasbeenlearnedorally
continuesthroughoutthisstage.althoughthe increasing
useof textsotherthan
dialogues
now makesit possible
to introducewritingactivities
whicharebased
moredirectlyon a readingtext (seeChapter6). As we havenoted.dialogue
writinghasalmostoutlivedits usefulness
asa writingactivityand.if rve
continueto useit, we mustlook for freshwaysof presenting
it to the learners.
49
J
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-
for reinforcementactivitiesqivenbelow are classified
The suggestions
accordingto the t1'peof n'ritinqinvolved.
t
F
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5.2.r
Dialoguewriting
(a) Thestudentsare gittena ntodeldialogue,togetllerv'itlt cues.forv'ritirtg
parallel versiorts.
This task is much freer than the one in 4.3.1:it is guidedratherthan
controlledand the studentscanselectfrom the cuesprovided.In the
examplebelou'.whichfocuseson offeringadvice.the studentsalsohave to
modify the form of the cues(for example,the.vmust usethe -lng form
afterHow about . . .?)*
Read this dialogue:
e : W h a t ' su p . M i k e ?
s: I don't know what to do this evening.
a: Well, u'hy don't you go to the club, then?
B : O h , t h a t ' sn o t m u c hf u n , i s i t ?
e: Well. hou'aboutcomingto the cinemau'ith me?
B: Hm, /ftcl soundslike a much betterideal
Nov, chooseany of theseideas(or useonesof vour own) to v'ritesimilar
dialosues:
go for a walk
go and see(Jane)
sit and readthe paper
help me cook the supper
write
someletters
game
cards
of
have a
go and watchtelevision
help me washthe car
(b) The studentsare given an incompletedialogue, togetheru,ith instructionsfor
completing it. Thesedo not specifythe actual words to be used.
Completethis dialogue:
. . . . . . . ( S u gg e s td o i n gs o m e t h i n g )
A: ...
n: Oh, all right. If that'swhat you reallywant to do.
. . . . . . . .... ( E n q u i r ea b o u t B ' s w i s h e s )
A:
B: Don't know. Go to the cinema,perhaps.
.. (Object to thisidea)
A:
B : O h , a l l r i g h t .t h e n .L e t ' s
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Now write (2) similar dialoguesof vour own.
(c) The studentswrite the completedialogue.Theyaregiven an outline or'map'
of the dialogue, but none of the actual words to be used.
A
G i v ey o u r p h o n en u m b e r .
S a yw h o y o u a r e .
A s kw h o i s s p e a k i n g .
A s ka b o u tA ' s h e a l t h .
T e l lB a b o u ty o u rh e a l t h .
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P e r s u a dAe .
C o n f i r ma r r a n g e m e n t s
a n de n dc o n v e r s a t i o n .
* A s f o r C h a p t e r4 , i t s h o u l db e k ep t i n m i n dt h a t t h e l a n g u a g ue s e di n t h e e x a m p l e d
s o e sn o t r e l a t e
t o a n v p a r t i c u l a cr o u r s e .
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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Anotherpossibility
is to givethe studentsa'scenario'.
Mr A hasan appointmentwith Mr B in a big officeblock.when
he entersthe building,he announces
his arrivalto the receptionist,
who speaksto Mr B on the phone.The receptionistthen tellsMr A
how to get to Mr B's office.Mr A getsout of the lift on the wrong
floor. He meetsan employee,who offersto takehim to Mr B's office.
when he getsthere,Mr A, who is now ratherlate,makeshisexcuses
and explainswhathappened.
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It may be felt that thisis rathera long way round to get the studentsto
write a dialoguebut rememberat this stagewe are lookingfor waysof
providingguidancewithoutcontrol.Both the dialogue'maps'and
'scenarios'directthe
studentstowardscertainusesof language,and thus
preventthe productionof ramblingand often trivial dialogues,but at the
sametime requirethem to think of the actualwordswhichwill fit the
situation.when theytranslatethe scenarios
into dialogueform, they can
alsowrite somenarrativecommentaryin the form of stagedirections.It
shouldbe notedthat bothdialogue'maps'and'scenarios'
canbe usedat
differentlevelsof languageattainmgnt,dependingon the sophistication
of
the taskinvolved.
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(d) Thestudentswritea dialoguefor w-hichthesettingis definedand some
suggestions
aregivenfor thelanguageto be used.
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For example:
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You are in a restaurantwith a friend. You are looking at the menu, trying to
decidewhatto have. write the conversationyou have. You may usethese
phrases:
Howabout...?
That's(rather)...
What shallwehaveto . . .?
I wonderwhat . . .
Haveyouever...?
Whydon'twe...
Thislooks...
Let'sask...
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For activities(b) to (d), it is suggested
that the students
shouldbe allowed
to collaborate.
eitherin pairsor in smallgroups,at leastfor the initialstage
of the activity,whenvariouspossibleformsof expression
canbe discussed.
Thus,the students'talk
over'the dialoguetogether,work out a rough
versionand then.if theylvish,eachproducetheirown finalversion.
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5.2.2
Writing notesand
Ietters
By thisstagethe students
arealreadl'familiar
with writinginformalletters.but
therearevariousthingswe cando to givethisactivitva newslant.For
example,we canteachnewrvaysof beginningandendingletters.we canalso
seethat the students
aregivensystematic
opportunities
to practisewriting
letterswhichhave.overall.a specific
functionsuchasmakin_q
an apology(a
complaint,an excuse),
sendingcongratulations,
givingdirections,etc.,
andat the sametimeshowhorvsuchtasksrvillrequireverydifferentusesof
language
on differentoccasions
andin particularhow thesedependon the
relationship
betweenthe *'riteranclthe personhe is acldressins.
51
I
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F-J
fTEACHINGWRII ING 5KILL5
l<
II
cuesfor v)rititl7parallel
(a) Thestutlentsoregiverlo tnodeltext,togethet'h)ith
versiotls.
T h i s i s s i m i l a rt o 5 . 2 . 1( a ) . T h e c u e sm a v b e p h a s e do u t s o t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s
producetheir ou'n versions.For example:
Read thefollox'ing. It is an extractfrom a letter.
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That rulnrllds mz- g/ot'LoLtkad' rrty a'drice a,bou,f
bryag a c.a/r.foirna1,gt f ! r* yy, l( got
a'qfu. secan'd-/'ts4'Ld6rc .' Eut aoitt qo A; ont
gf"t/tose b{.q fir.t tE Tru to qst mr fi'orn
i,/- fiarnrs"tD'sc// his-carrVrhmteh't, Mahz
tLt/re tiwt {hures rffi'tunq wanq wfr,fl'Ltf,(f
@//rs1l ln fi'{ yot'L Jh,i^/d gilt a rue.c}t6rrt'ic
to l6dle ot'iifiyout
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(i) [Jsethesenotesto write a letterto a friend v,ho wantsadviceabout a
holiday:
./do not stavin the town itself/finda quiet hotel just
go to .
outsidethe town/geta room with a good view/makea booking as early as
possible.
(ii) Usethesenotesto write a letterto a friend who wantsadviceabout how
to find a newjob:
try to get a job with a new firm/do not go to an agency/buya paper which
has adsfor jobs/.
(lli) Write a letterto a friend who wantsadviceabout how to learn (a foreign
language).
(b) The studentsare given an incompletetext, with suggestionsor instructions
about how to completeit.
This activity can be particularlyusefulfor practisingspecificitems of
language,suchas the -ing form, as in the examplebelow.
You are introducing yourself to a penfriend. Completethis letter with
referenceto vour own likesand dislikes,etc-
ahowtrrlt/se/f. 0* nf ne
lfuw /'d' ti'lto to tillqolt son^erhi*r'q
ftu,vefine-!)
k'..... - Thta/'sn
thin^csI l;'hz d.oi'toq-tnost
fufuen
'l
vai tu4"d6/ . . .1. o a qwifetikl. . -.. 0t wel'L,alrlwgh lw
,*i ir^t qo-'solat it. Cn clizdrhorrLwnd', l'tttwf, ue'rl Lnt*esfzd'
ov' . . . . . n'ordo / ,aAl,b L;fu . . - -. Atfu - - - - -)
in ettli^ei
I *hsclute/q h,s,tc//tl
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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(c) Thestudentscomplete
a text by expanding
notes.
The notesin this
exampleare within
the frameworkof a
letter, the themeof
whichis assumedto
relateto a topic
exploredthrougha
lessonin the
coursebook.
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boa"--ows f ov.e bq
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cot ut (- tlwre'S 6fi2 qt1at. a.drn n faq
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qol't' 6rxz and. l*ue tt A,L ur? At f,/pe
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fh%ea'r-fou,,
a/ t+: tlA.rug
thu /&t, bat enzpar'torL is luuirtT a.b
a'rza,ttgerne.nls as fulows./ shprc alL
exa'nf'k
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shorcty,'l lw,uea nryg-ain-/ W@ da,'t't
Completethis letter.
Usethenotesto write
thesecondand third
paragraphs.
qan-ca'n & whaflfio Likz hgr<.,Let-wr'/a4aw
afuat i't 6s sowt-a-tpoit;,U-e.
Yo*o,
B"O
in (b) and (c) lend themselves
Activitieslike thosesuggested
well to
within
relatedwriting tasks
the contextalreadyestablished.
For example,
the studentsmay be askedto write a shortreply to Bob's letter basedon
cueslike the following:
Writeback to saythatyott are interestedin Bob'sproposal but askfor more
informationaboutthefollowing points:
- how muchis the rent?
- whatotherexpenses
arethere?
- what arrangements
are therefor havingguests?
- is it easyto find parkingnearthe flat?
- who are the otherpeoplein the flat?
l-L--L.
---
(d) Thestudentswritethecompletetext. Theyaregivenguidancefor the content
to be ttsed.
but notfor thelanguage
For example:
You boughta bottleof perfumeor after-shavelotion afterseeingan
advertisement
for it. It gaveyou a skin complaint.Write a letterto thefirm
which madetheprodttct,saying:
- whatyou bought(inventa suitablename)
- whereyou sawthe advertisement
andwhat the advertisement
claimed
(e.g.goodfor the skin)
- why you boughta verv largebottle
- how it affectedyour skin
- what the doctorsaid
- why youwantyourmoneyback
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TEACHINGWRII INU 5KILL5
l'I-
Writine short
rpnr)l'tq
The studentsma)'alsobe givena guidedintroductionto writing reports.For
this, guidanceshouldfocuschieflvon the organisationand orderlypresentation
of ideas.
(a) ,4s a prelininary step.thestudentscompletefornts similar to this one.
5
f-
t-
A penfriend
a g e n c yh a ss e n t
y o u t h i sf o r m .
C o mp l e tei t w i th
d e t a i l sa b o u t
yo urse l f.
R e g .O f f i c e : 2 9 B o l s o v eSr t r e e t ,L o n d o nW ' 1.
l-
P l e a sw
e r i t e l e g i b l y . l t e m s1 - 6s h o u l db e c o m p l e t e di n
caoita letters.
l-
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4
Nationality
f-
5 Religion
l-
7
Education
l-
B H o w l o n g h a v e y o u b e e n l e a r n i n gE n g l i s h ?
l-
9 Wheredid you learnit?
l-
1 0 H a v ey o u e v e rv i s i t e dE n g l a n d ?
11 l { s o , g i v e d e t a i l s
12 fuief statementof interestsand hobbies
rl-
l-
} r w a n t i n ga p e n f r i e n d
1 3 R e a s o n { sf o
t-
1 4 D e t a i l so f t y p e o f p e n fr i e n dr e q u i r e d
'a-
f-
(b) The studentsaregivena model text,togetherwith cuesfor writingparallel
versiotts.
Read thisshort reportl
Alan is very practical.but he is a/sorather untidy. For example,he is
very good at repairingthings,suchasbikes,buthe neverputs his tools
away afterwards.
Now writesintilar reports,usingtheseadjectivesor othersof your own
choice:
careless
clever
I-
t-
rI
hard working
kind
lazY
nice
rude
sillY
The studentsmay alsobe given outlinesand askedto write reports on
other studentsin the class.For example:
. . . ( N a r r l ai )s v e r y . . . a n d a s a r u l e ( h e ) i s a l s o . ' . . F o r e x a m p l e ," . .
On the other hand.(he) canbe . . . and sometimes(he) is also . . . .
The informationfor reportsmay alsobe derivedfrom completed
f o r m s ,s i m i l a rt o t h e o n e i n ( a ) .
rrr,l-
rt-
54
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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(c) Thestudentsaregivena modertextand, after
focusedpractice(e.g.
identifiing advantages
and disadvantages)
are askedto write a parallel
one.
Look at the detailsof thesetwo beaches.
write a reportaboutwhichbeach
would be suitablefor a newhotel. rJsealthoughandbecause.
-----
L'
A D V A N T A G E S DISADVANTAGES
LE
Sunset Beach
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5.3
Sentencelinking
and sequencing
activities
b e au t i f u l
easy to get to
very rougn sea
small beach
long sandy
beach
caimsea
ratherflat
no main road
It hasbeensuggested
that thiscomponentof the writing programmeshouldbe
extendedand strengthened
by varyingthe formatsfor prictice to include
formal letters(for this the studentsmust be givenappropriatemodels)and
reports,andby expanding
the basickit of linkingdevices.
Thismay be doneby
drawingsystematically
on theitemsin theAppendix.Suggestions
ior activities
aregivenbelow.
12
1:
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(a) Thestudentscompletea short,r.r,ay usingsuitablelinking words
or
phrases.
we canusethis typeof exercisefor variouspurposes.First,to
familiarise
the studentswith a wider rangeof linking devicisfrom the expandedbasic
kit. After this, thevmav be askedto serect
from a listwhichis more
extensive
thanthe numberof itemsomittedfrom the text. Finallv.thev
may be askedto sttppl.vtheir ovvntinking devices.An examplerrom ttre
secondstage(i.e.choosing
from a moreextensive
list) is givenbelow.
usesuitablelinking devices
from the box to completethe textbelow:
also
although
and
and
because
but
but also
for
for the moment
however
incidentally
in particular
in thisway
instead
meanwhile
not only
on the otherhand
since
therefore
too
Janetwest'ssisteris an air hostess
for a famousinternational
airline,
. . . Janetwantsto becomeone . .
., sheis stilltoo young:the
minimumagefor an air hostess
is twenty. . . . Janetis onty iuit over
sixteen.
. . . s h e h a s t a k e n a j o b ai nn o f f i c e . . . s h e .. . a t t e n d s e v e n i n g
classes.. . ., shewantsto improveher FrenchandSpanish,. . . foreign
languages
arean essential
qualification
for an air hostess.
. . ., Janetis gainingexperience
throughher presentjob. . . . the
officewheresheworksis atravelagency.. . . sheis learning.. . how
to dealwith people. . . quitea lot aboutthe placessheonedavhopes
to visit.
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
G RITING
lz
lnavbe askedto do thesetasksin pairsor in small
Againthe students
It shouldbe
the variouspossibilities.
they
can
discuss
that
groups.So
What
is importantis
version.
that thereneedbe no oneCorrect
emphasised
choosean item whichdid not appearin the original
that. if the students
ri'hetherthisaffectsthe meaningof the text
version,they'shouldconsider
and if so.in u'hatu'a,v.
At this stage\\'emav alsouseincompletetextsto get the studentsto
linksthroughgrammarandlexis.For example,the
considerothersemantic
with the following
of the textabovemightbe presented
firstparagraph
itemsomitted.
. . ., and
for a famousinternational
JanetWest'ssisteris an air hostess
J a n e t w a n t s t bo e c o m e. . . t o o . A t t h em o m e n t . . . i s s t i l l t o oy o u n g :. .
is twentvand . . . is onlyjust oversixteen.
for an air hostess
All the itemsomitted- airline,one,she,theminimumage,Janet'
whichwouldappearaspartof a muchlongerlist,areoneswhich
of the text.
andlexicalcohesion
contributeto the srammatical
sequence.
so thatThsyform an acceptable
( b ) Thestudentscombinesentences
to be usedmay eitherbe providedor the studentsmay
The linkingdevices
be askedto supplytheirown.For example:
Use
so thattheyform a sequence.
in anv,suitablet4)a)t
Join thesesentences
'she'in placeof 'Janet'v,hereappropriate.
throughher presentjob'
1 Janetis gainingexperience
2 Janetworksin a travelagency.
3 Janetis learninghow to dealwith people.
4 Janetis learningquitea lot aboutthe placessheone dayhopesto
visit.
\L/
Thestudentsrex'ritetextsv,ithintheframeworkof a relatedoutline'
For example:
Readthis text. Thencontpletethetextbelowso that thesameideasare
in a differentw'a\':
expressed
Thereare two sidesto the work of stuntmen.They actuallydo mostof
the thingsvou seeon the screen.For example,they jump from high
buildings.However,theydo not fall onto hard groundbut onto empty
cardboardboxescoveredwith a mattress.
The work of stuntmen. . . to it. They actuallydo almost. . . whichyou see
t h e m . . . , s u c ha s . . . . B u t i n s t e a d o.f . . , t h e y . . . o n t oc a r d b o a r d b o x e s
w h i c h. . . .
( d ) Thestudents
form textsfrom a listof jumbled sentences.
formeda dialoguein thisway, and4.6
See4.3.1(c),u'herethe students
(e), wheretheywrotetheirown texts.Whilethe purposeof thisactivityis
it mustnot become
sequencing,
to thinkaboutsentence
to getthe students
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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just a puzzle.Narrativetextsusuallvhavea fairlytransparent
sequence
and thereforeprovidea goodstartingpoint.You canprovidesome
frameworkof reference.
aswith the map in the activitybelow.As a final
stage,useexpository
textswith a clearopening'topic'sentence.
otherwise
the firstsentence
shouldbe indicated.
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Look at themap.John livesat 7, Elm Lane.He'shavinga party. What
directionsmusthegive to hisfriends?Put theseinstructionsin theripht
order. Number themI to 7.
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Walk alongunril 1'ouget to the library.
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V/alk around the pond to Hazelbank Road.
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I G c t o f f t h e b u s a r T h e G r e e nA l a n .
Turn right into Elm Lane .
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T u r n r r s h r i n t o F i r t r e eL a n e .
Number 7 is on thelefr.
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Go over the bridge.
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
The studentscan be givena diagramwhich showshow the ideasin the text
havebeenorganised.For the activitvbelow,the studentshavealreadv
seena paralleltext.
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H e r e i s a p l a n o f t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p hi n E x e r c i s el . U s e t h e s e
s e n t e n c etso w r i t e a p a r a g r a p ha b o u t L o n d o n w i t h t h e s a m ep l a n '
1
1
Edinburgh
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I oraro*n
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f
s m a l ln a r r o ws t r e e t as n d
T h e E a s t E n d h a sa l o t o f c h a r m ,
o l d g r e yb u i l d i n g s .
L o n d o n i s E n g l a n d ' sc a p i t a lc i t Y .
l a r g ee x p e n s i v e
I r i s v e r y d i f f e r e n tf r o r nt h e W e s t E n d .
p
a
r
k
s
.
s h o p sa n d l o v e l yg r e e n
Its old name was Londiniunr.
L o n d o n h a s m a n y s h o p s ,r e s t a u r a n tasn d t h e a l r e sa n d o f i e r sa
lot to visirors.
of the boldman.
T h i s m e a n st h e
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Sentencescan be broken dorvninto clausesto draw further attention to the
logicalstructureof a text. For example:
Usethesesentencesto write a paragraph about thepygmies. Changethe
punctuation.
order and add any necessar)'
They can move easilf in the forest
and they are not afraid of it
The forest in the centreof Africa is a dangerousplace
Pygmiesknou'the forestwell
becausethey are verYsmall
A big pygmy is onlYlm 40cmtall
but the pygmiesare haPPYthere
(e) The studentsdo exerciseswhich specificallydirect their attentiotl to the way
ideasare organisedin a text.
This may be done in a guidedform at the start, with the help of
information presentedin tabularform, togetherwith examplesof the kind
of text which the studentsare requiredto write. For example:
58
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
Study the two texts, which are based on information given in the table. Then
write similar textsof your own. to form part of a letter telling someone how
to get to a place.
-1
Destination
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alrport
sportsground
motor show
theatre
hospital
port
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taxi
bus
tube
taxi
on foot
bus
Vzhour
10mins
5 mins
7+hour
Thereare two waysof gettingtd the sportsground:eitherby tube or
by bus.By tube it only takesten minutes,while if you go by bus,on the
other hand,it may takeyou over twentyminutes.My adviceto you,
then,is to go by tube.
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coach
tube
taxi
on foot
bus
boat
Timefor I
You cango to the airporteitherby coachor by taxi. If you go by
coach,it takesat leasthalf an hour. By taxi,on the otherhand,it takes
only ten minutes.For that reason,I suggestthe secondpossibility.
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Alternatives
(0 Thestudentswritetextsbasedon a model that hasa clearlogical
develooment.
This may be shownthrougha diagram.For example:
TOPIC
Flatsharing
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ADVANTACES
D I SADVANTAGES
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Sharinga flat hascertainadvantages.
For onething,you do not haveto
do all the houseworkyourself. Besides,
it is alsocheaper.On theother
hand,you maynot havemuchprivacyand,moreover,it maybe noisy.
All in all, it is probablybetterto liveon your own!
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arethengiventopicswhichcanbe writtenaboutwithina
The students
similarframework.For example:
1
2
3
4
Livingin a big city
Owninga car
Working in an office
Beinsa housewife
59
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TEACHINW
G R I T I N GS K I L L S
---1
5.4
Reproduction
exercises
haveto iistento a text whichis
in that the students
Theseresembledictations,
readalourlto them.However.insteadof beingaskedto take thisdown
they
artificialexercise,
segmentby segment.u,hichmakesdictationa someu'hat
before
more)
or
(usuall-v
three
listento the completetext a numberof times
theyareaskedtou'rite.Thei'arethenrequiredto'reproduce'thetextthey
but theymayfill in with their own words
aspossible.
haveheardasaccurately
u,heretheir memorvof the originalfailsthem'
Like dictation.thistypeof activityalsoinvolvescarefullisteningand the
transformationof u'hatis heardinto its writtenform. However, it focusesmuch
how one
more on graspingthe overallmeaningof a text andin particular
'rules'for this activity.
own
our
relatesto another.We canalsomake
sentence
For example.the studentsmaybe allowedto makebrief notesduringthe final
reading.Alternatively,we maywrite key wordsandphraseson the board,
to remind the studentsof someof the main ideas.In eithercase'we thusensure
that the activitydoesnot becomejust a testof memorY.We may alsowrite a
deviceson the board, so that in
frameworkof linking wordsand sequencing
aroundwhichthe text canbe
effectwe givethe studentsa structural'skeleton'
'reproduced'.
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activitiesshouldmatchthe
At thisstage.it is importantthat communication
5.5
throughthe written form
Commu n i c a t i o n growingu6itityof the Iearnersto expressthemselves
6t rir. tinguag..Theyshould.therefore,in the firstinstancebe on a much
activities
scale.
moreextensive
comparedwith the modest
tasksof sendingmessages
and notes(see4.5.This
typeof activity,however,
wherethe studentsu'riteto
one anotherin the classcan
still be usedprovidedthat
cot44,e/
rfuose h44etm2,... . (+
they are askedto Produce
ptue a,lrd t r'n<) Yaw ccr,rtt
somethingmore
TheYmust
substantial.).
trytLsstt, b44f/unratlu
alsobe more challenging.
(+e*act tot;a-"5.
With thistypeof writing
activity,the studentsmaY
/ rtfr;rg fhn4nrd toseelng
Yo/+|
of coursemakemistakes,as
with freeoral expression.
b u t t h e i m P o r t a ntth i n g .
from the point of view of
PSDoTitfo lotel
motivation,is to
demonstratethat writing is
a purposefulactivitY.
tn ,. . (+d"!) tf y* *ry
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You shouldalsoencourageand help the studentsto find penfriendsasa way of
extendingcommunicationpractice.From time to time you can alsoconductall
or part oith. lessonentirelythroughthe mediumof writingso that the students
requests,
whatis involvedin givingandreceivinginstructions.
."utty appreciate
etc. in thisway.
60
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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In the activitiesbelow,moreuseis now madeof roleplay,althoughnot to
the exclusionof other activitieswherethe studentswrite as themselves.
The list
of suggestions
below,whichis intendedto indicatetypicalactivitiesratherthan
to be exhaustive,frequentlyinvolvessomeform of collaborationin the writins
task.
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5.5.1
( a ) TheEstateAgency
Roleplayactivities
Divide the classinto two. Sub-divideone half into threeor four groups,
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dependingon the sizeof the class.Tell eachof thesegroupsthat they
representan estateagency.They shouldalsofind a namefor their agency.
Their immediatetaskis to devisea form on which they canrecord
informationaboutthe housesor flatswhichtheir'clients'will givethem
whentheycometo seethem.
Tell the students
in theotherhalf of the classthat they arepeoplewho
wantto selltheirhousesandto buy another.
Each of them shouldwrite somenotesdescribingthe housethey want
to sell.It may be the housethey actuallylive in or an imaginaryone.They
shouldalsohavesomeideaof the housethey would like to buy.
The 'clients'then choosewhichagencythey want to go to. They are
interviewedby a memberof the agencyand fill in the form, on the basisof
which a final descriptionof their houseis worked out. Thesedescriptions
are then written up and displayed,and canbe r'eadby thosewho want to
buy a house.
The activitymay be repeatedat a later stagewith the rolesreversed.
Insteadof estateagencies,
secondhand
car firmscanbe usedasan
alternativesetting.
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( b ) TheMagazineAdvice ColLtmn
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'advicecolumns'on
Write the namesof a numberof magazine
the board.
Theseshouldbe discussed
rviththe classso that they know what kind of
'problems'eachone dealswith.
Then askall the students
in the classto write to one of the advice
columns,askingfor helpwith a personalproblem.Theycando this
anonymously
if theyprefer.
Dividethe classinto smallgroups,eachone representing
the staffof
an advicecolumn.Distributethe lettersamongthe groups,makingsure
that no one getshisown letter.andaskthemto write repliesto these
letters.Theserepliesshouldthenbe givento the studentswho wroteto the
column.
Alternatively,both the lettersandrepliesmay be writtenup asrvall
sheets.so that the wholeclasscanreadthem.
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(c) TheNewsDesk
Ask eachstudentin the classto write two or threeitemsof news(realor
imaginary).Eachitem shouldnot be morethanabout50-60 rvordslong
andduplicatecopiesshouldbe madeof eachitem.
D i v i d et h ec l a s si n t og r o u p se, a c hr e p r e s e n t i nag' N e w sD e s k ' .
Distributethe itemsof nervsamongthe variousdesks(because
the-va r ei n d u p l i c a t em. o r et h u no n e ' d e s k ' w i l l g etth es a m ei t e m )a n da s ke a c h
];
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T E A C H I N GW H I I I N U s K I L L 5
group to edit their iternsso as to producea ne\\'sbulletin. which can then
b e r e a da l o u dt o t h e c l a s s .
(d) Joh vacaltcics
'job vacancies'
in fiveor sixbig firmsand askeach
Distributea list of
for one of thesejobs (giving
studentto write a letterof application
p e r s o n adl e t a i l sr.e a lo r i m a g i n a r y ) .
eachof thesefirms and ask
Divide the classinto groupsrepresenting
them to write their replies.In these,they shouldsuggesta dateand time
for an interviewor saythat the vacancyhasalreadybeenfilled, etc.
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( e ) Complaints
a varietyof adsfor well-knownproductsand paste
Selectfrom magazines
theseon to cards.Ask eachstudentin the classto chooseone of theseads
and to write a letterof complaintabouteitherthe productor the ad to the
firm concerned.
a big firm responsible
Divide the classinto groups.eachrepresenting
the lettersto
distribute
Then
products.
these
number
of
a
for advertising
their
replies.These
write
and
the appropriatefirmsandaskthemto discuss
shouldbe sentto the personu'howrotethe letterof complaint.
(f) Campaigns
Dividethe classinto groupsandaskeachgroupto decideon someaction
theywouldtaketo improvetheirtown:for example,by pullingdown a
certainbuilding;by providinga facilityof somekind, suchasa new
swimmingpool, or tenniscourts:by wideninga street,etc. Eachgroupshould
then announce,in the form of a pressreport,what they proposeto do.
Each studentin the classis then invitedto respondto one or more of
theseproposals:for example,by writing to the press;by writing, in
collaborationwith two or more other students,a publicprotestor a notice
callingfor a meetingto protestagainstthe proposal.or by writing
anonymouslettersto the personsconcernedwith the proposal'
(g) Notices
Divide the classinto groups.Ask eachto drawup a noticeon a giventopic:
for example,startinga pop groupor club;startinga protestagainst. . ',
raisingfundsfor . . .. etc.At leasttwo groupsshouldwork on the sametask
so that they cancomparetheir notices.
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( h ) Rulesand regulations
Divide the classinto groupsand askeachgroupto draw up a list of rules
and regulationsto controla certainsituation:for example,safety
precautions(fire, hygiene,etc.) for a holidaycamp.After eachgroup has
finisheddrawingup its list of rulesand regulations,askthem to compare
thesewith thoseof other groups.
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(i ) Market research
Divide the classinto groups.Ask eachgroupto draw up a market research
for a certainproduct.Eachstudentshouldthenuseone of
questionnaire
to interviewotherstudentsin the class'
questionnaires
these
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
5.5.2
Reportwriting
activities
(a) Ourtown
Dividethe classinto groups.Giveeachgroupthe taskof describing
one
featureof theirtown. Foiexample:
- placesof interest
- sportsfacilities
- goodplacesto eatat
- localindustries,
etc.
- entertainment
facilities
Eachgroupshouldwritetheirdescription
in sucha way that the
featuredescribed
soundsattractiveto someonevisitingthe town. Each
studentshouldalsomakehisown copyof the description.
Thenform newgroups.makingsurethat theycontainat leastone
from eachof the originalgroups,and askthemto write a
representative
full reporton theirtorvnbasedon thesedescriptions.
The reportmay be
by a mapshorving
accompanied
the locationof variousplacesof interest,
etc.
(b\ Publicinterviews
Ask a studentwho is rvillingto be interviewedto cometo the front of the
class.Ask the otherstudents
to questionhim aboutsomeexperience,
pleasantor unpleasant
whichhe hashad,and to makenotes.
Dividethe students
into groups,askthemto comparenotesandto
compilean accountof whatrvassaidby combiningvariousideas.Whenthe
groupshavefinishedwritingtheirversions.
theseshouldbe readaloudand
compared.
(c) Privateinterviews
Ask eachstudentin the classto interviervanotherstudentaboutsome
whichhe hashad.andto makenotes.Eachstudentshouldthen
experience
write a rough versionfrom his notesand showthis to the personhe
interviewed
beforewritingup the finalversion.
(d) Book reports
Ask eachstudentto writea reporton a book he hasread.If thereis a class
library,he shouldchoosea book from thisandplacethe reporthe has
writteninsidethe bookfor theguidanceof prospective
readers.If thereis
no classlibrary,the book reportsmaybe circulatedamongthe students
in
the classin a folder.Similarly,the studentsmaybe askedto reporton new
recordsor on filmsthevhaveseen.
(e) l,/oticeboard
Ask the students
to writeadsor noticesfor thingsrvhichtheywouldlike to
sellor to buy.Theseshouldbe pinnedon the classnoticeboard
or
circulatedround the classin a folder.The noticeboardmay alsobe usedas
the locationfor someof the activities
in 5.6,e.g. 'problems',
suggested
'hello'
graffiti.jokes,or simply
messages
to otherstudentsin the class.
(f) References
Ask eachstudentin the classto requestat leasttwo otherstudents
to write
him a character
reference.
The variousreferences
be
shouldthen
rvithone another.
cclmpared
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(g) C/cssu,allsheet
- itemsof
Ask eachstudentto writea contributionfor a classrvallsheet
Dividethe classinto threeorfour
classneu,s.itemsof generalinterest.
groupsand askthemto edit the variouscontributions.
They mustalso
Theservallsheets.
decidehou,theseu'illbe arrangedon the u'allsheet.
for the cltherstudentsto read.
whencompleted.shouldbe displayed
--/
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5.6
Writingfor fun
for fun writingin Chapter
suggested
We cango on usingmanyof the activities
to the studentshorv
it demonstrates
4. In factit is importantto do thisbecause
in the language
muchmorethev cangetout of an activityastheir proficiency
importantto go on
it is especially
increases.
Amongstthe activities
suggested.
jumbledtexts,role descriptions
(seealso(d)
usingquestionnaires
andquizzes,
andu'ritingaboutpicturesand speechbubbles.For
below),imaginarl'diaries
writingaboutpicturesin particularwe canbeginto expectmorethanjust a few
sentences
and ideasiotteddou'n.
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(a) Posingproblems
-
The students.u'orkingin pairsor smallgroups,think up problemsituations
suchas:
Whatw,ould1'oudo if . . . . . (theschoolcaughtfire I vou becarnePrime
Ministertomorrow'I you had to live withoutwaterfor a monthI . . . .)?
somewa,rsof geningor ntaking
Weneed(f 1,000)at once.tCanyou suggest
money?
Theythensendtheseproblemsto oneor more otherpairsor groupsfor
solutions.
their sussested
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(b) Writing cluesfor crosswords
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For thisthe students,
S c H o o L
in pairsor smallgroups.are
,tn
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givena crosswordpuzzle
(perhapsmadeup b,vanother
O c I R c U S
group)like the one here.
P A R K
They then haveto writethe
t
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L I B R A R Y
'clues'(which
vou rvould
F A c T o R Y
normalli'begivento comPlete
the crossu'ordpuzzle).These
G A R A G E
canbe literal.e.g.for school:
\:-/ H o T E L
You go thereto study, or
amusing,A place wheretheytry
hard to teachyou things.
Alternatively,the 'clues'canconsistof a seriesof sentenceS,
€,9. It's a very
unpleasantplace wheretheytry to teachyou things. It's like a kind of prison.
'free'whenyou are (sixteen).
You go therewhent-ouare (six)andyou are
After that, it is usuallvdifficult to geta job . . . . .
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(c) Instructionsfor a game
For the simpleboardgamebelow,the students,
workingin groups,can
write theirown instructions
for movingroundthe board.For example:
A If you havesomething
to eatin your bag,go back2 squares.
B If you wentto bedbefore10o'clocklastnight,go forward3 squares.
C Unlessyou know how to ride a bike, go backfive squares.
To play this game,the studentstake it in turnsto throw a dice,movins
round the boardfirstfrom left to right, then right to left (etc,followin!
the
arrows).when they landon a square,they look at the instructions(giien
in alphabeticalorder)to find out abouttheir move.The firstplaverto
reach'home'is the winner.
For this activitythe students,therefore,haveto write instructionsfor each
letterof the alphabeton the board.
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( d ) Role descriptions
This is a more advancedversionof the activitydescribedin 4.6 (f). The
studentshaveto producedescriptions
whichcouldbe usedfor simple
simulationsituations(basedperhapson charactersin the coursebook).The
text involvesmoresentence
linkingandsequencing
thanthe earlier
activity,but is still a relativelystraightforwardpieceof writing. once
again,the role descriptionis intendedfor a specificpersonand shouldaim
to be amusing.
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( e ) Scenarios
-
The students,u'orkingin groups,rvrite'scenarios'like
the onein 5.2.1(c)
or shortstorieswhichthe1,giveto oneanotherto decidehow to actout.
Noticethat the scenario
for talk but doesnot giveany of
hasopportunities
the actualwords.Thuswe havean activitvwhichdevelopsasfollows:
4
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G R O U P SD I S C U S SA N D W R I T E S C E N A R I O S
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G R O U P SE X C H A N G ES C E N A R I O S
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GROUPSWORK OUT AND \\TRITE
DIALOGUE. ETC.
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G R O U P SA C T O U T S C E N A R I O S
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(f) ItnccurateaccoLttlts
The students,workingin groups,write a description
of a well-known
person,placeor thingor an accountof an eventwhichcontainssome
deliberatemistakesof fact.The groupsthenexchange
whattheyhave
writtenand try to detectthe inaccuracies.
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(g) Jumbledstories
This is similarto 4.6 (e), exceptthat the students,workingin groups,have
to write two shortstoriesof aboutfour to six sentences
each.The stories
canbe aboutthe samepersonor a similarevent.The storiesarethen cut
up into separatesentences
andgivento anothergroupto sortout into the
two orisinalstories.
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TWO TALL STORIES
Make two storieswith thesesentences:
(a) The womanwho u'assittingbehindthe elephantcouldn'tsee.
(b) "I'm not surprised."the elephantsaid."The coffee'snot verygood."
(c) "He's readthe book." the mansaid."Now he wantsto seethe fiIm."
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(d) A man oncetook his elephantfriendto the cinema.
-
(e) The waitergaveoneto him andthe elephantdrankit.
1
(0 One day an elephantwent into a caf6and askedfor a cup of coffee.
1
(g) "Why haveyou broughtthiselephantin here?"sheasked.
-
(h) "We don't seemanyelephants
in here,"the waitersaid.
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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(h) Jigsawwriting
Cut up anysuitablepicture:it shouldhavea clearoverallstructureand
some,but not too much,detail.Give onesuchpictureto eachgroupand
askthe studentsto work in pairsto work out a description
of one or more
pieces.Theyshouldnot look at oneanother'spieces.Whentheyhave
writtenout theirdescriptions,
theyshouldput awaytheirpiecesandtry to
work out what the pictureasa wholelookslike from what they have
written.Whentheyhavedescribed,
orallyor in writing,the complete
picture,theycancheckthisagainstthe visual.
(i) Instructionsfor drawinga map or picture
The students.
workingin groups,haveto drawa simplemapor picturelike
the onesbelow.Theythenwork out the stepby stepinstructions
for
drawingthese.For example.for the picture:
1 Draw two trees,oneon the left of the pictureandthe otheron the right.
L-
2 Thereis a rope betweenthe two trees.It is aboutfour feet from the
ground.
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3 Draw a manon the rope.He is walkingfrom left to right.He is wearing
a hat andhe hasa stickin his handand . . . . ., etc.
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They mustdecidehow muchdetailfheywant to include(theycanof course
changetheir pictureat thisstage)but they mustmakesurethat their
instructionsare clear.
The groupsthenexchange
instructions
and try to drawone another's
pictures.As a finalstagetheychecktheirpicturesagainstthe originalones.
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U) Headlines
Give eachgrouponeor moreheadlines,
like thoseshownon the nextpage.
Thesecanbe inventedor takenfrom realnewspapers.
to
Ask the students
discuss
andwriteout the relatedstory.At thislevel(andfor the purposeof
thisactivity)the students
shouldnot be askedto try to writea newspaper
accountof the story.The importantthingis for themto usetheir
imagination.
Ideasitremr)reimportantthanformallycorrectlanguaee.
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vou cilll cc)lllpare
h o g , e y c r , t h e h e a d l i n c c 0 l 1 es f r r l t t t a r e a l l l e \ \ ' s p a p e r .
h e a d l i n e sy'o u
t h c i r' e r s i r ) ' \ \ ' i t ht h e. r i g i . a l . l f a l l g r o u p sh a ' e t h e s a m e
acrossthe clltss'
crinalsoconlpareVersions
V
v.
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R e a l o rimaginarybook titlescanalsobe usedto stimulatea similar
activity.For example:
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FRIENDS
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(k) Graffiti
liketo writeon wallsfromtimeto time:thisactivitymay
Moststudents
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themto be morecreative!
encourage
graffiti.Iike those
of imaginative
Give the studentssomeexamples
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t
below.
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DIEHEALTHIIR
JOO-AIVD
rl
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tteogrqpn),
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is everyvvhere iurr,rs
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hand at writing
Then askthem (individuallv,in pairsor groups)to try their
or
their own graffiti.It sometimeshelpsto suggestan event a location'
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Dis cu s s i o n
that:
with the suggestion
Saywhetheryou agreeor disagree
(a) dialoguewritingshouldbe continued;
iUi rorn. tormalletteru'ritingshouldbe introduced'
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Give reasons.
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D E V E L O P I NSGK I L L S
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In whatwaysdo manyof the writingtasksproposedin thischapterinvolvea
muchcloserintegrationthanat earlierstages
with otherlanguage
activities
in
the classroom?
Do vou agreewith thisdevelopment?
Many of the activities
proposed
in thischapterwouldinvolvemoreclasstime
beingspenton writing.Do you think that thiswouldnecessarily
be a wrong
way of usingclasstime?Givereasons.
Many of the activities
in 5.5and5.6arelikelyto resultin the students
makingmistakes.
Doesthisworryyou?
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Deviseotherexercises
similarto thosein 5.2.I for practising
dialoguewriting
at the post-elementary
level.
Devisean exercise
similarto the onein 5.2.2so that the cuesarephasedout
and the studentsareaskedto writethe finaltext unaided.
write an exercise,
similarto the finalone in 5.3 (d). After you havejumbled
up the items,givethe exerciseto a friend for checking.
This is the completetextfor 5.3 (a):
JanetWest'ssisteris an air hostess
for a famousinternationalairlineand
Janetwantsto becomeonetoo. However,sheis still too young:the
minimum agefor an air hostess
is twentyandJanetis only just over slrteen.
For the momentshehastakena 16bin an office.But shealsoattends
eveningclasses.
In particular,shewantsto improveher Frenchand
Spanishbecauseforeignlanguages
are an importantqualificationfor an air
hostess.
MeanwhileJanetis gainingexperiencethroughher present
job. For the officesheworksin is a travelagency.In this way sheis learning
not only how to dealwith peoplebut alsoquite a lot aboutthe placessheone
day hopesto visit.
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Now completethe exerciseat the end of 5.3 (a) to practisegrammaticaland
lexicalcohesion.
Devisea rewritingactivitv.basedon the text in 4 above,similarto one in
5 . 3( c ) .
From vour own experience
of teaching(or learning)a foreignlanguaee.
suggest
otheractivities
similarto thoseproposedfor 5.5and5.6.
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References
On guidedwritingseeA Pincas(1982a)pagesI0Z-9 andS Holden(ed)
( 1 9 8 3p
) a g e s4 9 - 5 7 .
For the techniqueof interviewing
the classseeN coe in S Holden(ed)
(1983).Also L Wineron conducting
a lessonthroughwriting.
a
J For writtencommunicative
activities
seeJ Harmer(1983)pages132-140.
4 For writingactivities
at thislevelseeT Hedge(1983aand 1983b);T Juppand
J M i l n e ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; AP i n c a (s1 9 8 2 ba n d 1 9 8 2 ca) n dL W o o d s( 1 9 8 6 ) .
Examplesof writingactivities
in thischapterhavebeentakenfrom: D Byrne
FunctionalComprehen^slon
(Longman1986newed.) 5.2.I(a);5.2.2(b)and
( c ) ; 5 . 3 ( a ) - ( ca) n d( e ) ; J H a r m e ri l t e r i d i a n( L o n g m a n1 9 8 55) . 2 . 3 ( c ) :
T HedgePento Paper(Nelson1983)5.3(d)firstexample;M palmerand
D Byrne TrackJ (Longman1983)5.6(b),
(g) and (i) andA pincaswritingin
English1 (ivlacmillan
1982)5.3(d)secondexample.
69
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Contextsfor writing:
the useof texts
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6.1
The text as
context
Texts- read or listenedto - offer a naturalcontextfor a wide rangeof
writing activities.We often read or hear somethingand reactby making a note,
for eximple. or writing a letter. However.our responsemight equallywell be
oral and itrir t inO of linked reaction.with a variety of skills taking place, will be
dealt with under Integratedskills in Chapter 8. This chapterwill be more
narrowly concernedwith the important, though often neglected,skills of notetaking and summarising.First, however,we willlook briefly at various types of
comprehensionactivity. sincethis can also be a useful and effectiveway of
p r o r i d i n gw r i t i n gp r a c t i c e .
Comprehensioneierciseson a text are a weli-establishedway of providing
6.2
Co m p r e h e n s i o n writing practiceof various kinds, and it is not the purposeof this sectionto
examini the wide range of possibilitiesin this area. Many such exercisescan be
activities
done orally: for example.questionson a text, decidingwhetherstatementsare
true or false, etc. It ma1'lseconveniertrto ask for theseto be done in writing but
this is not intrinsicto the task. On the other hand, there are certainsituationsin
rvhich it rs appropriateto chooseu'riting as the medium of response.
This is particularly the caseu'hereexercisesrequire the studentsto
examine the meaningof the text very carefully: for example,if they are asked
to decideu,hetherthere is sufficientevidencein the text to support certain
statementsor whether certain statementsareimplied by the text. In caseslike
this the studentscannot be expectedto respondquickly becausethey are
probably having to examinethe meaningof severalsentencesin order to find
the answers.
Getting the studentsto write out answersof this kind is also a way of
encouragingthem to usewriting for activitieswhich require thought and
precision- precisionwhich perhapscan only be attained after several
attempts.Oral work is not of courseprecluded:the studentscan collaborateon
thesetasksand there can be somewhole classfollow-up'
70
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CONTEXTSFORWRtTtNG:THEUSEOF
TEXTS
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Sometypesof comprehension
taskmay alsocallfor the productionof two
or moresentences:
that is. a shorttextof somekind. This,for e.xample,
,igh,
be the typeof re-writingexercise
suggested
in 5.3 (c) or drscussron
type
questions
whichcallfor the learner
s' owt'tresponses
to certainideasexpressed
in the text.Exercises
of the latterkind areespecially
valuablebecause
irr.v
allowthe writtenmediumto be usedfor the .*pr.rrion of personal
opinion
within a contextprovidedby the text.
Another typeof rewritingexercise
frequentlyusedis the guidedsummary,
illustratedin 6.2-1below.Thiscanbe a useiulpreparationfor summary
writing
basedon moreextensive
texts(see6.3.Z).
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Guidedsummary
writing:an
example
Sometypesof guidedsummaryrvritingareverymuchmorecontrolled
thanthe
one below'For example,the siudentsaregiventhe actualsentences
to be used
in the summaryandmerelyhaveto link thlse with appropriateconnecting
wordsand phrases,whichare alsoprovided.Althougirthis gives
the students
practicein continuous
writing,it doesnot teachsummarising
skills,rvhichmust
involvesomeform of note-taking.Noticein the examplebeiowguidance
fir
the summaryis providedthroughquestionson the texi, to which
it is suggested
that the answersshouldbe in noteform.
Today,air traveris far saferthan drivinga car on a busy
motorway.
But thereis a dangerthat growseveryyear.Airlinersget
laigerand laiger.
Somecancarr.y
300passengers.
And
the
air
itseribecori.,
nror. uiJ
-over
more crowded.If one giantairlinercrashedinto anotherin
mid_air.600
livescould be lost.
From the momentan airrinertakesoff to the momentit
lands,every
movementis watchedon radarscreens.Air trafficcontrollers
tell the pil,ot
exactlywhen to turn, whento climb and when to comedown.
The air
trafficcontrollersarounda busvairport like London-Heathrow
may handle
2500planesa day.Not all of themactuallylandat the airport.
Any prane
that fliesnearthe airportcomesunderthe ordersof the
controllersthere.
Even a smallmistakeon theirpart couldcausea disaster.
Recentlysucha disasteralmosthappened.Two largejets rvere
flying
towardsthe airport.one wascarrying69 puss.ngers
and had comefrom
Toronto. The.otherwascarrying176passlng..riro* chicago.
An air
trafficcontrollernoticedon his radaricreenihut the two planes
weretoo
closeto eachother.He orderedone to turn to the right
andto climb.But
he madea mistake.He orderecr
the wrongpraneto Jo this.So,insteadof
turningawayfrom the secondplane,tne nist planeturnecr
torvardsit.
Fifteenseconds
laterit flewdirectryin front oi tt. secondplane.They
avoidedeachotherby thesmallest
partof a second.The distance
between
themwaslessthanthatof a larseswimmingpool.Thisis
an exampleof the
dangerthat growsevervyear.
Describethe disa.ster
thut olntosthoppened.write oneparagraphof abouteighty
words.
Answerthesequestiorts
irtnotefonn to getyoLtrpomts;
1) What werethe tu'oplanesdoincat the time,/
2) Wherehadthevcornefrom'l
3) What did an air trafticconrrollertlo anclrvhvJ
71
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
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-1) What was the result'l
-5) What \\'asnarro\\'lvavoided'l
This type of activitvis a usefulfirst stepin gettingstudentsto make notes
ivhichthey will do somethingu'ith. lt doesnot. of course,shou'themhow to
make notes.which is a problemrvervill now look at.
6.3
Note-takingand
summarising
The relevanceof the skillsof note-takingand summarising*to writing tasksat
this level shouldnou' be apparent:thel' are a commonfeatureof many writing
activitiesu'hichrelatein somewav to what we haveread or heard.sincewe
often make a note of certainideasand then re-presentthem in someother
form. These.then. are importantskillsfor the learnersand it is essentialthat
'classroom'
thev shoulclnot be left rviththe impressionthat they are artificial
activities.which are of little practicalvalueexceptfor the purposeof passing
examinations.and this too only if they are executedaccordingto certain
formulas.This appliesparticularlvto summarising.Yet this is how thel'are
commonlvpresentedand practised:the studentsare askedto take noteswith
no specificpurposein mind and to u'ritesummariesin a wav u'hichinvolves
both distortionand contortion.lt is not deniedthat there is an important
in theseactivities,
elementof control and discipline(or at leastself-discipline)
activities
meaningful
bur the purposeof this can bestbe broughthome through
rather than by proceduresmechanicallyapplied.
It shouldalsobe clearthat theseare skillsthat cannotbe fully developed
until the learnershave reacheda certainproficiencyin the language,althoughit
will be arguedthat u'e can and shouldfirst presentthem on areceptivebasis.
That is. the learners areshon,nwhat notesand summarieslook like in relation
to an original text. There are alsosimple taskswhich the learnerscan be asked
to perform before thev carrv out activitieson a more extensivescale.
To appreciatejust hou,difficulttheseskillsare, evenfor the nativeuserof
the language.u'e would do well to considerwhat is involvedin them. With
note-taking.for example.we haveto be ableto identify key items in a text.
which is in itself a searchingtest of comprehensionand clearl.vmuch more
difficult if u,e are listeningrather than reading,when at leastwe have the
opportunityto scrutinisethe text at leisure.We aisohaveto be able to reduce
or compresstheseitems in a way that is at leastsufficientto allow us to retrieve
The task of meaningfulabbreviationcallsfor a good
their originalmeanin-q.
knowledgeof how the languageworks. Likewisethe ability to re-presentthese
key ideasin sucha wav that thev constitutean acceptabletext. with
is much closerto advancedthan
and sequencing.
appropriatesentence-linking
guidedwriting. While it mav be true that, when we are summarising'the text
'content' of what we write. in many respectsit is more
provides us u'ith the
Oifncultto operateu'ithin the constraintsof someoneelses thoughtsthan to
produceour own.
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*For convenience,note-takingis usedto refer to the activityboth of making noteson a text which
has been read and of takingnoteson a text which hasbeenheard.It is acknou'ledgedthat notetaking is itsella form of suLmarising.Hou'ever,summarisingis usedhere to refer to the activitl' of
,e-priseuti,tgn ,ho.t.r versionof thCoriginaltext. althoughnot accordingto any set prcscription.
such as usinea given number of q'ords.
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6.3.1
Note-taking
It hasbeensuggested
that the initialphaseof note-taking*shouldconsist
mainlyof showingthe learnerswhat noteslook like andof demonstrating
that,
althoughthereare no magicformulas.sincenote-taking
is to someextenta
personalactivity,therearea numberof wavsof reducinga text to notesso that
ideasin it arenot lost.We shouldstart,therefore,by showing
the fundamental
how notesrelateto a text.For example,we canpresentboth a text and a setof
notesandexaminehorvthe writerarnvedat his notes.
JohnSmith,who wasbornon December6,1957,is a secondary
school
teacher.His wife'snameis Jovce.Thevhavethreechildren:onesonand
two daughters.
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We may alsousefullycontrastone setof noteswith another.For example:
Ja* frurl4 Btrn : b.l2,t/ .fec.scho4 tqa'ohtr
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By comparingtwopossible
setsof noteswe canaskthe studentsto identify
rvhatinformationhasbeenpreserved
in both andwhatotherinformationeach
writer hasincludedor omitted.We canalsoexaminesomeof the deviceswhich
havebeenused.For example.the examination
of evenshortsetsof noteslike
theserevealsthatwe canomit pronouns.auxiliaryverbs,articlesand
connectives.
and thatwe canalsousenumeralsandsymbols.We canalsobegin
to look at the questionof abbreviations.
of whichthereis only one examplein
(sec.
the notes
for secondary)
anddiscuss
how thiswasmade(i.e. in thiscase,
by takingthe firstsvllableof the rvord)andwhetherotheronesarepossible(for
example.sclz.for school).
It will alsohelpstudents
to be shorvndifferentwaysof settingnotesout.
F o r e x a m p l et,h em o d e l b e l o rdvo e sn o t c o m m i t h e mt o a n vp a r t i c u l aor r d e r .
and.perhapsmoreimportant.allou'sadditionalrelatedinformationto be
addedin at the rightpoint.especiallv
if you arereadinga longtext.For
w
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n
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s
example.
J o h nS m i t h
b o r n .t h e n a m eo f t h es c h o ohl e t e a c h eisn a n d
t h e s u b i e c t se.t c .
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c \ l ( ' n \ i \L 'r r ( ) l c - l i l k i n: rgc t i irt i c s .
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l n a d d i t i o nt o a s k i n gt h e s t u d e n t st o e x a m i n es e t so f n o t e sa l o n gt h e s e
lines,we ma1,take a numberof textsand discusshow we might arrive at a set of
notes:for example.\\'ecan underlinekev items.bracketwords or phrasesthat
can be omitted. and considerpossiblecontractions.Finally.we can work out
v'ith the studentsa possibleset of notes.
Another usefulactir,itv.to be carriedout with fairly long texts.is to ask
the studentsto identifl'the main ideasin a text. For example.as a first step.we
can give them a list of the main ideas.presentedin random order, and ask them
dealtwith in the text. Subsequently,
to put thesein the order in u'hichthe1,'are
they may be askedto identifl,themain ideasfor themselves.
At this stage.too. u'hen*'e first askthe studentsto take notes,it is helpful,
both in order to focustheir attentionon specificaspectsof the text and to
ensurethat they keep their notesshort.to givethem somesort of framework
u'ithin which to u'ork. in the form of a chartto be completed.The activitieson
page75 show how it is possibleto focus the attentionof the studentson
particularaspectsof a text (in this case.one for readingfollowed by a related
one for listeningto). r.rhichare the pointsthey needto make a note of.
Studentsenjov this kind of activitl,'becauseit is intrinsicallymore enjoyable
than simplymaking a stringof notes.Equally important.however,the useof
chartsobligesstudentsto be concise.
Mani' gamesand gamelikeactivitiesinvolvekeepingnotes,and this is
home to the studentstheir real importance.One
anotherway of bringin-q
activityin particularu,ill be found useful:this is a variationon Describeand
draw.
Instead of trying to drau' a picture which
someonedescribesfor them without
their being ableto seeit, the students
make notesas they listen.They can then
either
compare notes and subsequentl,v.
individually or in coliaboration.carry
out one of the following tasks:
- describethe picture orally;
-
draw the picture;
-
write a descriptionof the picture
Usually the studentsfeel more
comfortable making notesas a first
stage(rather than being askedto try to
draw the picture straightoff) and, of
course,the activitv doesgive them an
immediate use for the notesthey have
made.
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CONTEXTSFORWRITING:THEUSEoF TEXTS
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1 Use information in the text to complete this
table. If there is no information. put a
questionmark.
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overnight
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Scotland is
different.
It's exciting.
It's easy to
get to. and
it's cheap
to travel
around in.
There are
plenty of
travel
bargains.
meals
2 How would you travel if you wanted to do
these things?
ar watch a film on the journey
b) take your car to Scotiand without driving it
c) get to Scotland as quickly as possible
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3 Listen and answer:
NIr Smith wants to go to Scotland. so he goes to a
travel agency. The travel agent tells him
differenLways of travelling. Horv doesNIr Smith
decide to go to Scotland? Why?
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4 Mr Smith wants to know
to get to Scotland. What
agent tell him? Listen to
again and complete this
It only ta
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How long?
coaches run every day from
fast and
during the
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other big cities.They are
You q'Cnwatch films
irr you can sleepin
overnight
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how long it takes
does the travel
the conversation
table:
traln
se
plane
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coach
a p l e a s u r ei n i t s e l f . T h e m o d e r n , h i g h speedtrains are quiet, comfortable and
air-conditioned. You can enioy a good
meal during your journey. Or you can
travel overnight.Take your car on the
train with you. Start your holiday f resh
and relaxed.
5 Complete this table:
WAYS OF TRAVELLING TO SCOTLAND
(for one person)
quickest
BYAIR
The fastest way to travel. There are
several flights from London every day,
and regular services from many
European citi€s.
cheapest
most comfortable
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
G RITING
v
trainingaloncthcselinesu'ill ensurethat the studentsare
Sy'stematic
adequatelypreparedfornote-taking'At the sametime' we can also
sure
demonstrate thepracticalt'alueof note-takilg:for example.by making
for
that the studentsexercisethis skill when rvegivethem instructions
date' In
a
later
at
out
carrv
to
have
they
which
activities.includinghomeu'ork.
purposeful
is
a
this way. it is hoped.thev u,ill be ableto seethat note-taking
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activity.
6.3.2
Summarising
76
read or
SunmarisinC- producinCa shortenedversionof a text rvhichhas been
of
heard- is bestviewedas a skill which is realisedthroughdifferentkinds
and
of writing' Reportson speeches
\\,riting,ratherthan as a special.fo,77?
of
svrtopses
and
articles
of
ntintttis of meetingsare summaries:so are obstracts
at
books.At one end of the scale,summariesmay be quite lengthydocuments:
of
the other. no more than a few iines.One factorrvhichdeterminesthe length
summarised
of
the
u'riter
a summaryis the actualamountof spacervhichthe
bv
versionhasat his disposal.A report on a meeting.to be read and studied
report on a
thosewho were not present.ma\Ihaveno prescribedlength' u'hile a
haveto be
may
ne\\'spaper
in
a
meetingu,hichhasbeenu ritten to be published
the
which
for
fitted into half a column or less.Another factoris lhe purpose
summarvhasbeenu,ritten:it may'be intendedto provide a record of some
hand.
event,in rvhichcasebrevitvwill not be the main concern'On the other
guide
for
a
is likely to be importantif it is intendedto serveas
corrciseness
wishesto find
someonewho doesnot haveiime to read the originaltext or who
out u'hetherit is worth reading'
All this. of course.is a long u'avfrom summarisingasit is traditionally
the
practisedin the classroom.but therewoulclseemlittle point in practising
those
like
activities
realistic
wa,v
to
ititt ut all unlesswe can relateit in some
only make it
describedabove.A more flexibleview of sunmary u'ritingwill not
work with
a more purposefulactiyityfor the students;it will alsoenableus to
different
differentkinds of material.both spokenand written. and of very
a summarised
in
although
lengths.It wiil fuither enableus to demonstratethat.
- the main
versionwe are alwa),sconcernedto preserveessentiaiinformation
the summary
ideas- how u,edo this is affectedboth by the purposein making
and the amount of spaceat our disposal'
Through note-takingwe have alreadyto a large extent laid the foundations
the main
for summarising;in particular, through activitiessuch as identifying
rvith
work
to
convenient
points in a text ir.. 6.: . 1) . Becauseat the start tt is
setting
iairll,short texts(like the one in 6.2.1).we haveto be carefulto avoid
of materialwhich is
unrealistictaskswhich rl ould involvethe compression
to give a
already succinctlyexpressed.Hou'et'er, the studentsmaY be asked
ratherthan a set
."ru*d, oral or written. in a givennumberof sentences
the best useof the
make
to
students
the
number of words.This encourages
at their disposal'
number of sentences
kinds of
As with note-taking.we must alsosftowthe studentswhat various
of ways'
summarisedversionsof a text look like. This can be done in a number
(which is
texts
of
study
For example.we may reiatethis activityto the intensive
the form of a
o.o61*on activityaithis stage),bv settingthem a readinggoal in
reflects
summarv.which asksthem to decidewhetherthe summaryaccurately
notes.
of
with
examples
the main icleasin the text. we ma1'alsocompare,as
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11
two or threesummaries
of differentlengths,so that the students
candecideto
whatextentthe essential
ideasof theoriginalhavebeenretainedin each.and
how the lengthof the summarised
versionsmayaffectboth whatis included
and how it is expressed.
However,the practicalvalueof summarising
canonly be fully brought
homeif we work with fairly'longtexts.How thisis donemustof course..lut.
to the levelandinterests
of the students.
Theymay be askedto write abstracts
of chaptersof bookstheyhaveread.For example.the communication
taskin
5.5.2(d) mav be reformulated
sothat theywrite 'blurbs'for the booksrvhich
thevhaveread.In someclasses.
it mav be moreusefulto work with textsrvhich
areheardratherthanread.For example,somedialogues
wherethe speakers
aredealingwith a well-defined
theme,suchasmakingplans,lendthemselves
well to reportingactivities
throu-sh
rvhichsummarising
canbe practised.
Incjeed
the taskof writinga notice.basedon whatthe speakers
havesaid,is a form of
summarv,with a specialcommunicative
purpose.If listeningfacilitiesare
available,the students,
dividedinto two halves,may be askedto listento two
reportson a townor on an accident,
broadlythe samebut differingin details.
They maythenbe askedto writesummarised
versionsof whattheyhaveheard
andsubsequently
to comparetheseso asto identifythe similarities
and
differences.
But to demonstrate
fullv thepractical'application
of summarising
rveshall
probablyhaveto relv mainlvon activities
rvhichinvo.lve
someform of roleplay.
F o r e x a m p l et.h e ' e s t a t ea g e n c v ' a c t i v ist vu g g e s t ei nd 5 . 5 . 1( a ) i s w e l l s u i t e d
to
thispurpose.Eachstudentmavbe askedto rvritea comprehensive
description
of the propertyhe wishesto sell.rvhichis thensivento otherstudents.
preferablyrvorkingin pairsor smallsroups,to 'edit' in sucha way that the
description
fitsinto a givenamountof spacefor the purposeof advertising.
Similarlythe students
mav
be given,or askedto write.
'articles'
of differentkindssuch
asnewsreports,socialevents,
book andfilm reviews.letters
t o t h ee d i t o r .e t c . ,f o r w h i c ht h e
lengthis not specified.
A
s e l e c t i oonf t h e s ei s g i v e nt o
eachgroupof students,
togetherwith the layoutfor the
pageof a newspaper
asshown
in the diagram.Their taskis to
f i t t h e s ep i e c e o
s f w r i t i n go n t o
the page.Thevhave,therefore.
to considerbothwhereto place
their articles,rvithinthe limits
laid down,andto modifythem
as necessary,
whichmight
i n v o l v ee i t h e re x p a n s i oonr
reduction.
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77
It
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,T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
Through actii,itiesalongtheselines(and aisowithin the broadercontextof
simulations,see8.4). the skill of summarisingmay be practisedand developed
in a realisticway. The requirementsof examinationsmay demandthat this skill
shouldbe usedin a much more limitedway. suchas makingsummariesin the
traditional sense,for rvhich thepurposemav not be at all apparent,but these
need not be allowedto distortthe rvaywe teachand practisethis skillin the
__v
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-
classroom.
_v.
Discussion
1 Make a list of the thingsyou use note-takingand summarisingfor' Arrange
theseunder two headings:frequent andoccasional.Compareyour list with a
friend.
2 From your reading of.6.3.2.do you agreethat summarywriting is an
important and valuableactivitY?
3 How effectivedo 1'outhink the final activity in 6.3.2 would be for teaching
summary writing?
Exercises
1 Examineany textbookat an appropriatelevelto seewhat attemptis made to
practisenote-takingand summarywriting. Are the activitieswellpresented?
2 Do the exercisein 6 .2.1.
3 M a k e n o t e so n t h e t e x t i n 6 . 2 . 1 ,u s i n gt h e d i a g r a mm o d e l s h o w ni n 6 . 3 . 1 .D o
you think it is more suitablefor this type of text than conventionalforms of
note-taking?
4 Find a suitablepicture and try out the Describeand note in 6.3.1 with some
friends. What difficultiesdid you have?
References
1 The texr on pageTlcomes from R o'Neill: Flight (Longman 1973).
2 Onnote-taking seeJB Heaton in S Holden (ed) (1977)Keep it short and JB
Heaton (I975) pages18-28.
3 On summarisingseeM Donley (1975).
4 The illustrative material on page75 comesfrom M Palmer and D Byrne
Tracki (1983).
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Contextsfor writing:
the useof visualmaterial
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7.1
Somegeneral
considerations
framework
an dttractiveandstimulating
At firstglance,visualmateriaioffers
is
if someform of pictureSequence used,andfor
for writingpractice.especially
respondfavourablyto taskswhich
thisreasonno doubtthe learnersgenerally
the
otherhand,if we considerthe
relateto somekind of visualcontext.On
kind of writing activitywhichoften resultsfrom the useof visualmaterial'composition'with
no specificgoalin mind,except
narrativeanddescriptive
that narrativetaskscouldbe saidto take the form of tellinga story- it is clear
that visualmaterialcaneasilylenditselfto the practiceof writingfor writing's
valueandwhichwill not contribute
sake.of a kind that hasno communicative
of rvritingskills.Partof the problemat least
to the development
significantly
visual
materialis generallyused:for the most
seemsto be the levelat which
part,thisis at a fairlyearlystageof the course,when'picturecomposition'
a specialplacein the programme.As
writingin particulartendsto be accorded
to
usedin the earlystages,
rvehaveseen.visualmaterialcanbeappropriately
is
otherformsof practice.but whatneedsparticularconsideration
supplement
than
guidance
rather
need
lel'el,wherethe Iearners
its useat a moreadvanced
controiandwherethe contextsit offerscanbe morefully exploited.The main
concernof this chapterwill be to identifythe kindsof writing activitywhichcan
levei.
be derivedfrom differenttypesof visualmaterialat the post-elementary
7. T . T
Typesof visual
material
trvomaincategories:
We maydividevisualmaterialinto
(a) Pictorial:this categoryincludessinglepicturesandpicturesequences.
(b) Plans,maps,diagrams:diagramsincludematerialsuchasgraphsand
andperhapsa few items,suchasheadings,
charts(i.e.theycontainTSgltres
in words).
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By its vervnaturevisualmaterialprovidesa muchmoreopen-ended
Lt.2
practicethantexts.The visualcontentdoesof course
Theuseanclabuse framelvorkfor language
o f v i s u a lm a t e r i a l
the
rvhichcanbe used.particularly'in
the language
to somee.\tent
cletermine
79
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l c x i c a la r e a .a l t h o u g he r e n h e r cu ' e r r r cn o t t i c d t o u n \ is t : to f i t e n t s .l n o t h e r
rcspecls.horl'ever. \\e are frec ttl exploitthe matcrialaswe u'ish. I/ie special
edt,ontugeo.[ thisi.sthatve con rtsethe sentepiecco.fmateriulat differentlevels
and alsofor di.fferertt\ pes o.f x'ritirtg.
On the other hand. the verv fact that visualmaterialis open-endedhasits
dangers.There is the risk that the learnersu,ill interpretthe visualcontentin a
the languagepermits.This
u'avthan their proficiencl,'in
more sophisticated
mav involvesomeforn of mentaltranslation.lvhichin turn resultsin
inappropriateand incorrectexpression.Even if errorsare not our main
concern,it is undesirablethat they shouldresultfrom the learnersfailing to
make full and proper useof the languagethet' haveacquired:both oral and
u'rittenpracticemust. asone of its goals.aim to shorvthe learnershow the,vcan
*'ithin the limits of the ianguagethey know. Writing tasks.
expressthemselr.'es
therefore.haveto be rerv carefulll'definedand the learnersgiven appropriate
preparationfor thenl.
I f v i s u a lm a t e r i a l i su s e da t t o o e l e m e n t a n ' al e v e l .i t a l s ot e n d st o
encourageetform of u ritten expressionu'hichis remotefrom u'ritingin any real
sense.At best.it might be describedas a kind of commentaryon rvhatcan be
seenin the picture.Thus. for example.the learnersare invited to produce
usingthe PresentContinuous.For example John is at the bus stop.
sequences
He is w,aiting.forrhe bus. The bus is corttingand John is gctingto get on it. Now
he is gettingon the bns. etc. Although it might be arguedthat the learnerswill
of this kind rather than producing
from rvritingsequences
get more satisfaction
compositionskills.On the
u'ill
not
benefit
writing
this
tvpe
of
singlesentences.
contrary,it might evento someextentbe harmfulbecauseit allowsthe learners
to believethat thel'can u'riteu'ithoutthe useof appropriatelinking and
sequencingdevices.It is. surelr'.much betterto usealternativeforms of
in Chapter4) ratherthan to encouragethem to write in a
practice(assuggested
u'av which is inappropriateto the rvrittenform of the language.
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7.2
Theroleof the
teacher
Visual material clearlv hasgreat potential as an 4jd to develgpingwriting skills
and can provide both contextsand stimulationfor a variety of activitiesbut,
used,it ma-vcreatemore problemsthan it solves.It is
unlessit is properl-uessential,therefore.to do the following:
an appropriate writing task which relatesto the theme of
(a) Identify and de_fine
the visualmaterial.
The studentsmav of coursebe givena choiceor be askedto work on
differentbut perhapscomplementaryactivities.It is unlikely that the
writing task u'ill call for anv form of straightnarrationor description,
which is an aspectu'hich may be exploredthrough oral preparation for
writing. On the contrar!',the writing task shouldhavea clearlydefined
form (a letter. a report. etc.),u'hichwiildeal with the themefrom a
p a r t i c u l a ra n g l eo r r i e r v P o i n t .
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(b) Identify the lenguagewhich the learnerswill needin order to carrv out the
task.
As far as possible.languagedifficultiesshouldbe anticipatedat the oral
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CONTEXTF
S o R W R I T I N GT: H EU S Eo F V I S U A LM A T E R I A L
I-_<a
preparationstageandfurtherexplored,if necessary,
through
supplementary
exercises.
In orderto do this,it will generallybe necessary
actuallyto writeout a versionof the writingtaskto seewhatlanguage
it
entails.
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(c) Decidehow to preparethelearnersfor the writing task.
The classroom
preparation
stageis a delicateone.As wasnotedin (b)
above,we wantto ensurethatthe learnershavethe necessary
language
for
the tasktheyareset.At the sametime, the writingactivitymustneve;be
simplya replicaof the oralpreparation,
otherwisethereis no challenge
in
the activitv.If the writingtaskinvolvesdealingwith the themepresented
from a differentangleor viewpoint,the problemis largelyresolved,
becausethe learnershaveto decidehow to restructureand selectfrom the
language
practised
at theoral preparationstage.
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7.3
The use of visual
m a t e r i a l :s o m e
examples
This sectioncontainssomeexamplesof how visualmaterialmay be exploitedat
the post-elementary
levelfor differentkindsof writing task.
?al
The followingactivityis basedon a simplemap like the oneshownbelow,
which may be drawnon the boardor reproducedon a transparency
for useon
/.J.1
Usinga map to
practiseparagraph
construction
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the overheadprojector.It hasbeenfouncleffectivein gettingthe studentsto
explorewaysin rvhicha paragraphcan be organised.In particulztr.they have to
and
of certainsentences
and possiblesequencing
considerboth the necessar)'
differentwaysof linking thesesentences.
Each student,or pair of students,if they are askedto work together,is
given a card which containsa pieceof informationabout three of the places
shownon the map. Trvo examplesof suchcardsare givenbelow.
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:
noa"d iS th.e rna/r/2,c,.t.
Tlu Libra,ry t4/c7sbttik
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v.
Fred Ca;/t' Ls aLso
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The information written on the cardsis obtainedby breakingdowna
of the
paragraphdescribingeachof theseplaces.For example,the description
as
follows:
market runs
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The buildingin Harbour RoadbetweenCentralRoad and New Roadis the
andfruit. It usedto
market,whichwasbuilt in 1875.It sellsfish,vegetables
The
market
is openfrom
sellmeat,but that is now soldin the supermarket.
andFridays,andfrom 8 a.m.to 5
Thursdays
8 a.m. to 2 p.m. on Tuesdays,
p.m. on Saturdays.
The informationwhichappearson ten differentcardsis asfollows:
1 The buildingin HarbourRoadbetweenCentralRoad andNew Roadis the
market.
2 The marketwasbuilt in 1875.
3 The marketsellsfish.
4 The marketsellsvegetables.
5 The marketsellsfruit.
6 The marketusedto sellmeat.
7 Meat is now soldin the supermarket.
Thursdays,Fridaysand Saturdays.
8 The marketis openon Tuesdays,
9 The marketis openfrom 8 a.m.to 2 p.-. on weekdays'
10 The marketis openfrom 8 a.m.until5 p.m' on Saturdays.
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The studentsare then invitedto identifya buildingwhich the teacherpointsto,
suchasthe market.Only one studentis'ableto do this and he thereforeinforms
the restof the class.This statementis clearlythe openingsentenceof the
paragraph.Another pieceof informationwhichmight relateto this is then
calledfor. Sincethe studentsdo not know what is on one another'scards,
are likely to be madeuntil it is agreedthat the mostsuitable
severalsuggestions
pieceof informationis:Themarketwasbuilt in 1875. However,it cannot
in the form in whichit appearson the cardand
foilow on from the first sentence
are invitedasto how it shouldbe linked to the precedingsentence.
suggestions
This may be either with which,asin the originalversion,or with lr (that is to
say-.Thebuitding. . . is themarket.It wasbuilt in 1875).It shouldbe notedthat
on the cardshaveto be modifiedin someway.
most of the statements
Noticethatwe are
of theparagraphcontinues.
And so the construction
not concernedto reconstructthe originaltext in its exactform. On the
contrary,it is far moreimportantto get thestudentsto consideracceptable
alternatives.For example.the text might continue:Themarket sells
fsh. It also
also
but
not
sells
only
market
or even:The
fruit and
sells
fish
fruit anclvegetabies
vegetables.
The completeddescriptionof the firstplacemay be written up on the
canbe askedto makenoteswhilethe activityis
board.After that,the students
afterwards.They will find this
in progressand to write up the descriptions
easierto do if theyareworkingin pairs.
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of the kind depictedon page84, wherethe dialogueis
Visualsequences
7.3.2
There
haveto be interpretedratherthandescribed.
V i s u a l s e q u e n c e s implicitinthe situations,
for the production aretwo mainwaysin whichthe dialogueelementmaybe'extracted':
of dialogues
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W R I T I N GS K I L L S
TEACHING
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( a ) 1 - h es t L l d e n tl st l i t r b e l i r s ta s k e ctlo s a \ u h i t l t h c Vt h i l l k t h e p i c t u r c sr t r c
a b o u t .F o r e r a n r p l e i.n P i c t u r eA . t h e \ \ o n x l n .u ' h o mu ' e u ' i l l c a l lM r s B l r l l .
wanrssomesusar.(lVlry'does sheneedit?) Sheasksher husbandto go and
Perhapsat the starther husbandis
get it. (What v'ordsdoessher.rse?)
reluctantto go. (ll'ftr'?Vlhatis he doing?) So shehasto persuadehim'
(What does.sl.te
The studentsare then invitedto suggestvarious
sa1,?)
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p o s s i b i l i t i ef so r ea c hl i n eo f d i a l o g u e .
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CONTEXTF
S O RW R I T I N GT: H EU S EO FV I S U A LM A T E R I A L
(b) Alternatively,the dialoguemaybe cuedby providingthe firstlineof the
In the exampiebelorv,whichrelatesto PicturesA andB, the
exchange.
teachertakesthe partof Mrs Ball. and the studentsgiveher husband's
responses.
Will you go to the grocer'sandgetsomesugar,please?
(But I'm watchinga footballmatchon TV')
W e l l ,i f y o ud o n ' tg o ,I c a n ' tm a k ea c a k e '
( O h , i n t h a tc a s eI' ' l l g o l )
N o w .I n e e d s o m e o t h ; r t h i n g s a s w.e. .l ls a l t c, o f f e e . .' H e r e ' s a l i s t '
( I d o n ' tn e e da l i s t ! )
for both
severalalternatives
The studentsmaybe askedto suggest
s p e a k e r sF.o r e x a m P l e :
B: I needsomesugar.Canyou go andgetme some?
MRS
MRB: Now? I wasiustreadingthe paper'
r:
s:
r:
s:
r:
s:
Or:
B: Would,voumind goingto the grocer'sfor me?
MRS
IuRB: What do Youwant?
B : W e l l ,l ' v e r u n o u t o f s u g a r' ' '
MRS
B: I'll go thisafternoon.I've got to go into town'
NtR
B: Yes, but . . .
IVIRS
theycanselect
cometo writeup their dialogues,
Thus,whenthe students
that havebeengivenor producesimilarones
from the differentsuggestions
for themselves'
The nextthreepicturesmaybe similarlyexploitedto produce,for
aboutgardeningandthe weather(c)' Mr
example,a shortconversation
the
Ball orderingthe thingshe rvantsfrom the grocer but forgetting
F
involves
(E).
Picture
aboutthe news
sugar(D) and a conversation
importantpicturewhich
an
is
therefore
and
asling'forand givingdirections
we havethe
in
shouldbe explJitedlndepth(seebelow).Finally, G andH.
betrveenN{isBall. rvhois angrybecauseher husbandhas
conversation
takensucha longtime.andher husband,who triesto makeexcuses
only to find that he hasforgottenthe sugarl
should
that one or moremodeldialogues
For PictureF, it is suggested
to
relevant
language
practise
firstbe built up with the helpof the class,to
very
a
For example,we mightstartwith
askingfor andgivingdirections.
simpledialogue:
NIAN:Excuseme. Canyou tellme the way to the station?
andthenturn
s: Yes.Crossou.r th. road.go asfar asthe nervsagent's
rvrR
left.
MAN: Is it a longwa,v?
.rrcx: Oh, abouthalfa mile'
is to
it shouldbe emphasised,
The purposeof producingthesedialogues,
task'
rvriting
their
willneedfor
rvhichthe students
rehearsethetariguage
to
theyshouldbe encouraged
dialogues,
their
WhentheycomJto o'riteup
p r o d u c ev e r vd i f f e r e nvt e r s i o n s '
maY
picturesin the sequence
$'rittenaboutinclividual
The dialogues
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be further elaboratedto form a shortplay, dividedinto scenesand with
'stagedirections'.This is bestdone asgroup work. The
appropriate
examplebelou'showsthat this can be done in fairly simplelanguage:
SceneI Mrs Ball is cooking in the kitchen.She.findsthat she doesnot have
any sugar.
rrrnsn (calilngher husband): Jackt.
Thereis no artsv'er.
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MRB (cominginto thekitchen):Yes. What is it?
MRSB: Oh ! I'r'e run out of sucar.Could )'ou go to the shop and get me
some?
( e t c .)
M RB : B u t I u a n t e dt o
7. 3 . 3
Otherusesfor
visualsequences
like the
Whateverthe final outcomein rvriting,you can usevisualsequences
one in I .3.2 andthe shorterone belowfor a rangeof oral activitiesboth to
preparefor u,rittenu'ork and to involvethe studentsin the material(u'hichwe
must never assumetobe intrinsicallymotivating,however attractiveit may
appearto be). For example:
- speculation:Get the studentsto give their own ideasabout the people and
t h e s e t t i n g( w h o t h e y a r e ; w h e r et h e ya r e ,e t c . ) .S e e4 . 6 ( i ) .
-
-
roleplal,and dramatisation'.Get the studentsto work out how they would
presentpeople shown in the picturesand how they would act out some or
all of the sequence. (Seebelow for relatedwriting activities.)
discussion:N{ostpicture setswill stimulatesome kind of discussion.For
example. husband-wiferelationshipsfor 7 .3.2 and monstersfor the set
below.
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Somekey writing activitieswill be:
- notes:The studentsshould make a note of anv important ideaswhich come
up during oralu'ork.
- diarl, enuies:The studentswrite up an accountof what happenedfrom the
viewpointof one of the peoplein the sequence.Notice that this involves
selectivereporting.For the sequenceabove,don't forget the diary of the
monsterl
- role descriptions:The studentswrite rolecardsfor one another if they are
goingto act out the sequence.See4.6 (t) and 5.6 (d). They can alsowrite
s c e n a r i o (ss e e5 . 6 ( e ) ) .
-
86
letterwriring: Similar to the previousactivity. Again the activity will involve
selectivereporting- and. if you do not wish to bore the personyou are
writing to - realisticsummarising!
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coNTEXTSFoR WRITING:THEUSEoF VISUALMATERIAL
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reports(articles,
etc.):This will dependon the contentof the sequence.
The
studentscouldwriteonefor the one above.For example:rur,I,ToNSTER
lHAr cAMEro LUNCHI
Reportwritingis discussed
in detailin 7.3.5.
Noneof thisprecludes
morebasicoral work (questionand answer,true-false
statements,
etc.)andmorebasicwrittenwork (sentence
linking,paragraph
completion),whichmay be necessary
with certainclasses.
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7. 3 . 4
Techniquesfor
presenting
visual
sequences
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Here are somewaysof presentinga four-picturesequenceso asto
stimulatethe students'
imaginations:
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(a) Showthefirst and lastpicture.
Thestudentsfill in what
happenedin between.
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(b) Showthemiddletwopicrures.
Thestudentssupplythe
beginningand theend.
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(c) Showthelastpictureonly. The
stLtdents
decidewhathappened
before.
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(d) Showthefirst picrureon[y. The
studentsdecidewhathappened
after that.
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If for anyreasonyou cannotuseincomplete
you canaskthe
sequences,
studentslo continttethe story.
F o r t h eu s eo f j u m b l e ds e q u e n c esse. e7 . 3 . 8( h ) .
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Muchwill dependon theform in whichthisis available(book,displaychart,
transparency),
andalsohow muchyou wantthe students
themselves
to
contributeideas.Whereverpossible,
unlessyou wantto givethemthe taskof
exactdescription(whichcanbe a challengingactivityif it is presentedin the
rightway),you shouldwelcomerheopportunityof gettingthe students
to
contributeideas.Theyarecertainlylikelyto enjoyit more thanif theyare
allowedto describe
onlywhattheycansee.
7. 3 . 5
Usingvisual
materialfor report
writing
The pictureon page88 couldof coursebe usedfor a varietyof writing
activities.
It couldbe exploitedfor the productionof dialogues,
suchasone
betweenthe two cyclists
or betrveen
the lorry-driverandthe motor-cyclist
if an
accidentis narrowlyaverted,or for letter-writing.
For example,an,r'of those
involvedin the incidentmightrvritea letteraboutit at somesubsequent
date.
Reportwritinghasbeenchosento demonstrate
that, if visualmaterialis used
at the post-elementary
level,it has_ereat
potentialforformalrvritingtasks.
A singlepicturehasbeenchosenfor thispurposeto shorvthat,properly
exploited.it canbe just aseffectivein providinga contextfor thistypeof
rvritingactivityaspicturesequences.
in
In fact,thereis evensomeadvantage
u s i n ga s i n g l ep i c t u r eb. e c a u siet i s m o r eo p e n - e n d e d
t h: eo u t c o m ea. n a c c i d e n t
87
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o r [ I n e a r a C c i d e n t .i s n o t a c l u a l l v r / l r t l l t a n d \ \ ' c c a n t h c r e f ( ) r e c l c c i d c l i r r
o u r s e l v e su ' h a t f o r m i t n r i c h t t a k e .
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On the assumptionthat an accidentdid take place, u'e might set as a
u'ritingtask a newspaperreport of somekind. Other possibilitiesare reports
made by the lorry-driver (for example,in connectionwith an insuranceclaim)
or by a policemaninvestigatingthe accident.For this, the eventswe can actually
seein the picture - a lorry approachinga sharpbend in the road, two cyclists
talking as the-Vovertakethe lorry and two men on a motor-cycle.whose
attentionis distractedbv a planethat is landing.comingin the opposite
direction- are likelv to be referredto in someway in the report but not
in their chronologicalorder. At the oral preparationstage.
necessarily
we
therefore. can get the studentsto describetheseeventswithout any risk of
prejudicingthe writing task.
Our classroompresentationshouldalsoaim to arousethe interestof the
studentsin the themeand at the sametime to help them with someof the
languagethey wiil needin the report. We might begin.for example,rvithout
someof the thingsthat
referringto the pictureat all. bir discussing
necessarily
board:
on
the
be
listed
can
These
causeaccidents.
Causesof accidents
- fast driving
- carelessdriving (for example:. . . .
- mechanicaldefects
- weatherconditions
- pedestrians
Examplesof the languageusedto describeroad accidentscan be given or
elicited.
Featuresof accidents
- vehiclescollide/getdamaged/runpeopleover/knockpeopledown
- peopleget killcd/injured,/taken
to hospital.etc.
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MATERIAL
CONTEXTSFORWRITING:THEUSEOFVISUAL
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W e c a n t h e n r e l a t e t h e s e i t e m s t o w h a t i s s h o w n i n t h e p i c t u r e aItnis
d date c i d e w
the outcomeof theseevents'
onesapply,or mightapplyclepending.on
several
afterconsidering
thispoint thatwe .un i., it . .to.t to decide,
whatactuallyhappened'
suggestions,
reportsof thiskind, thenwe
If the studen,,n."o iurttt.r helpwith writing
canworkoutontheboardwiththemoneaccolntoftheaccidentandaskthe
tousedifferentfactsintheirversion.Forexample,wemightbeginbydec
onasuitableheadlineandshowingthatthisisfollowedbyanimportantp
of information.
CYCLIST KILLED ON AIRPORT ROAD
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onecyclistwaskilledandanotherbadlyinjuredw.hentheycollidedwit
yesterdayafternoon'
motor cycleon the roadto Winton Airport
probablyuseinformation
We canthen showthat at thispoint we would
providedby the picture'For example:
in the road abouttwo
. . . The collisionoccurredneara sharpbend
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milesfromtheairport.Accordingtothedriverofthelorry,whichwas
two cyclists' ' '
travellingtowardsthe airportat the time' the
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I n t h e v e r s i o n w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t s a r e a s k e d t o w r i t e , t h e ooru badly
tcomeoft
hitsthe tree,andis kiiled
picturemightbe that the driverof the lotry
Thiswill still allowthe
injured.throughtryingto avoidthe motoi-cyclists.
version,but at the same
of the rehearsed
studentsto usesomeof the language
changes.In this way' noneof the
time theywill haveio makequiteslgnificant
of the writingactivityis lost'
challenge
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Using
diagrammatic
materials
for controlledandguidedwriting
we havealreadyseenhow mapscanbe used
(seea.3(b)and5.3(d)).rvhileearlierinthischapter(7.3.1)amapwasu
g u ' o . p u r a g r u p h o r g a n i s a t i o n . . T h e S a m e m a t e r i a l c a n b e uhow
s e dto
a tget
alate
suchasrvritinga letterto advisesomeone
for freerwritingactlvities.
These,togetherwith graphslike
to your houseo, *tr".. to meet,vouin town.
t h e o n e b e l o w ( s e e E x e r c i s e s , P a g e g ; 1 ) p l a n s o f r o o m s a n encourage
dbuildingsa
of activitieswhichwill
and train timetablescanbe ur.d fo. a variety
of
. For example,theremaybe morethanonervay
studentsto write preciselt,
describingaroomoradvisingaroute-butatleastitwillbeclearifthe
studentshavegotthe informationacross'
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P O P U L A T I O Nr \ N D E N l P L O Y I " ' i E , NFTO R S T A N - | O N
K-^\ i
loclrllr cnllllor ccl
c()nl lll Ltt c r\
ary;
retiretl
r.rrtcntplIovccl
t g t iI
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193-i l9E7
formalnpes of
rvillnccclfor certain
N,luchof the languaeen hich the stuclents
of
n'pical
functions
of
use
ttre
in particulrtr
r v r i t i n g .s u c ha s r e P t l r t su' i l l involve
89
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and contrastinq.
the u'rittertlanguage.suchas deltniltg.cort'lparing
exemplifying(etc.). The practiceof these(see9.2) can help to give a new slant
to the programme and enableus to cover old ground in a new way. Visual
can be very usefulfor this purpose.
materialin the form of plansand diagran-rs
representationof a town
how
the
diagrammatic
belou'
The example
shows
can be usedto introducesomeof the languageneededfor writing a text which
of data and also to structurea parallel
involvesthe systematicclassification
*
writing task for the studentsto carry out.
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The diasram below showsthe structureof a town calledBrunton.
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HOUf|/VG E'TATE
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fi1ps-sof f ui/d;a1a
fiz.cilitirs
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Brunton/allsintothreemainparts:the industrialestate.
the residenttalarea. andthe commercialsector. The
the industrialestateon thenorth
residentialarealiesbetw,een
side of.the town and the commercialsectoron thesouth.
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C0/tihlERC/AL
With the helpof the diagramwe canelicitfrom the
the threemainareasinto whichthe town is divided
students
andu'heretheylie in relationto one another.This mai'be
donebv askingquestions.
For example:How manypartsdoes
thetov,nfall into? Whatarethey?Wherearethey?With the
of
helpof thisinformation$'ecangivea generaldescription
is
Somekey language
Bruntonin our openingparagraph.
indicatedin italics.
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how onepart of the town may
As a nextstep.\\'emightshowthe students
described.For exampie,the residentialarea.This is partly
be systematicail,v
structuredthroughthe diagram,but the studentsare alsoinvitedto make some
we canbuiid up
questions,
Againusingappropriate
for themselves.
suggestions
a descriptionasfollows:
The residentialareaconsistsof.a
fownerciaL
housingestateand a park. Theformer is
of buildings:
madeup of two maint,vpes
tect2r
detachedhousesand biocksof.flats.The
latterhassomeexcellentfacilities.
Theseincludea footbaliground,a
N
swimmingpool. a tenniscourtand a
f/owsr*rg
playground.
children's
lwdustrial
Istnte
fstate
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*This does not cover all the languageneededfor *'riting textsu,herethe main function is one of
classification.Some items can be more effectivelypresentedand practisedthrough textual models.
F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t eu n i t . s e e9 . 2 . 1 .
1
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S O RW R I T I N GT: H EU S EO FV I S U A LM A T E R I A L
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neededto describethe trvo
The studentsnow havethe key language
remainingpartsof the town alongthe samelines.Againtheycancontributeto
shopsand
for example,the maintypesof industries.
the text by suggesting,
officesto be found in thesetwo areas.
For theirparallelwritingtask.the studentsaregivena diagramof a town
with a differentstructureasshownin the seconddiagramon page90.
The studentsmay alsobe givenan outlinefor the beginningof their
itemswhichmay be used,
report,togetherwith a reminderof the key language
alongthe followinglines:
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Para I
Town
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+ relativepositions
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fallsiisdividedinto, liesbetween.on the (west)sideof
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: facilities
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consistsof, includes,the former/latter
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Other usefulvisual
materialsfor
writing activities
(a) Ads: Thesemustoccupya specialplacefor a numberof reasons:
- thereis a widevarietyof them;
-
theyarewidely(andfreely)available:
- students
respondto them.
If you arecollectingor makingads,coverkey areassuchasjobs,
schools.food,carsand
thingsfor sale.holidays,language
accommodation,
that areparticularly
ads
any
clothes but alsoincludein yourcollection
strikingandmemorable.
Wiiting activitiesrvill normallyinvolvesomeroleplaysuchaswriting
for more information(e.-e.in connectionwith holidayaccommodation)
(e.g.for a job or for a placein a school);writing
makingan application
lettersof complaint(e.g aboutfood ads), etc.
TV andradio
theatres,festivals,
For example.for cinemaS,
(b) Programmes..
(see+.0(d), wherethe students
madetheirown).Thesecanbe usedfor
rvhichinvolvemakingnotesor writingshortreports'or
planningactivities
the programmefor a davout)'
for rvritingletters(e.g.suggesting
9I
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:)
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SKILLS
TEACHINW
G NITING
,_-4
- r uct a nb c u s e dt o
r r a l i n t e r a c t i oi n
( c ) X 4 e n u sT:h e s ea r en r a i n l vu s e f u l f o o
vou have
a vervgoodn-real
stimulatea u'ritingactivitr. suchasdescribing
h a d .w h i c hh a sa n a t u r a l b u i l t - isne q u e n c e .
/. J.6
Writingfor fun
'fun' writingactivities
in earlier
Visualmaterialhasbeenusedfor a numberof
4.6(f) rolecard
chapters.See,for example.4.6 (d) TV/radioprogrammes:
(an activitywhichis
andspeculation
pictures:4.6 (i) picturesfor interpretation
makeprogress
with theirwriting);5.6 (h) jigsaw
valuableasstudents
especially
(i)
for
drawine
a
picture
or a map.
writingand5.5 instructions
belorv.The firstthreeinvoivethe use
aresuggested
Someotheractivities
(usuallyshowinga singleobjectsuchasa pieceof
of smallpicturecuecards
f u r n i t u r e a, n i t e mo f c l o t h i n ga. n a n i m a ie. t c . ) .
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(a) Picturelinking
1
u'orkingin eroups.aregiven(or areallowedto choosefrom
The students.
a largernumber)threeto four pictures.aroundu'hichtheyhaveto make
so the
up a story.The objectsshouldnot haveanyobviousconnection.
- andevenabsurdl
to be imaeinalil'g
studentsareencouraeed
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(b) Losrandfound
Eachstudentis giventrvocards
( e . g .a d o ga n da p a i ro f s h o e s )
andusesoneof theseto rvritea
he has
noticeaboutsomething
lostandthe otherto \\'ritea
he has
noticeaboutsomethin-e
found.The cardsarethen
andthe notices
redistributed
respond
readout. The students
b y s a y i n g ' T h a tm
' s i n e ! 'o r ' I ' v e
g o ti t ! '
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Its nant k l4aggte.
WAftlVINC/t'barhs a lot
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(c) DesertIslandmessoges
After the studentshaveplayed
the DesertIslandgame(thatis.
whentheyimaginetheyare
maroonedon an islandandhave
t o d e c i d eh o u t h e r u i l t u s e( 3 )
objectssuchasa hammer.clock.
mirror),theycanbe askedto
w r i t em e s s a g et os p u t i n t oa
bottleandthrowinto the sea.
They canalsobe askedto write
their diaryfor part of the time
they areon the island.
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TO THEPET'O^/WHOflND,M$!
I
PleasetulLmy fa-twiLyI
a'rruSafe, well - a-nd'
t'ttt
hoffy/
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tc, bi res
(d) How muchcanyoLtremember?
is givena picture,whichtheylook at for abouta
Eachgroupof students
minute.Theythenturn thepictureoverand.workingindividually,write
down asmanvthingsastheycanrememberaboutthe picture.They then
92
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CONTEXTSFORWRITING:THEUSEOFVISUALMATERIAL
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descriptionof the
usethesenotesto work togetherto build up a complete
actualpicture'
the
*iti.t they comparewith
fi.tur" (orallyor in writing;,
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( e ) Who is it?
l_-
Eachgroupisgivenapictureofafamousperson(orplace)andhastowr
are then passedround the
a prec;sedescriptionof it. ttr. descriptions
other groups.who try to identifythe people(or places)'
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(f) Life story
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and hasto
Eachgroupis givena pictureof a face(not anyoneknown)
doesfor a
what.(he)
(he) is;
make"upthe liie story;f the person(e'g' who
shouldof course
living; tt lng, that havehappenedto (him))' The students
aim io be asimaginativeaspossible'
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(g) Cartoons
or speechbubbles
The studentswork in pairsor gloupsto write captions
for cartoonsor other suitablepictures'
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(h) Jigsawstories
l_
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Giveeachgroupacutuppicturecompositionsequence(see7.3.4),so
Eachstudent
eachstudentor pair of ,iuo.nt, in thegroup hasone.picture.
The studentsthen put
or pair thenwriiesdownwhat their pictureshows.
out what the
awaytheir picturesand usetheir noiesto try to work
information'
is aboutby exchanging
completesequence
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(i) Ads
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Giveeachgroupofstudentsapictureshowing,forexample'acarora
hotelandaskthemtowriteanexaggeratedadvertisementforit.
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plctur(r c u t f r o m a
Give eachstudenta postcard(madeby pastinga
askthem to senda
magazineor travelbiochureonto a pieceof card)and
may do
ro someoneelsein the clasi(thismay includeyou!). They
message
actor,
singer,
or in the role of a famousperson(e.g.
this aslhemselves
politician. . .).
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Discussion
.---J
of usingvisualmaterial
and disadvantages
I What aresomeof the advantages
as a frameworkfor writingpractice?
it is betterto usevisualmaterialat the post2 Doyou agreethat. on the"wtrote,
level?Give reasons'
elementarY
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Exercises
,picturecomposition'materialavailablein publishedform is intended
1 Most
of materialof your own
for useat a fairly .i.,n.nr"ry level.Examineany set
choosingandseewhetheritcouldbesuccessfullyexploitedatamore
level.
advanced
write a description,similar
2 With referenceto the activitydescribedinl.3'1,
the supermarketor
to the one of the market.of anotherplace(for example,
whichcanbe
statements
the Palacecinema) and thendivideup the text into
(asshownon page82)'
sitedon the students'cards
93
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SKILLS
TEACHINW
G RITING
--
Identifysomervritingtasksu'hichcouldbe seton the followingptcture
lettersor
sequence.
Theseshouldbe in theform of dialogues.
compositit-rn
anyone of
for
be
needed
might
that
the kind of preparation
reports.Suggest
t h e s et a s k s .
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Selectanypieceof visualmaterialand showhow it couldbe usedfor a report
in 7.3.5.
writingactivityalongthe linessuggested
someusesfor the graphin7.3.6'
5 Suggest
a friend andtry out one or more of the activitiesin 7.3.8.Can you
with
6 Work
suggestother activitiesalongtheselines?
References
94
For examplesof visualmaterialfor writing activities,seeJB Heaton(i966);
D Byrne(I967);JBHeaton(1975);C Fleming(1975);R Ridout(1975);
D Byrne(1976);LA Hill (1978);L MarksteinandD Grunbaum(1981);
J B H e a t o n( 1 9 8 6 ) ; DB y r n e( i 9 8 8 ) .
Other compositionbooksthat containusefulvisualmaterialare:T Hedge
(1983a,1983band 1985);R Knight(1986);A Pincas(1982band1982c)
L Woods(1986).
For techniquesfor exploitingpicturecompositionmaterialimaginativelysee
A FreshLook.
D Byrne (1987)PictureComposition:
BeginningCompositionthrough
Heaton
is
from
JB
picture
in7.3.5
The
in 7.3'3is from M Palmer
Pictures(LongmanI975);the picturesequence
and D Byrne Track3 (Longman1983)andin Exercise3 from G Fleming
GuidedComposition(Hodderand Stoughton1975).
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8.1
The importance
of integrating
skills
The needto integrateskillsin languagelearninghasalreadvbeenstressed
and
in manyrespectsthis is not a newfeatureof the writing programme.In fact,
manyof the communicationactivitiesand 'fun' writing activitiesin Chapters4
and 5 integratedtalkingandwriting (andsometimesreading)in a naturalway.
See, for example,questionnaires
andquizzesin 4 .6 (a) and (b), roleplay
a c t i v i t i eisn 5 . 5 . 1 ; s c e n a rwi or i t i n gi n 5 . 6( e ) ; j u m b l e ds t o r i e si n 5 . 6( g ) a n d
writing instructionsfor picturesand mapsin 5.6 (i). The key factorwith many
activitiesis how you get the studentsto work: pair and groupwork offer many
moreopportunities
for integrating
skills,asthe simpleanalysis
belowshows.
The activityis drawinga pictureor a map.
INDIVIDUAL WORK
P A I R / G R O U PW O R K
-41
S I clrarvsand rv'rites
S st a l k . d r a r va n d r v r i t e
S I e x c h a n c e isn s t r u c t i o n tsv i t h
S se x c h a n q ei n s t r u c t i o n sr v i t h
ancltheg
r roup
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u
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rcadsand drarvs
S s r e a c l ,t a l k a n d d r a u
r--z
r-
e i c t u r c s( : t l l k )
S sc t r t t t p a r p
S sc o m p a r ep i c t u r se
.--
l-------t
If , therefore,you want to increasethe amount of skill integrationin vour daily
teaching- and this is worthrvhilebecauseit allows the learnersto aselanguage
rraturall,v.
not just prac'tiseit (noticehorv in manv of the rictivitieslaneuageis
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95
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--.?---
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
drnte)-- InakesureYouusepair andgroupwork for
usedto getsornctlting
a n du r i t i r t sa c t i \i t i e s .
rcading
level.however,
thismavbe enough.At the intermediate
For manvclasses
rvork
you
do with
\\'ant
flue
r-rcy
the amountof
to increase
vou rvillprobablv
your studentsandthreerval'sin whichyou cando thisthroughintegratedskills
belou'.
activitiesarediscussed
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8. 2
Projectwork
it takesso manyforms.It
Projectwork cannotbe neatlvdefinedbecause
(through
andreading)I it often
interviewing
usuallyinvolvessomeresearch
(althoughthisis not essential)
andit almost
involvesgoingout of the classroom
a l w a y si n v o l v e d
siscussion.
The process- carryingout the project- is clearlvimportantbecauseof
haveto undertake;but equallvtheproducl- some
the students
the activities
Writingmay
kind of document- u'illqivethema greatdealof satisfaction.
making
takeplaceat both stages:
alongthe u,a.v(fillingin questionnaires,
(For
purposewe
prolect.
our
\\'hen
writing
the
up
and
at
the
final
stage
notes)
wouldavoidonethat resulted.for example.in drawingplansor maps,though
this couldbe a legitimateprojectin itself.)
it is importantthat projectwork shouldgivethe
classroom
In the language
At the sametime it
for language
useanddevelopment.
studentsopportunities
to
develop:
educationalfront
will helpthemon a broader
- communication
andreportingback;
skills:wheninterviewing
- research
skills:whenreadingl
k
l-
l-
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l-
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-
collaborating.
socialskills:u'hendiscussing,
will haveto usethe mothertongue
for projectu'orkthe students
Sometimes
(e.g.whentalkingandreading),but the outcomein writingwill alwaysbe in
English.
-l-
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8.2.1
Organisinga
project
'rules'for
Although this is largelya matterof commonsense(sincethere are no
somethingthat doesnot havea setform), projectshaveto be carefullyplanrred
in presentingthe project
and sustained.The teacher'srole is crucialespecially
it
and involvingthe studentsin it, and in ensuringthat doesnot breakdown.
You mav like to foliowthesestages:
P R E SE N T A T I O NA S .D D I S C U S S I O N
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3
P R E L I } 1 ] \ , , \ R YA C ' i l \ ' I T I E SA N D D I S C U S S I O N
-r-
s
A C T I V I II E S
-1-
OF MATER]ALS
PROCESSiNG
-rf-r
PRODUCTION
_L.
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96
La
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INTEGRATED
SKILLS
L-J
at the start is to show
one of the thingsyou may haveto do with the students
thestudentshowto.op"nup'atopic'Onewayistogetthemtomakeachart
in 6.3.1,whichwill involvetalkingand
simlar to the on. ur.d for note-taking
is Food, a chartmight look
*riting. For example,if the topicfor ihe project
like this:
l=
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t-
tlleats and tiws
t-
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t-
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. /,aca/l'/nlortad
, ftralu,/aofi//r"
L--
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l, -rifarolns
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f ale a,n'/./'ts hibulton'
=-sh,rpt
t-
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Ch*,Ygt
-Stnal,/slwPs
rs.
fupenn'atrkots
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only.Ineithercasenote-tutlngwillbeinvolved(perhapstogetherwithsome
project shouldbe agreed:for
initial reading).At this point the Scopeof the
its scope.This may dependon
example,it couldue decidedto limit or extend
of the classroom,available
researchopportunities(opportunitiesfor going.out
the students.
readingn1ut.riul,etc.) oriimply the interestsof
amongthe groups'.
distributed
work
when this hasbeenagreedand the
If this involvesinterviewing'
the student,.un U.gin*oit on the main activities.
behaviour),questionnaires
(for example,abouteatinghabits,attitudes,social
writing' If theseinvolve
will haveto be devised,aridthis involvesprecise
or the mothertongue)'the
reading(assome.*^i"fy will, whetherin English
what they haveread'
studentsmustbe preparedto summarlseand re-present
alsotranilatingfrom the mothertongueinto English'
;";il
o-ntheir researchto date
At somepoint thelroups will haveto report back
like. It is assumedthat this
and alsoto agreewhat tieir frnalproductwililook
of text andillustration'
will be a brochureor bookletof somekind, consisting
want to read.(e.g :Td.":::",.
which will be attractiveenoughfor someoneto
a gooddealof writing up and
anotherclass).The studentt*ltt then haveto do
*ltttln the constraintsof a
editingof their material.If they are askedto work
ihey rvillprobablyhaveto do a certainamount
certainlength(sixteenpages),
They *ititraue to do somethinking aboutthe actual
of summarising.
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97
4.
tI
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- od,rfuislng
to establishsomemain aspects
At the presentationstage,it shouldbe enough
and developthem' The
and then dividethe studentsinto groupsto discuss
or on one particularaspect
grorrp,may work on all aspectssimultaneously
t-
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'dryitrt'k-
. sfrelt mat*.ets
ttt-
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- part+es
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
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2
doeslook attractive.All
of theirmaterial.sothat the end-product
presentation
skills- will nrake
inir - apartfrom providinga frameworkfor integrating
e c t i \i t \ .
u ' r i t i n ga m o t i v a t i n a
throughoutu,illbe importantbut mainlyasa
Your involvement
asfor otherformsof groupactivity.The studentsshouldbe
consultant,
encouragedto askfor your advice(for example,wherethey canfind relevant
referencLmaterial.In someclasssituationsyou may actuallyhaveto provide
it) and for your helpwith their English(dependingon their level and the extent
The responsibilityfor the final
to whichyou *unt ih.. to rely on themselves).
productmustof coursebe their own.
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8.2.2
for
Suggestions
projects
for projectsbelowhavebeenroughlygroupedunderheadings
The suggestions
but inevitablythel'overlaP.
(a) 'Newsmag'
This is a longterm project.perhapsextendingover the whole of the school
offices,reading
(e.g.visitsto ne\\'spaper
year,whichinvolvesresearching
and writing materialfor a
and magazines)
aboutthe historyof nervspapers
andmagazine'Items
of a classnewspaper
hybridproduct- a combination
to be includedarearticles,creativewriting,reviews,fun features
jokes),ads,specialtopicareas(e'g' sport)and
puzzles.
(crosswords.
Evenif 1'ouomit the outsidevisits,whichwouldbe primarily
illustrations.
to Englishmedium
interestunlessyou haveaccess
of educational
Englishlanguage
the
in
project
of this
the advantage
newspapers,
classioomis that it hassomethingto offer everyonein the class.
(b) Projectsthatcouldbe donemainlythroughreading(in and out of class)and
sharingof knowledge
in theprevioussection,couldbe donemainlyin thisway'
Food.anal1,sed
Someothertopicsare:
- time
- money
-
transport
-
usesof materials(e.g.plastic,paper'etc')
-
clothes
-
TV viewinghabits
shoppinghabits
(d) Projectsint,olvingrealor imaginaryplanning
- developing
facilitiesin one'stown (see5'5'2 (a))
- developing
island
an imaginarY
-
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family andfriends
(c) Projectsthatcouldbedonemainlythroughintervievving
- eatinghabits
- leisure(perhaps
into sportandhobbies)
subdivided
-
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planningan imaginarytrip to the moon,downthe Amazon.acrossthe
S a h a r ae. t c .
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SKILLS
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Sk i l l s e qu e n ce s
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Oral work leading
to guidedwriting
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planningan idealtown,shoppingcentre,house,school,club,
recreationground,etc.
skillsin anysetorder- certainlynot in the
In reallife we do not uselanguage
order that they often appearin textbooks:listen--+Speak--+read--+write. We
useSkillsaSand whenwe requirethem. For example,we Seean ad in the paper
(for a job or a holiday);we maytalk aboutit to someoneor ring up or write a
'chain'of
letter aboutit. (We may of coursesimplyforgetaboutit!) This
activitiescouldgo on - andonl Importantly,however,it canprovidea model
leveland,
for integratingskillsin a realisticway at a post-elementary
incidentally,providenaturalcontextsfor writing. Oncethe mechanismfor this
is understood,it is not difficultto setup a chainof activitiesin this way.
providesthe settingfor a note-takingtask,
In thisexample,a conversation
They are then
with the 'characters'.
which the studentsperformsimultaneously
shownhow thesenoteswereusedto write a notice,whichwasthe reasonwhy
askedto write a secondnotice
the notesweremade,and aresubsequently
Thus all four skillsarepractisedin a fully integratedway'
themselves.
I Bitt Hatlida;'-and Jane Stokes,hisgirlfriend, areplanning to go on holiday
together.Theywantto travelround Br,itaintogetherbecauseBill, who is an
Australian,hasnot seenmuchof thecountry.Theyarein Jane'sflat and they
are talkingabouttheirplans.
JANE:. . . Well, I don'twantto go by train.But why don't we hire a car?
vou know. Andyou can'tdrive!. ' ' But
BILL: Hm, it's veryexpensive,
you'vegivenme an idealPerhapswe couldgeta van.
:eNs: You meanbuy one?
one.One of thosebig ones.
BrLL: Yes,a secondhand
thereareonly two of us.
rrNr: But, Bill, theycosta lot . . . andbesides,
BILL: Look, we only needaboutsix people.You, me, andfour more.We
way to seethe countryIt's a marvellous
canshareexpenses.
camping,stayingin hostels. . .
:eNe: Mm, but how do weltnd four people?Put an ad in the paper?
L .i s t e n I. ' l l p u t a n o t i c eu p o n t h eb o a r da t c o l l e g e .
B I L L : N o , t o oe x p e n s i v e
*
There'sonenearthe bookshop. And whataboutthat newsagent'S
nearthe recordshop?Theyhaveadsin the window.
rveoughtto makesomenotes. ' ' .
:eNe: OK. then.Well. I suppose
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of tlteirnportantpoirtts.
: e N E :R i g h t ,h e r e ' s o m ep a p e r. . . a n da p e n .I ' l l m a k et h en o t e s '
can'tandI
BrLL: CK. Well. first. . . mustbe ableto drive.After a]rl,,vott
d o n ' tw a n tt o d r i v ea l l t h et i m e l
rANE:. . . hasto be abieto drive.And we wantpeoplewho like a simple
life. After all. rve'regoingto campand stayin hostels.
BrLL: Yes.definitelvno luxuries!Haveyou got that down?
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'*'Thc
hr'ltr thc convcrsatitlnl hich itlllorvs.
stttr.lcnts
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
GR I T I N G
2
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r n n r : i - I a n go n ! Y e s . a n d a n o t h e rt h i n g . . . t h e y o u g h t t o s h a r et h e c o o k i n g
t o o . I ' m n o t g o i n gt o d o i t a l l !
tsrLL: Should be able to cook. then. Right. What else?
.rnNE:Shallu'e tell them about the costof the trip?
BrLL: Mm. ves. Let's sar'. . . about f2*5each.Plus expenses.
JANE: . . . f25 and shareall expenses.What about age?
BILL: Good point. Hou,about . . . eighteento twenty-five?And not all
Englishl
:eNr: Or Australian! So . . . eighteento twenty-five. . . any nationality.
That shouldencourasepeople.
B r L L : . . . D o v o u t h i n k t h a t ' sa l l ?
:eNs: Can't think of anl,thingelse.We've got quite a few notes.
BrLL: OK. then. i'11u'rite out the noticefor the board at college.
...
JANE: . . . And I'11do the one for the neu'sagent's
2 This is the notice w,l'tichBillpur up
on the collegenoticeboardIlle
follov,ing day.
2a l,low write the notice v'hich Jane
Stokestook to the nen'sagert's.
Her telephonenuntber at the
record shop is 874 9192and her
number at honte is 675 3245.
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ARE rou /SEnqEEP /8 AND 25?
cA// yoq DR.VE?
cAN YOUcooKT
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A FOUK W'EFK TR|P ROUN?
BR|TAIAI IN A YAN
PLACESFOR rcUR lNOBF PEOPLE
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8.3.2
to
Reading
leading
freewriting
In this example, the sequenceopens with a reading activitv. It includes guided
as well as free speakingand u'riting tasks. It should be noted that, at the end of
the sequence,the studentsthemselvesdecide what happens.
1a Terry Barnes,a teenager*,is getting tired of his
job at Holford Natural Products,so he decides
to lookfor a new one. He seesfheseads inlhe
H o l f o r dN e w s ,
Personnel Manager, HNP, Holford.
L A B . A S S T . 1 6 - 2 1 . P r e v . e x p . d e s i r a b l e .G d . p r o s p e c t s
for right person. Trafalgar Tobacco Co.
Holford 7997 Ext. 5.
JUNIOR ACCOUNTS CLERK to work for Eastern
Bus Co. 5 day wk. 9-5.30. Prev.exp. not essential.
Typing an advantage.Apply in writing.
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have backgroundinformation about Terrv from another part of the stor)'
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f.-.
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1 a Terry first rings up the Trafalgar Tobacco
Company. Listento his conversationwith the
secretarY.
5... Mr Platt',s
E xYt:e n s i o n
SECRETAR
Who's sPeaking,Please?
secretarY.
T E R R Y : O h , m y n a m e ' sB a r n e sI.' m r i n g i n g
aboutthat vacancYYou advertised
i n T h e H o l f o r dN e w s . .'
Wasit
S E C R E T A R Y : W h i c ho n e w a s t h a t ,n o w ?
f o r a l a ba s s i s t a n t ?
Y e s ,t h a t ' sr i g h t . , .
| tsf{l{ Y .
filled
S E C R E T A R YW
: e l l ,l ' m a f r a i dw e ' v ea l r e a d Y
sorry'
very
I'm
vacancy.
that
O h ,w e l l ,t h a n k sv e r y m u c h .
TERRY:
GoodbYe.
GoodbYe.
sECRETARY:
1c Terry next rings up the EasternBus.C.ompany'
He is totd bv the secretarythat theiob is still
available,but that he must applYin writing'
Suggest what they actuallysaid to each other'
2t, Complete this letter which Terry writes to the
EasternBus ComPanY.
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- vhere
l'y icr:e:
Juicr
the ;c'c ci
a-DPlY frr
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T:e ;::licrC
in
Accouts
llevs.
You are
You a:e
voril:6
-
Hhat iob You.do
-
vie'uher;rou have iaa any prevtous
exPelience of accc'J:s
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vheiner
class
You cal
teache:
zt
i:-e
'ioli::C
i'ou a referen:e
lj:r T llehrp-n, v;.11 seld
icurs
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toElrehensive'
ii
you rec-uire
one'
fai::fui1;',
7 Earna+
T. !a:nes.
2 e Thisis the letter which Terrygot f rom Mr
Davis, the manager of the EasternBus Company'
JUl,y
fo
Dear Mr Barnest
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thank you for your letter
you to cone for
sn interyier
of iuly
lO'
I should }lke
on Friday JuLy 21 at lO'lO'
confirn
C o u ) , dy o u o l e a s e t e l e p h o n e r y 9 e c ! e t a r y a n d
this'
Yours sincereLY'
S. Dazn's
S. Davis.
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WRITING
TEACHING
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Terry phonesMr Davis'secretarY.He explains
why he is ringingand confirmsthat he can
come. Suggestwhat Terryand the secretarY
said to each other.
Terry is being interviewedby Mr Davis.
Suggest what Terrysaid.
, e r r y "S i t d o w n .T e l lm e
: ightT
M RD A V r sR
s o m e t h i n ga b o u tY o u r s e l f .
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TERRY:
M F D A V I S : A n d h o w l o n gh a v eY o ub e e ni n Y o u r
I
ld
p r e s e n jt o b ?
il-
TERRY:
M R D A V I S : O h!
l ' m s u r p i ' i s eydo u w a n t t o l e a v e ,
then.
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MR DAVIS:
W e l l ,l ' v e h a d a w o r d w i t h T o m
N e w m a n .B u t I ' d l i k et o s P e a kt o
y o u r p r e s e n et m p l o y e r sl.s t h a t a l l
rig ht?
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TERRY:
MR DAVIS:
f4
W e l l ,t h a n k sv e r vm u c hf o r c o m i n g
a l o n g .\ { e ' l l l e tY o uk n o ws o m e t i m e
n e x tw e e k .
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TERRY:
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3e Mr Davis finatly decidesto offerTerry the iob'
This is the letter he wrcte.
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LELLJ
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you the job of
I am pleased to be able to offer
salary
Jr:nior Accounts Cferk at a. starting
W o u l d .y o u p l e a s e c o n f i r n
that
this
is
of t100 a veek'
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acceptable'
Can you also }et us know vhen you would be free
f-
to start?
:ld
Yours sincerely,
S. Da,<n a
Samlavis.
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3c Write Terry's replY,accepting or declining the
job.
4a The fottowing week, Terry meets Carol Davis,
a girl he was at school with. She is the
daughter of Sam Davis.Terry tells Carol what
he has been doing recently.Suggestwhat he
said.
4a Afterwards, Terry realisesthat he'quite likes'
Carol. He decides to write to her. Write the
letter which he sendsher.
4c Write Carol's reply.
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8.4
S i m u l a t i o n sa s a
framework for
writing activities
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example,inthesimulationdescribedin8..l.2below,somestudentsina
while otherswill be asked
,..ondury schoolclasscanplaythe part of teenagers,
is more importantis the
to take on adultroles.For our presentpurpose'what
to carryout generate
extentto which the activitieswhichthey are asked
At this level' simulations
meaningfuland relevantopportunities.for-rvriting'
of a well-defined
form
the
would siem to be ideal,p.&laing guidanie,in
to in the classroom'as
setting.which getsasneir to reai life as\\'ecanhope
the writingtasks'
well ai motivationforexecuting
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so far haveinvolvedan
proposedand discussed
Many of the writingactivities
to assumethe parts
elementof roleplay.That is to say,the studentsare asked
l and 8'3)' The useof
(See,for example'-5'-5'
of differentcharacters.
furtherboth by
simulationsenablesus to takethiskind of rvorka stage
work in.whichthe learners
providinga frameworkfor integratedlanguage
'input' of the datafrom which the writing activities
itr"*r"tu-"s providea larger
to the situation'to
are derivedand by allowingthem,wherethis is appropriate
within a definedsetting.This latter featurehasan obvious
be themselves
who sharecertain
advantagewhen we areworkingwith groupsof learners
with
andwho arelearninga foreignlanguage
skillsandinterests
professi6nal
throughthe
ihe.e p.i*arily in view.sincemotivationrvillbe increased
groups,however'
knowledge.with non-specialist
utilisationof their specialist
we shallprobablyhaveto continueto rely
whetheradultsor aiolescents,
a certainamountof
largelyon roleplay,althoughwe maybe ableto introduce
asthemselves'For
rol"esimulation,wherethe learnersreactto the task
8.4.1
Devisinga
simulation
if we
of a simulation'especially
While caremustbe takenwith the construction
tasks,this neednot be
want to ensurethat it leadsnaturallyto certainwriting
will involvethe
viewedasa complextask.By definition.the simulation
uld the contextwithin
discussionof a specificproblemor setof problemt:
learners'To do this in a
which this takesplacemustbe clearlydefinedfor the
the languageskills' we must
naturalway and, no lessimportant,to activateall
information'
provide the learnerswith an adequateamountof background
to be discussed
Thus,in the simulationdesciibedin 8.4.2,theproblem
for failingto
criticised
relatesto the Holford Arts centre,whichhasbeen
programme'In addition,to
p,""io. the publicwith the rightkind of cultural
of
ih. C.ntt" is alsoaccused
add an elementof spicyinterJstto the situation,
,undeiirablehappenings'to take placeon the premis"t. T:
allowingcertain
aswell asmembersof the
settingisa publicmeeting,at whl;h invited speakers
throughwhat they
public discusstrr.r. proUiems.tt is left to the participants'
issues'Thusthe speakers
saywithin the limitsof theirroles,to decideon these
for the writingactiviries.
thlmselvesprovidethe raw substance
Toestablishthesetting,thereisacertainamountofbackground
of materialboth to be
devisedby thJteacher,whichconsists
infor:marion,
by the teacheris the
listenedto andread.The othercomponentcontrived
is done,throughrole cards'
specificationof the rolesof the participants.This
to be plaved,the line to
role
i"p"nding on the
whicheitherdefineor suggest,
eitheron the role cardsor
be followedby eachpartlJpant.We ma1:also.
with certainitemsof
througha preliminaryoraltrieling, hetptrrelearners
theycanusein the discussion'
langrrigewhich
in 8.4.2is perhapsa little differentfrom most
The simulationdescribed
103
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SKILLS
TEACHINW
G RITING
-
to createa i'arietyof writingtasks.
structured
it hasbeendeliberatelr,
because
opens,q'ehavetx'o kirtdso.f
At the start,u,henthe publicdiscussion
performers.Thereare thoseu'hoq.reckat the meeting.Someof thesehave
a certaindirection.whileothers
clearlydefinedroles.to givethe discussion
thusensuringthat the outcomeis by no
involvement,
havea moreopen-ended
rvitha view to reportingthe
meanspredict;ble.Thereare alsothoservho/lsrerr
the press,the
p.o.""iings from variousangles.For example,theyrepresent
in
the discussion
speak
who
groups.However.those
iadio andiertainpressure
;recvcled'
in variouswaysSothat theytoo havea writingtask
aresubsequently
sincethe purpose
to perform.This.to someextent,is a questionof expediency'
an
in the class,for which averagesizeof
of itre simulationis to inr,olve ever))one
in someform of writinsactivity'
thirty hasbeenassumed,
8.4.2
An exampleof a
the
simulation:
Holford Arts
Centre
(a) Backgroundinformarion
(i) This is a streetmaPof Holford.
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Hollofd Arms
O
an" *o,,"ra News oJice
@
er.tu'n aus companv
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(ii) Thisis an entr\)in theEastAnglia Guides'
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H o l f o r d P o p u l a t i o n :6 0 , 0 9 0 C a m b r i d g e6 2
L o n d o n 10 3
A pleasantmarket town situatedon the River
H o l t . M a i n l ya g r i c u l t u r aG
l . o o d w a l k i n gc o u n l r y
P l a c e so f h i s t o r t ci n t e r e s t :H o l t o n A b b e y ( 1 1 2 2 )
a n d S t . J o h n ' s C h u r c h ( 1 2 3 7 ) O t h e r p l a c e st o
s e e a r e t h e n e w S h o p p i n g C e n t r e( 1 9 6 9 ) a n d t h e
H o l f o r d A r t s C e n t r e ( . f o u n d e di n 1 9 7 5 ) l n d u s t r i e s i n c l u d e : c o s m e t i c s ,t o b a c c o a n d l i g h t
e n g in e e r n
i g.
H o t e l s H o l f o r dA r m s ,M a r d e nH o t e a
l n d P e n r i d g Ien n .
Restaurants HolfordArmsandThe CountryKrtchen.
104
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$D fhis is an extractfrom an articleon Holford which appearedinThe
CambridseGazette.
... Like many other towns in
this part of the country.
'on
Holford is
the move'.
There are new factories and
officesas well as a fine shopping
c e n t r e .w h i c h w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 6 9 .
And, with the laree new housing estate on the iorth side of
the town, Holtbrd has begun to
spreadout into the surrounding
countryside.
Industry has brought prosperity to Holford. although
m a n y p e o p l ea r g u e t h a t i t h a s
already begun to spoil the essential character of the town.
Someevensaythat thereii roo
muchmoneyaroundin Holford
andnot enoughculture.
T h i s l a s t c r i t i c i s mi s s t r a n r e
in viewof the fact that Holloid
has a flourishing Arts Centre.
S e t u p i n 1 9 7 5 .l a r g e l y o n t h e
initiative of a few dedicated
i n d i v i d u a l s ,i t h a s a l r e a d ys i v e n
Holford several fine oro-ductions, including Pintei's The
Caretaker. It has also made a
documentary on the theme of
racial integration which was
well receivedat a national film
f e s t i v a l .. . .
(iv) This is a conversationbetweenDan Graves,seniorreporter onThe
Holford News,and TedRaines,a younglocalfarmer.
TED: Are you sorryyou camebackto live in Holford, then, lvlr
Graves?After all thoseyearsin London,I mean.
neN: Sorry?No, not for a moment.I wasgladto escapefrom the
place!
rED: Still,you mustfindit allchanged. . .
orN: Well, yes,it certainlyhaschanged. . . all theseindustriesfor a
start.But at leastpeoplehaveplentyof work thesedays.And
the facilitiesareso muchbetter.After all, there aren'tso many
townsthat havea shoppingcentrelike ours.
TED: But there'snot muchgoingon, is there?Don't you find it rather
dull?
DAN:But there'sa lot goingon! Justtakethe Arts Centre,for
example.
rED: Yes. that has attractedquite a lot of attentionlately!
oeN: Mm, I don't thinkpeopleunderstand
whatthey'retrvingto do
there.
rED: Well, personally,
I don't seethe pointof it. After all. rvehavea
perfectlygooddramaticsocietyalready.
oex: That'sexactlywhatI mean!It's not just a biggerandbetter
dramaticsociety...
rED: Somepeoplesayit isn'tbetter!
DAN: . . . they do lotsof otherthingsdown there . . .
T E D :H m , s oI ' v e h e a r d !
orr: I suppose
vou'recomingto thismeetingon Fridaynight.aren't
you?
rED: Oh yes,I'll be comingalongto that all right.I like listeningto a
goodargument!Besides,I cantakea look at the placeat the
Sametime.
D.lN: Yes,you certainlyshouldtry to find out moreabouttheplace
whileyou'rethere. . . just whattheydo anddon't do. As for all
t h i st a l ka b o u t. . . . r v e l l .I i u s tt h i n ki t ' sa l o t o f . . .
105
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
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(v)
Tltis is rlte rtotir:einvitittgpeople to a public tneetingat the Holford Arts
Centre.
IIOI-F-ORDAR'I'SCE\I-RE
- \ p u [ - . l r cl c c t i n gr r i l l l r c h c l r il i t l l t c c c n t r . e
t r t t F r i d a r . fu n c l 6 6 - i ( ) p n t
u
U
\ I I t l r o s c i n t c r c s t c t li n
t l i s c r r s s r r trhgc u c t i r i t i e so l ' l h c
C C n t r cl t r c c 0 r t i i l r l l - irr t ri t c t i t ( ) i l t l c l t ( l
S . f ) l r r i s ( C ' h l r i r n t u)n
(b) Briefitrg
After the presentation
of the backsroundinformation.involvingboth
l i s t e n i na
g n dr e a d i n sa n dp e r h a p as l s oi n c l u d i n s o m er e l a t e do r a l w o r k .
the studentsarereadvto be briefedaboutthe problemto be discussed
and
the variousrolesthevhaveto play.
The publicmeetingis intendedin the firstinstance
to giveTony Cross.
the directorof theArts Centre.a chanceto explainu'hattheirwork is
about.At the sametime.a lot of publiccriticismis expected.It is
anticipated
that thiswill centreon t\\ o mainissues:
(i) that the Centredoesnot giveHolfordthe rightsortof 'cultural'
programme.
(ii) that the Centreis frequented
bv teenagers.
u'hogo thereto misbehave
various
\\'avs.
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As explainedin 8.4.i. thissimulationhasbeenstructuredso asto include
'speakers'
and'reporters'.
The speakers
(see'Rolecards'below)are as
follows:
f-J
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sAI{DAvrs:Chairmanof the meeting
T cRoss:
Directorof the Arts Centre
K RIXoN:
Principal,Holford Comprehensive
c s porrERToN:
Secretary,Holford Amateur DramaticSociety
J TAYLoR:
Youth WelfareOfficer
M plArr:
studentat Holford Polytechnic
K FosrER:
studentat Holford Polytechnic
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All of thesehavewell definedroles.In addition,there are five adult
rolesandfiveteenage
roles,representing
the publicpresentat the meeting.
The numbercanbe increased
or reducedaccordingto the sizeof the class.
Theserolesaremoreopen-ended.
The provisionfor reporters(that is, thosewho will listenduring the
discussion
and rnakenotes)is asfollows.Two studentsshareeachrole and
collaborateafteru'ardson the writing task.This is alsoa way of ensuring
maximumclassinvolvement.
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L BARoN: reporteron TheHolford News
r JENKS: reporteron TheCambridgeGazette
J WISEMAN:
reporterfor EastAnglia Radio
w TRAILL: representing
Holford Comprehensive
Schoolmagazine
r sMIrH: representing
Holford Amateur DramaticSociety
J srorr:
Youth FreedomMovement
PB L A K E : S e c r e t a rtvo t h em e e t i n s
106
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(c) Rolecards
Assigningthe variousrolesto the studentsalsoformspart of the briefing
belowillustrateonly a crosssectionof the
The role descriptions
session.
partsplayedby the students,exceptfor the reporters,which are givenin
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r h o r e c e n t l yl e f tH o l f o r d
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C o m o r e h e n s i v eY.o u b e l i e v et h a t t h e C e n t r e
d o e s l i t t l et o h e l pp e o p l eo f y o u r a g e a n d y o u
w o u l d l i k et o s e e m o r e m o n e ys p e n to n
i m p r o v i n gt h e f a c i l i t i e so f t h e Y o u t hC l u b .
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T CROSS
As Directorof the HolfordArts Centre,your
m a i n t a s ki s t o e x p l a i ni t s w o r k a n d t o r e f e rt o
s o m e o f i t s a c h i e v e m e n tssi n c ei t w a s s e t u p '
D o t h i s c o n c i s e l yY. o u s h o u l ds t r e s st h a t
putting on playsis only part of the Centre's
work Jnd that you are not in competitionwith
the Amateur DramaticSociety.Referto
a c c u s a t i o nw
s h i c h h a v eb e e nm a d ea g a i n s t
t h e C e n t r e( f o re x a m p l e y, o u m a y r e a da n
a n o n y m o u sl e t t e ry o u h a v ej u s t r e c e i v e db) u t
m a i n t a i nt h a t t h e r ei s n o t r u t h i n t h e m '
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M BRIDGES
O n t h e w h o l e y o u a p p r o v eo f t h e A r t sC e n t r e
a n d t h i n kt h a t i t d o e sg o o d w o r k ' H o w e v e r ,
y o u d o n o t l i k et h e w a y t h e d i r e c t o r u n st h e
C e n t r e :h e i s t o o a u t o c r a t i c\ '" o ut h i n kt h a t
, ith members
t h e r es h o u l db e a c o m m i t t e ew
. oualso
o f t h e p u b l i co n i t , t o d e c i d ep o l i c y Y
b e l i e v es o m e o f t h e s t o r i e sa b o u tw h a t g o e s
o n i n t h e C e n t r e :y o u r t e e n a g ec h i l d r e nt a l k
a b o u ti t a l l t h e t i m e .
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Y o u a r e a m e m b e ro f t h e A r t s C e n t r ea n d o n e
of its strongestsupporters'Likemany other
you have-been
studentsaitf," eotytechnic,
i O t " t o d o a l o t o f t h i n g st h r o u g ht h e C e n t r e
w h i c h o t h e r w i s ew o u l d n o t h a v eb e e n
p o s s i b l eG
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Y o u rt a s k ,a s s e c r e t a r tyo t h e
m e e t i n g i, s t o
write.aconcisebut accurate
reporton the
meeting,to serveas a recordfor
future
reference.lf you are not sure
of any po-int
m a d ea t t h e m e e t i n g y, o u c a n
c h e c ki t
the speaker .onr"rri.d afterwarOs. w i t h
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Y o u r m a i nt a s ki s t o r e p o r t h e m e e t i n gf o r
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l a g a z i n eI n
H o l f o r dC o m p r e h e n s i vSec h o o m
y o u r a c c o u n ty, o u s h o u l df o c u si n p a r t i c u l a r
o n m a t t e r sw h i c h c o n c e r nt e e n a g e r sY. o u a r e
a l s ov e r y a m b i t i o u sa, n d y o u w o u l d l i k et o b e
. ouhope
r h e n y o u l e a v es c h o o l Y
a reportew
t h a t t h e a c c o u n yt o u w r i t ew i l l c a t c ht h e
attentionof the editorof TheHolford News,
t o w h o m a c o p yo f t h e s c h o o lm a g a z i n ei s
sent.
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As a reporterf or EastAnglia Radio,your main
t a s ki s t o p r o d u c ea s h o r ta c c o u n to f t h e
m e e t i n gw h i c hw i l l a p p e a tl o l i s t e n e r o
s f Easr
A n g l i aa t O n e ,a l i v e l yl u n c h - t i m ep r o g r a m m e
o f n e w sa n d v i e w s .I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n l v o u
m a y a l s ow i s h t o i n t e r v i e wf,o r e x a m p l et,n e
Directoo
r f t h e C e n t r ea f t e r t h em e e t i n o .
T JENKS
As a reporter f or The CambridgeGazette,
t f the
y o u r m a i n t a s ki s t o w r i t ea n a c c o u n o
m e e t i n gf o r n e x tw e e k ' se d i t i o n .M a k es u r e
. ersonally,
t h a ty o u i n c l u d et h e m a i np o i n t s P
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a c h i e v e m e n tas n d p l a yd o w n o r i g n o r es o m e
o f t h e c r i t i c i s m so f t h e C e n t r e .
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the
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simulationfor
writingtasks
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on the outcomeof the
(b) The Directorof the Arts Centre(depending
or work out a newstyle
meeting)mayeitherwrite hisletterof resignation
for the Centre.This may be donein collaboration
programmeof activities
rvith,for example,one adultandone teenagememberof the publicand
from the Polytechnic.
with oneof the students
(c) The Youth WelfareOfficer,togetherwith the Principalof Holford
andtwo or threemembersof the public,including
Comprehensive
maybe askedto drarvup a proposalto improvethe facilitiesof
teenagers,
the Youth Club.
of HolfordAmateurDramaticSocietymavwork rvithhis
(d) The Secretary
or on the
at the meettngon the letterto TheHolford Neves
representative
up.
is
taken
on rvhichtask
circularletter.depending
togetherrvithtwo or moremembersof
(e) One studentfrom the Polytechnic.
the public.mavdrawup theirproposalfora revisedArts Centre
proqramme.to be submittedto the Directorfor consideration.
mav be askedto lvrite
(f) Othermembersof the public.adultsandteenagers,
e i t h e rl e t t e r st o t h ep r e s so r ' a n o n v m o u s ' l e t t etrosv a r i o u sp e o p l es, u c ha s
of the AmateurDramatic
the Directorof the Arts Centreor the Secretarv
a sg a i n stth e m .
S o c i e t ym
. a k i n qa c c u s a t i o n
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rvritingtasks
be clearthat thereis no difficultyin devisinginteresting
It shor-rld
the
from
quite
naturallv
in the class.All of thesetasksderive
for et,err-otte
bodyof
simulation.The resultof thisis thatrveend up with a considerable
or
aloud
read
be
which
can
themselves,
material.producedby the stuclents
circulatedroundtheclassandrvhichis of realinterestttl evervone.
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of thissimulationin detailand
theconstruction
The mainpurposein describing
'input'
requiredfrom the teacherwasto demonstrate
in particularshowingthe
for a varieti'of writingtasks'For
powerful
framework
a
provides
it
that
example,beforethe meeting.thosewho havebeeninvitedto speakwillwant
to ensurethe
to makeSomenoteson whattheyproposeto Say.At thisStage,
shouldlook at
reporters
the
that
of the wholeclass.it is suggested
involvement
variouskindsof writingrelevantto theirtasks.For example,newsreports,
l e t t e r st o t h ee d i t o r ,n o t i c e se. t c .
takingplace.everyoneis fully occupied,
While the simulationis actuall,v
or in listeningandtakingnotes.After the simulation.the
eitherin speaking
in writingup theirvariousaccounts.
reportersareengaged
for those
At the sametime. however.we haveto providewritingactivities
extent
on
the
actual
to
some
rvill
depend
who spokeat the meeting.Clearlythis
general
a
but, as
outcomeof the meeting,whichis by no meanspredictable,
are
suggested:
lines
these
along
guide,activities
on
(a) The chairmanof the meetingmaybe askedto work with the secretary
the taskof editingandwritingup the formalaccountof the meeting.
Discussion
at thislevel'/
to skill integrzrtion
attachecl
agreewith the importance
1 Do -,-ou
canvou ri qg.tt otherwavsof ensuringthat rvritingactivities
If i,ouclisagree.
arepurposeful'?
anytextbookof vourou'nchoosingto seervhatattemptis ntacleto
I Exan-rine
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i l t e s r a t es k i l l sa t t h i sl e v c l .C o n s i t l cirn p a r t i c u l arrv h e t h errv r i t i n sf o l l o r v o
109
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T E A C H I N GW R I T I N GS K I L L S
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especiaily
naturallyfrom the otheractivities.
oralwork. or whetherit tends
as
a
homeu'ork
task.
to be presented
for projectwork in
--) Canyou seeanvproblemsarisingfrom the suggestions
outweighthese?
8.2?Do ),outhink the advantages
Do you think the simulationoutlinedin 8.4providessufficientguidancefor
involved?If you wantedto givethe studentsmore
the writingactivities
guidance,how wouldyou do it?
for integrating
skillsdo you
Whichof the differenttypesof activitysuggested
Why'
find mostattractive?
Exercises
Examineanytextbookto seewhatprovisionis madefor proiectwork. Could
into smallprojects?
be developed
someof the activities
suggested
in
Draw a chartsimilarto the one on page97 for anyof the topicssuggested
(
a
)
.
8.2.2
anyof the
Showhow you wouldpresentanddevelopfor classwork
i ns8 . 2 . 2( a ) .
suggestion
of activities
in 8.3.2.foilowingthismodel.This will
Analysethe sequence
the underlyingmechanism.
helpyou to understand
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O U T L I N EO F C O N T E N T
SKILL
lr
Ad
Dialogue
TB readsad in Holford News
TB rings up Trafalgar Tobacco Co
Reading
Listening
f-
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of your own.Thismay be muchshorter
Now constructa similarsequence
t
h
e
o
n
e
i
n
than
8.3.2.
for otherspeakersin the simulationin 8.4.
5 Write role descriptions
rolesfor the 'reporters'inthe simulationin 8.4.
somealternative
6 Suggest
togetherwith relatedwriting activities.
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References
On integratedskilisseeD Byrne(1986)Ch. 11andA Matthewset al (eds.)
( 1 9 8 5 p) a g e s3 2 - 4 a n d 1 2 6 - 4 0 .
For projectwork seeD Byrne (1986)pages733-7. This sectionalsocontains
an
for developing
more informationabout'Newsmag'.
Suggestions
imaginaryislandaregivenin A Matthewset al (1985)pages726-3I. A
usefulbook on proiectwork generallyis D Waters(1982),from which the
chartfor Food on page97hasbeenadapted.
For skillsequencing
seeD Byrnein K JohnsonandK Morrow (1981).The
firstsequence
in 8.3.1is basedon D ByrneandS HoldenGoingPlaces
(1980);the secondsequence
on D ByrneandS HoldenInsighr(Longman
on thismodelseeD Byrneand S HoldenFollowIt
1976).For materialbased
Through(Longman1978)and GoingPlaces(Longman1980).Also R White
WriteAway (NelsonFilmscan1987).
On simulationsseeK Jones(1982).For a simpleintroductionseeD Byrne
(1986)pages725-8. The simulationin 8.4 is basedon D Byrne and S Holden
Insight(1976).Comparisonwith the originalmaterialwill showhow
textbookmaterialcanbe adaptedfor thispurpose.
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9.1
Problem
It is often assumedthat, oncethe learne* haveacquireda reasonable
furtherpracticein this skill canbe given
profrciencyin written expression,
'composition'or 'essay''The
mainlythiough tasksin the form of somekind of
at
studentsur" giu.n a topicor a themeand are expectedto expressthemselves
seem
It
might
write.
to
their ability
somelengthon it in orderto demonstrate
earlierstagesof the programme'we
at
activity
of
type
this
that, havingavoided
are obligeJto fall backon it at this levelin order to givethe learnersextensive
practicein their hard won skill.
are still a featureof manypublic
and essays
Sincecompositions
for
clearlywe shouldnot denythe studentssomepreparation
examinations,
in 9.3.We mustalsoattemptto see
thistypeof task.This aspectis considered
throughthis kind of writing and whetherthe same
rvhatskillsare practisecl
it
skillscanbe more effectivelypractisedin alternativeways'At the sametime,
rvouldbe wrongto acceptthis kind of writing activityasone of the main
which
outcomesof the writing programme.For one thing, it is a form of writing
hall' One needsonlyto
or examination
outsidethe classroom
is rarelypractised
an
it presents
uS,
for mostof
Besides,
ask:whendid I lastwrite an essay?
we are
extremelydifficulttask,evenin our mothertongue'andevenmoreSoif
askedto do it againstthe clock.Therewouldseemlittle point' therefore,in
learner,whose
inflictingthistypeof writingactivityon the foreignlanguage
in writingis unlikelyto matchthe task'
proficiency
lvaysof
It rvainotedabovethatwe wouldneedto consideralternative
and essaywriting.Thesewe
throughcomposition
skillspractised
developing
thoseskillsinvolvingthe abilityto organiseideas
to be particularly
*oy
"rru*e pieci of writing.But organisational
skills,whichcertainlyneed
in a sustained
furtherpracticeat thislevel,canbe equallywell developedthroughactivities
suchasletterandreport
rvhichinvolvesomerealisticform of expression,
writing.Reactingto a situationthroughwriting.for example.a letterof
of relevantfactsto
rvillrequireargument.u'hilcthe marshalling
protes"t.
111
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--7.
SKILLS
TEACHINW
G RII'ING
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. n l i k ec o m p o s i t i o r - l
writingin the traditionalsense.hou'ever.the learnerscanbe morefully
i n v o l v e di n t h i st y p eo f u r i t i n gt a s k .r h r o u g hs o r n ek i n do f r o l e p l a ya. n dc a n
appreciate
its relevance
to reallife. In termsof developing
rvritingskiils.
therefore.the learners'needs
canbe fullv met throughfurtherpracticein letter
and reportwriting.
Compositionandessayu'ritingalsoprovideopportunities
for u'hatis often
called'freeexpression':
the learnersareallorvedto savwhatthevlike on a
giventopicor theme.\\/hileit is truethat at thislevelcontrolof whatthe
learnerswrite (exceptfor remedialpurposes,
see9.2)wouldbe inappropriate.
we still havethe responsibilitv
for providin_e
them with an adequate
contextfor
writingactivities.
Ideallr,,thiskind of frameworkshouldbe providedthrough
activitiessuchasthe simulation
described
in 8.4.rvhichhavethe further
advantage
of fulli,inteeratinq
allthe laneuage
skills.In practice,beciiuse
of the
shortageof classtime.ue mavhaveto be satisfied
r.i'ithmuchless.It is stressed.
hou'ever.that writingtasksshouldnot. simpll,for the sakeof convenience.
be
divorcedfrom otherclassroom
u'hichinvolvelistening,speakingancl
activities
reading.The link u'ithreadingis the mosteasilyestablished.
andof course
commonlypractised
at thislevel,if onlyin the form of askingthe studentsto
u'riteaboutsomething
thevhaveread.but the closeassociation
of speaking
and listeningwith u'ritingis lesscommon.Yet a classdiscussion,
for example,
canprovidean excellentsprineboard
for writingactivities:
ideashavebeen
discussed.
pointsof viewexpressed
and.u'hatis especiallv
important,interest
in the topichasbeenaroused.
All this.especially
if the learnershavebeen
askedto makenotesduringthe classdiscussion.
canleadon quitenaturallvto a
varietyof writingactivities
in theform of letters,reports,newspaper
articles
andso on. Similarlv.project-tvpe
work, carriedout in smallgroupsover a
periodof time. providesexcelient
opportunities
for skillintegration.
The
learnershaveto discuss
the contentof the projectandinvariablyhaveto do a
considerable
amountof readingfor it. whilethe writingup of the projectis in
itselfa purposefulactivit\'.
The possibilityof individualising
writingpracticewasnotedin i.6. At this
Ievel,asthe learnersbecomeincreasingly
awareof how writing may relateto
their future needs(for example.for occupational
purposes,for academicstudy
or perhapsonly for personalcommunication),
motivationcanbe increasedby
payingparticularattentionto these.If, for example,a groupof studentsin the
classexpressa particularinterestin learningcommercialcorrespondence,
becausethey feel that thisis the typeof writing whichwill be, or is most likely
to be, of relevanceto them.eventhe settingof fairl,vformal tasksbecomes
more acceptable.
Needsfor individualised
writing practicecanto a largeextent
be met throughthe useof self-instructional
material,with the studentsworking
togetherin pairsor groups.
A final point to keepin mind is that, aswe allow the learnersincreasingiy
more opportunitiesfor self-expression
throughwriting, we mustview what
they write asattemptsto communicate
something.Weowe it to the students,of
course,to correctand evaluatetheir work to the extentthat this will improve
their performance
especially
in examinations,
sincetheseareoftenweightedin
favour of written skills.but it u'ouldbe wrongto destroyboth their interestand
confidencein writing throughexcessive
correction.One thing we cando is to
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ATTHEPOST.INTERMEDIATE
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performance,
separatetaskswhichare designedto improvetheir examination
intendedto
and whichthereforecanbe viewedmore critically,from those
which
activities
the
skillson a broaderbasis,suchas
developcommunication
is importantthat
fo.med part of the simulationin 8.4. For thesein particularit
situation,
classroom
the
the teacirershouldnot be the only consumerand, in
shouldbe writing/or oneanother'This elementof
thismeansthat the students
in activities
to somebodyis naturally-present
havingsomethingto communicate
students
the
like simulationsand projects:becausethereis a diversityof task,
havewritten' And,
are genuinelyinteresiedinknowingwhat othersin the class
be ascriticalof
to
likely
becauseof their involvementin the activity,they are
however,is that
what hasbeenwritten aSwe rvouldourselves.The difference'
they reactasreadersratherthan asittdges'
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The main features
of the writing
programme
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should be increased'
(b) Opportunitiesfor free expression
be settasks
This doesnot imply, horvever.that the learnersshouldsimply
that a
for writing, in thi iorm of topicsor themes'It is suggested
the useof
through
frameworkfor writing activiiiesshouldbe established
activitieslike thosein Chapter8'
shottldbe in theform of realistictaskssuchas reportand
(c) Writing activities
letterwriting.
Most of theseformatsfor writing practicehavebeenonly superficially
for
exploredat previousstagesandihere are thereforeopportunities
of
instead
level,
aeatingwittr thesein depthat the post-intermediate
practicein writing'
resortingto sometyp. ot..ruy *iiting to giveextended
to take
developed
proficiencyin ,p".id. varietiesof writing may alsobe
this aspectof
individualn".d, into account.It shouldbe kept in mind that
appropriate
the writing programmemustbe supportedby exposureto
modelsthroughthe readingprogramme'
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(d) Examinationrequirements
continue
Other componentsof the programmewill ensurethat the learners
of
mastery
that
to extendtheir rangeof *.iting skillsbut, to the extent
public
specificformsof wiiting, suchasessays'is a featureof
examinations,theseneedsmustbetakenintoaccount'
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in g.2thatone way of doingthis is usinga functional
It is suggested
will
upp.ou.trto writing skills.This componentof the writing programme
problemof
alsoensurethat th; learnersaregivin further help with the
content'
of
at the level
organisingtheir written expression
9.2
Remedialwork:
the value of a
functional
approach
at this stage' ^
necessary
It is inevitablethat someremedialrvorkwill become
earlierstagesof
While it is possibleto selectand repeatcertainactivitiesfrom
writing skillshas
the programme,the adoptionof a iunctionalapproachto
slantto the
new
In general,it canbe usedto givea
certainadvantages.
:
newway' The samels
programme,,olhut fa,iiliar groundcanbe exploredin a
to be felt. Thus.rvhereas
no lesstrue of oralskills,rvherea similarneedislikely
may havefocusedmainlyon
actiVities
reinforcement
at previousstages,
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WRITING
TEACHING
u'tlrk.reviewthese
structuralitems.\\'ecannorv.forthe purposeof rcnleclial
functions,suchasexprrcssitlil
itemsunderthe umbrellaof particularlanguage
that alltltiswill be
invitations,
etc.It is not suggested
requests,
suggestions.
thesefunctions.
of
treatment
the
learners;
is
tlle
s-r's/enzaric
it
totallynewto
rvhichis
havealreadymastered.
rvhichthe students
bringingtogetherlanguage
likelyto be different.In particular,howet'er.it will enableus to explorein
of
in longerstretches
rvhichoccurtvpicallyr
greaterdepthotherfunctions.
exemplifying'
generalising,
andcontrasting,
language,
suchascomparing
list of these.
a
comprehensive
A
for
defining Seethe Appendix.Section
valuablein helpingthe studentsto
Masteryof thesefunctionsu'illbe especiallv
organisetheirwrittenexpression.
andcontrast.is
An exampleof a unit of u'ork.dealingrvithcomparison
that the contentis suitablefor alltypes
givenin9.2.1.\[/hileit is not suggested
arelikelyto be of generalvalidity.Thus.the
of learners,the procedures
the variousitemsof
to a text$,hichexemplifies
studentsarefirstexposed
Their attentionis drawn
contrast.
and
express
comparison
to
language
needed
forms.althoughit is not
to the key items.u'hichincludesomealternative
'basickit'. As a
arebeingQivenan-vmorethana
that the students
suggested
for usinstheseitemsorally,.Sothat
secondstage,theyareeivenopportunities
they canexploretheirusein a fairlyflexibleway.At thisstage.certain
throughthe reading
shorvup whichwerenot perhapsanticipated
difficulties
writingtask.whichshou's
aregivenan appropriate
text. Finally.the students
how the functionof comparisonand contrastrelatesto a specific
purpose.
communicative
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9.2.r
Expressing
comparisonand
contrast:a
specimenunit
(a) Studythe languageof comparisonand contrastin the report below:
Iz
KEY LANGUAGE
R E P O R TO N E X H E A D A N D P O R T S E A
ts
in many woy,slin
some respects/to
some extent. alikel
similar, both, each,
like, similarlyl
likewiseiin the
same way, bal,
dissimilarldifferentl
unlike, compared
withlin comparison
with, while, on the
other hand, unlike,
difference between,
howeverlin
constrast/onthe
contrary
Exhead and Portseaare two towns on the
south coastwhich are in manl,wrzysvery
much alike. Thev are both old towns and
e a c h h a sa l a r g eh a r b o u r .
Llke Portsea,Exhead has a population of
approximately 120,000.It also has a growing
number of local industries.Similarly, Portsea
is expandingon the industrial front, too.
B u l i n o t h e r r e s p e c t st h e t w o t o w n sa r e q u i t e
dissimilar. For one thing, contpared u'ith
Portsea.Exhead is a much more attractive
place. For this reasonit is a popular holiday
resort in summer, while Portsea,on the other
hand. attractsvery few visitors.
Unlike Portsea.Exhead has extendedits
hotel facilitiesbecauseof the tourist trade.
One striking difference betweenthe two
towns is that Exhead has locatedits new
industrieson an estateoutside the town. In
Portsea,however, there are even factories
n e a rt h e h a r b o u r ,
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WRITINGAT THEPOST-INTERMEDIATE
andwork in
aregivena bio-datacue-Sheet
(b) For the nextstage,the students
For
andcomparinganytwo of the peopledescribed.
pairs,contrasting
and
A P
wavs,
H
Smith
J
many
In
like:
example,theymakestatements
alike. Theywereboth born in 1939,theyareboth
Wheelerare verymL4ch
married,etc. Or: Comparedwith MichaelWebb,Andrew Wheeleris a rich
man!
Noticethat, at this stage,the studentshaveto identifythe pointsof
andcontrast,aswell asusethe appropriateIanguage.
comparison
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'Ieacher
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Cancingr'bravelling
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(c) For theirfinaltask.the students
aresivendatain tabularform. They are
askedto rvritea reporton oneof the carsin eachof the two groups,
thiscarasthe'bestbu1".The.vhaveto compareand
recommending
contrastthiscaru'ithotheronesin the samegroup.rvherethisis
appropriate.
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9.3
Freewriting:
some suggested
procedures
116
The main concernof this lastsectionis to suggestsomeprocedureswhich
studentscanusewhentheyhaveto copewith the task,whichveryfew of us
'essay'on a
find easy,of producinga text in the form of a 'composition'or an
giventopic,eitherin an examination
or in a similarsituation.That is, it is
have
no
assumedthat the students
specialmotivationfor writing aboutthe
topic and that they havenot beengivenanyspecialpreparationfor it through,
for exampie,a classdiscussion,
in 9.1.It shouldbe noted,however,
assuggested
'recipes'
rvith
that we are not concerned
or'formulas'for writingmodel
but rvithproceduressuchasoutlining,draftingand
compositionsor essavs
improvingdrafts. fheseform part of any writing taskfor which the students
havenot beenhelpedu'ith the actualstructuringof the text they haveto
produce.For example.for the u'ritingactivitiesderivedfrom the simulationin
'content'andthe format(article,letter,
8.3,the studentsaregivenboththe
report, etc.)which thevhaveto use,but theyhaveto organisethe datafor
themselves.
Man.vstudentsin fact write lesswell than they are ableto simply
becausetheseor similarprocedureshavenot beensufficientlystressed.
It is not claimedthat thereis any one way of goingaboutthe writing of a
text (thiswasacknorvledged
in 1. 1) . What is important,however,is that
studentsshouldappreciatethe importance.for example,of makingnotesand
drafting.They mustacceptthat this is a normalpart of writing. The fact that
they cannotalwavsdo thisu'hentheyareaskedto write againstthe clockin an
doesnot invalidatethe Drocedures.
examination
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WRITINGAT THEPOST-INTERMEDIATE
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a particularlyuninspiring
theseprocedures,
For the purposeof illustrating
a placewhichseemsmuchmore
topichasbeenchosen:Describe
composition
was
when
it
new.
and sadthan
neglected
faced
In attemptingto writeabouta topiclike this,we are immediately
naturally
we
have
Seen,
aS
writing
which,
we
are
for,
who
problems:
with two
the
how we write. andwhatto write about.In normalcircumstances
influences
we do not
firstproblemwouldneverariseat all, since,outsidethe classroom,
write unlessthereis somereasonfor doingso. For thistypeof writing,students
areoftenexhortedto'imagine'a reader.This mayto someextentbe helpfulif
the studentsalsothink of the taskinitiallyasformingpart of , let us say,a letter
or a report.This at leastgivesthemsomepurposefor writing aboutthe topic in
the firstplaceandcanserveto stimulatesomeideason it. And if the students
'otherstudentsin the class'.who areat
areto'imaginea reader',it hadbestbe
leastrealfor them. Studentsdo tend to rvritebetterif they know that other
peoplein the classaregoingto readwhattheyhavewritten.Hencethe
importanceof havinga displayboardof somekind in the classroom.
then,our startingpoint is reallythe problemof
In termsof procedures,
whatto write about:that is, gettingsomeideason the topic.Understandably
studentsoftenfeelthat theyhavenothingto sayat all, although,if the task
a numberof ideaswouldby a shortclassor groupdiscussion,
werepreceded
certainlybe thrown up. In the absenceof tttis.the studentsneedto stimulate
and this canbe quiteeffectivelydoneby askingoneselfclttestions
themselves
aboutthe topic andnotingdown anv ideasthat occur.As a first step,then, it is
should:
thatthe students
suggested
LLLLL-
(a) List possibleideas.
One ideaveryoftensparksoff another.In anycase,mostpeoplefind it
helpfulto getsomethingdownon paper.It is betterthan staringat blank
'ideas'chart(see6.3.1and8.3.1)is oneway of getting
paper!Makingan
of beingflexible.You canexpand'
started,andit hasthe addedadvantage
if you aremakingnotesin a
is
difficult
rvay
that
in
a
ideas
link, number
Here,for example,arethe resultsof tryingto decide
conventionalwav.
whichplaceto rvriteabout.
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The writer play'edaround with severalideas.House did not lead
anywhere;farnt did. but he decidedthat he \\'assoing in the wrong
direction. Both theatreandfactorl' had some potential, but in the end the
rvriter decidedthat he could do more u,ith hotel. Horvever.he can easilygo
back and developthem later if he getsnowhere with hotel (and it is much
easierto transferideasfrom one placeto another by meansof arrows).
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(b) Selectand expand one idea.
The writer has decidedthat he can do somethingwith hotelon the basisof
personalexperience.Again, it helpsto do this in chart form - perhaps
merely expandingthe first one if time is short.
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(c) Make an outline.
Not everyonefindsit necessary
or evenhelpfulto makea planor outline.
For someit is inhibitingandpreventsideasfrom flowing.In anycase,in
(suchastheexamination
somesituations
room)theremay not be time. In
that case.you cannumberthe ideasin the chartin the orderyou think you
wouldlike to incorporate
that nothing
themin the text.Thisalsoensures
importantis left out.
118
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WRITINGAT THEPOST.INTERMEDIATE
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However,some
studentsfind making
an outlinehelpfulfor
ideas,
organising
for
especially
identifyingand
developingan
openingand closing
paragraph,whichwill
make a great
impressionon the
reader.Students
shouldat leastbe
taughthow to do this,
evenif they do not
makeuseof it everY
time they write a
composition.
(d)
Write a draft.
Writing a draft is a
key stagein the
productionof a text
and the students
shouldnormallybe
requiredto do this as
a matterof course.
The purposeof the
outlinein (c) is to
providea scaffolding
for the draft version.
However,students
s h o u l dn o t f e e l t h a t
they must necessarilY
keepto theiroutline:
a pieceof writing
off'
sometimes'takes
a
goes
in
and
completelydifferent
direction,andthey
may find it more
productiveto follow
this new line of
Generally
development.
draftsshouldbe written
quitequicklytheywill be
because
reworkedand
correctedafterwards.
t.re
2 0 y e a r s - u s e r i t o g c , ^ . l t h .D a r e n t s
fcr
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reieccrcl:.;,rg / outsiCe too.
neg"-.caeC. l'"ike ;ungle !
?arc S (Cor,ciuslon) Fett pLace hai grcum o1-.i
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it
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ot't'i':e: ic=er"'t
tlz
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i':::":"ce
cle
h'air-'t beer: :e':ct'cte4.fol
tas just
r:::r's'
|'as qsvi':'::':z:':
ae buc.
to ore boti'"evei tc
c l a c e h - a di i r c L l t c : ' i ,
:er'tct:e :hey :i"i tot
uas c rle:,:.'r-e to gc bt:!- tr-C i
ic :'.cuit":
;
erc-'1 .
cir:ca;
'-:tr i'L- clcss
cr ;1:t:
rct';.
I fe,::i;tt:i'.a
':e,:::i:e::!
-ecple
ta;
o'clocl'- the pl-ace xcs can?Le,eLr ieserie'j
)l! !'aaa iepres-"o-i re:
I
laliiaT
crcuCed iur:r'g
Car.ces at
sgectc!
tsed to arratge
ct;er r[e\tt
tex qnd cer:ci't':!
Das te!'r
dcys it
ln:bse
c":xcys::a-,ted.
ali?.'L1m4r
ucnteti to see the Seet:eu iot;e'L uh'::': te
- pc:::.culdrLil
best
been back xh'ere fcr
hoc to:
b,L.ti
h.ol!ici;,
se'asite tc''n ict
t:c tcke us tc::hi';
Lsei
cltays
!ut':ct'er:e
9oxle'1.
ta ga on a uisit:o
' " l i ' ' ' :t L e : e : : " '
rc:i.:ta ':a.
dectJei:c::c'<;
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rotr",ro.
119
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
GRITING
I
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I
(e) Correct atttl intprrtt e tlte tlrutl.
I
I n p a r t i c u l a rt h e s t u d e n t ss h o u l dc h e c kf o r m i s t a k e st h r o u g h a c a r e f u l
reaclingof q,hat thev have written. Thev should alsorevierv the text from
and organisation.
the point of vieu of expressitln
-
I
-
?A th*t t;"*
to ,go on a u'Lsit to BorLey. )ur parents
:;ot Long/ago I d"ecid"ed"
,? ln',d4
toum f.or ouT su/mneT
ihis
tc
us
take
to
used
claays
^f';easid.e
sit't'we ry
2OquftJ aat
fI
i.c!;/al.tsl Aitt t hoC ro! b:an back therelfor ouer taentA aearS
,
< U//r147/5
l//76
ifpartieuLarlyfuanted
.o see the Seauieu HoteL uhere ue
r btune*',c'*ta&oL
certainLy the
cLuaus stau6d.. In 1:hoseieys tt ao"lun"y ne}.,a|'td.
?";bf ;t'r-*"11'--"-'
ttuott"eqn/r;*hot
bet:l:h totm.
L
It
l,crY
l.the
tscs aLu:Vsfgr-oudedCuringfhoLiaay season.
uere parti,es and. dcrces at the ueekend"and the oLmers
tro a,t.L othrf,
?";;ertainmer!)for
the chiLaren
^sed to orrong$p;;ili
ft";
( ""n the
qaTaen. )
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I arciued on a saturi,av but the hoteL uas aLmost ernptyf A
'- ?e'Asfu
- ary,iued Later in the day.
feu more people, mostlylr-_i "i"p{nt,
/rnrsa 6.*-o'"oL9'2ry1o"4!
tW
lW
T e o p T ec t e t h e i r l f o o d i n f s i l e n e e
: u t e u e r y u h e ' r eD a s s c i e c : !
'te'tfu*r*nlt
a n d b y t e n o 'e l o ck th e '& -i a s
/ ,w./t ba/* ("ry ry
co*pLetelydeser ted'
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n e : --t h adn' t been d"ecorated"
l ( a "o o " 7 d e P 7 e s,s.e
d
, I ierrt {.i a. wa,l'k
just as bad. The gardenrf,Won
/ri',n'-oit'side of the 7"ote1' ':as
(T'
the grass or PLant
conpLeteLy negLected: no one bothered
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fl,ouers any moYe.
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tnai tfr pLace i"'adgrotnt old,
Like the peopLe uho
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uent thereQ Perhapsthey di'd not not'Lcei't
/'raaL bze.n
i.6'"-*Lii"ke
. :'.
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.ve7e 1- "
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to go back end I decLded to make my escapef(he
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W R I T I NA
GTT H EP O S T . I N T E R M E DLIE
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(0 Writethefinal version.
The text belowis a modifiedversionof the draft in (d). It incorporates
'fair copy'because
madein (e), but it is not just a
manyof the changes
Somenewideasoccurredwhilethe finalversionwasbeingwritten.
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A short uhiLe ago,
I decided to go on a uisit
our paTents used to take us euerA year for. ouIl sulrner hoLidnys.
But that uas tuenta aears ago - and I had not been back since
then.
I rmtst admLt I uas particuLarLy
HoteL, uhere ue aLuays stayed.
tentextainments'
anC other,
us, of course, this
9-
a-a1
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For
uas the niddLe of
the hoLidaa season, the hoteL uas aLmost compLeteLy ernpty. It
Later in the fua, o ieu more guests arTi.ued.
uas a bad. sign!
They uere mostLy eLderly couples.
At dinner, peopLe ate in
siLence and. by ten o,clock the hoteL uas cornpLeteLydesev'ted.
Conpared.utth the oLd d.ays on a Saturd-a.ynight, tk"e pLace
I uent back to mA room - but tlnt
depressed me eDen more: it
I decided to take a uaLk
h-ad not been d.ecorated foz, years.
It uas not iust the
round" the gard.er,, but this aas no better.
ou_tside of the hotel,
uhich aLso needec painting.
Tk'e gaTdens
- those LoueLy gardens! - uere cornpLetely neglected: no one
bothered. to pLant any flouers; no one bothered euen to cut the
grass !
It
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uas the neDest
in the garden for. the children.
I aTriued. on a saturday and although it
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In those dnys it
was the speciaL attrietion!
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to see the Seauieu
the most popuLaT VtoteL in toum., aluays uerA cTouded
There uez'e parties
during the holidau season and fuLL of Life.
and" dnnces at the ueekend, and the odltey,s used to apange tea
seemed Like a graueYard!
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curious
and. by far
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seemeiLto me tlnt
the pLace Ltad sir,rpllJ gI,oLn oLd - aLong
the orineTE and the people uho uent there.
Perhaps theu
It had been a
did. not notice uhat had happened, but I_ did.
great nistake to go back, of course, anC I dccided to mo,keny
esca?e as soon as I could in the morr"ing'
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\\'ritc l clruit
Correct lnd ttttirrttveclraft
I
shouldbe taughta setof
that thestudents
To sumup. it is suggested
(summarised
in the diagram),u'hichu'ill helpthemnot
procedures
only whentheyareu'ritingabouttopicslike the one dealtwith
'free'u'riting.In particular.these
abovebut alsorvithan1'kind of
of making
procedures
shouldtakeinto accountthe importance
draftsbeforethe
notes,writingoutlines.draftingandcorrecting
the
finalversionis writtenup. As theybecomemoreexperienced,
during
particular,
In
studentswill no doubtwantto modifythese.
examinations,
thevmaynot havetimeto takea pieceof writing
of havinglearned
However.the experience
all
these
stages.
through
to makenotes.to write draftsand to correctthemwill standthem in
it is
it is hoped.that, because
goodstead.And theywill appreciate.
just
it
of
inspiration':
question
a
u'ritingis not
a thinkingprocess.
alsogenerallyinvolvesa greatdealof hardwork andorganisation.
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---1
Discussion
In whatsenseis mostof
'real
the writingwe do in
life' everreallyfree?How
usefula preparationfor it
composition?
is classroom
Do you agreethat there
are manyeffective
alternativesto the
Lt.THENI.TL]ELL {OU
conventional
IV €XGLIJH
IEAo/'I.R'GA
' composition'u'riting
V€4f,,5..
OCOI,LE6E
FOR
FOUR
activity?What are they?
What is your view of the
functionally-oriented
writing activiti6ssuggested
in9.2?
N0.I Dof r K{otdtdl{y
TEAC'{ER5
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SurtllERl!
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O 1986unded FeatureSyndrcate.lnc
Exercises
References
Examineany coursebookto seewhat provisionis madefor remedialwriting
activities.
Make a list of the thingsyou do (e.g.makingnotes,drafting,etc.)whenyou
haveto write, for example,a reportor anycomplexpieceof writing.
ri'ith a friend.
Compareyour procedures
you
haveread.makea list of what you considerto be the
In the light of what
besttwentycontrolled,guidedandfreewriting activities.Compareyour
'Top Twenty'witha friend.
_v
On what studentsdo whentheyhaveto write (in the mothertongue)see
S Krashen(1984)pages12-19.
For writing activitiesat the intermediateleveland beyond,seeJ Arnold and
J HarmerAdvancedWrttingSkills(1978);N Coe et alWriting Skills(1983);
M Carrier Writing(1981);E Glendinningand H Mantell Writeldeas(i983);
J O'DriscollPenguinAdvancedWriringSkll/s(i984); D Jolly Writing Tasks
(1984)and A PincasWriringin EnglishJ (1982).
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writtenwork
Correcting
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10.1
Errorsand
mistakes
When we seesomethingwrongwith a pie'ceof written work, we mustfirsttry to
decidewhetherit is an error or a mistake.Broadly,learnersmakeerrorswhen
they try to do somethingwith the languagewhich they are not yet ableto do.
(theyusea regularinstead
For example,they oftenmakefalsegeneralisations
of an irregularform, suchasthrowedinsteadof.threw)or they transferfrom the
mothertongue(theywrite: Thepeopleis angryinsteadof Thepeopleare
angry).Theseare two major sourcesof error. Mistakes,on the other hand,are
slipsof somekind. The studentshavelearnedsomething,but perhapsthey
havetemporarilyforgottenit or are tired . . . or, we feel, arejust being
careless.
Although in practiceit is sometimesdifficultto decideif somethingis a
mistakeor an error (afterall, we may think we havetaughtthe students
somethingbut perhapsthey did not learnit) , it is importantto try to decide.
Clearly,for example,if studentshavenot learnedsomething,we cannotexpect
On the otherhand,it is perfectlyreasonable
them to correctit for themselves.
soundto get them to correcttheir own mistakes.And it is
and pedagogicaily
certainlyno usegettingcrosswith the studentsif they keepon makingcertain
errors.The lessonwe canlearnfrom theseis that the studentsneedto learn
something,whetheror not the syllabusor the coursebookhasprovidedfor it at
this stage,andthe bestwaywe canhelpthemis by givingthemthe opportunity
in short,canhelpshapeour teaching(and
to learnit. Learners'errors,
certainlyour remedialteaching).
10.2
Teacherand
student
correction
with
It hasalreadybeensuggested
thatwe shouldnot be undulypreoccupied
is
the detectionand correctionof mistakesin written work. Effectiveexpression
not the sameasaccurateexpression.
Accuracyis normallymeasuredin termsof
grammar,
spelling,
etc.,
correct
sincethesearethe areaswhichtendto getthe
But a pieceof
mostattentionwhena pieceof writtenwork is being'corrected'.
conveythe
writtenwork whichhasa numberof mistakesin it mav nevertheless
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u'hileanotherpiece.
adequately,
purposeperfectl.v
u'riter'scommunicative
doesnot. The sameis true of oral expression.
freefrom mistakes.
superficially
ri'rittenexpresslon
a
tendencyto scrutinise
is
we
have
noted.
there
But, as
It is therefor
inspection.
accessible
to
careful
it is readily
morecloselybecause
we tendto seemistakes.
us to readandrereadandconsequently
all the time. Studentsexpect
Clearly,however.\\'ecannotignoremistakes
by whatever
andthe correctionof mistakes.
to be informedof theirprogress
procedures
areused.rsoneu'ayof doingthis.Equally,however.if we indicate
we shouldalsopoint out in
the waysin whicha pieceof rvritingis defective,
For exampie,we shouldinformthe students
whatwavswe think it is successful.
(not leaveit to be assumed
of comment)that theyhavemade
by an absence
etc.Thispositiveform of
or punctuation
devices.
gooduseof connecti\/es
canbe givena
feedbackneednot addmuchto yourwork: the students
from
checklistof itemsandthel'canseeat a glanceif theyaremakingprogress
the onesthat havebeentickedoff.
rveneedto stressonce
Beforeu'elook at variouscorrectionprocedures.
to identifyandcorrect
againthe importanceof gettingthe learnersthemselves
mistakes.Ultimateiythevu'illhaveto examine.evaluateandimprovetheir
of drafting.correctingandwritingfinal
own work: thisis part of the process
in 9.3.But thisimportantcriticalabilitywill not
versions,whichwasdescribed
it from a much
developunlessthe learnersaregiventhe opportunitvto exercise
whenyou wiliwant to correctall the mistakes
earlierlevel.Therewillbe occasions
in a pieceof written work (see10.3for waysof doingthis). Equally,however,
whenyou canleaveit to the studentsthemselves.
therewill be occasions
For a start,to get them into the habit of lookingcriticallyat a pieceof written
work whichhasnot beencorrectedby the teacher,they canwork in pairsor
smallgroupsto try to identifyanymistakesand only then to consultwith you.
but it will at leastget
This procedurewill not work perfectlyon all occasions,
the studentsinto the habit of checkinga pieceof writtenwork for themselves.
10.3
Correction
procedures
areexaminedbelow.
VariouscorrectionDrocedures
(a) Correctall themistakes.
This is of coursethe traditionaiapproachto the correctionof written work.
for the students- at
for the teacherand discouraging
It is time-consuming
leastif the.vgettheiru'orkbackcoveredwith red ink. Apart from that'
there mustbe somedoubtabouthow effectivethis form of correctionis.
in why
Somestudentslearnnothingfrom it: othersaremoreinterested
somethingis u'rongratherthanthe correctionitself. If .voucancorrect
in writingand
arestillengaged
somethingin class.u'hilethe students
everythingis freshin theirminds,thisis likelyto be moreeffectivethan
severaldaysafterthe event.
lookingat a massof corrections
systemobligesyou to carryout this
Overall,unlessthe educational
approaches.
kind of correction.vou shouldconsideralternative
(b) Correctmistakesselectiv
e[1'.
That is, you do not attemptto correctal1the mistakesin a pieceof writing,
but only thosein certainareas.suchastensesor articles,eitherbecause
you have
particularlyneedhelpor because
thisis wherethe students
I
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WRITTENWORK
CORRECTING
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decidedto focusattentionon thesefor a while. Certainlythis approachis
more positivethan total correction- in practice,of course,mostteachers
- but it probablyneedsto be backedup
exerciiesomeform of selection
by someform of remedialteaching(seebelow).
ar
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so thatthestudentscancorrectthem'
mistakes
(c) Inclicate
f-
This is normallydoneby underliningthe mistakesand usingsomekind of
symbolto focusthe attentionof the studentson the kind of mistakethey
listof these,seebelow'
havemade.For a possible
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I n c o r r e c ts p e l l i n g
I recieued jour
W r o n gw o r d o r d e r
w. o.
W eknouueLL this c i ty .
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be too Late.
C o n c o r d S u b j e c at n dv e r bd o
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come.
Tao poLLceryf_hasc
W r o n gf o r m
We uant that You come,
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Letter.
ALuays I an haPPY here.
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EXAMPLE
MEANING
The neus- are bad today .
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That tabLe is oux,
S i n g u l aor r p l u r a l f o r mw r o n g
Ile need more infornotion?.
S o m e t h i n g h a s b e e n l e f to u t
Theu
saidfuo, urorn.
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He kLt me onl sl""cu1-deY
lr
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tl
uas too nt'LcltdifficuLi.
S o m e t h i n gi s n o t n e c e s s a r Y
It
M e a n i n gi s n o tc l e a r
Comeand'rest u"Jth us for
a ueek.
?m
-7n
The uieu fron here i's uerY
?n
suggebtiue.
;
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ne to sit
T h e u s a g ei s n o t a P P r o P r i a t e
Hn
P u n c t u a t i ow
nr o n g
hhats Uour name
@
doum'
tt7
P
p
He asked me uhat I uer''ted?
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SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
u
individually.in pairsor in
Usinga listof thiskind, vou cangetthe students.
If
for themselves'
smallgroups.to identifyat leastmostof the mistakes
makes
theycannot.thentheysirouldconsultyou.This approachcertainly
theyaremakingandis therefore
themmoreawareof the kind of mistakes
beinglearned.You do not needof courseto
likelyto resultin something
In practice.however,it doesnot solveall the
all the mistakes.
indiCate
for
areleft to identifymistakes
problems.For exampie,if students
form
groups,
some
not bother.Evenif theywork in
the1,ma-V
ihemselves,
may,be neededandthiscouldtakeup a lot of classtime in
of confirmation
a largeclass.
If your teachingsituationpermits.you couldtry to implementa staged
to correcttheirown work'
approachfor gettingthe students
it b,vu'ritingthe appropriate
1 Underlinethe mistakeanddiagnose
Stage
s y m b oiln t h e m a r g i n .
it'
2 Underlinethe mistakebut do not diagnose
Stage
3 Diagnosethe mistakeby u'ritingthe symbolin the marginbut do
Stage
n o t s h o u ' g ' h e ri et i s i n t h el i n e .
4 Put a crossin the margin(for eachmistake)'
Stage
5 Put a crossagainsteachlinewith a mistakebut do not indicatehow
Stage
thereare.
manymistakes
.J
tu
)
u
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M
2
)
)
)
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(d) Let thestudentsidentifl'andcorrecttheirown mistakes'
This is not a procedurethat you arelikely to be ableto follow all the time.
occasiona]l1,.hou'ever,Voushouldbepreparedtohandoverthewhole
businessof correctionto the students- whichtheirwill generallydo
andu'ithenloyment.
scrupulously
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whentheymakemistakesare:
Otherthingsyou cando to helpstudents
ts
(a) Explaina mistake.
For example.you canwrite a commentin the marginor at the end of a
pieceof wlrittentr,ork.This procedureis especiallyusefulfor drawing
attentionto recurrentmistakesin a particularareaand when you are able
in class.
to look at students'work
(b) Indicateto thestudentsthatthe,v,shouldconsultvou abouta mistake'
This may be usedasan aiternativeto (b) and (c) above.Very often the
cansuggestthe correctionwhentheir attentionhas
studentsthemselves
beendrawnto a mistake.
(c) lJsethemistakeasa basisfor remedialteaching.
This procedureshouldbe followedif a sufficientnumberof studentsin the
classhavemadea mistaketo warrantgeneralcorrection.Alternatively,
you cansetindividualremedialwork. Remedialteachingmay takethe
oral
iorm of an explanation,wherethis is felt to be sufficient,or exercises,
the
correct
to
designed
to be appropriate,
or written.whicheverSeems
mistake.
Teacherstend to placetheir faith in one typeof correctionprocedurerather
than another.In particular.manvdo not accept(or only acceptwith some
t26
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CORRECTING
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In general,however,althoughit is
procedures.
misgiving)self-correction
importantto givethe studentsopportunitiesto correctwritten work so that
attitude,it doesnot seemthat one approachis so
they developa self-critical
you shouldtherefore
intiinsicallysuperiorthat it canbe usedall the time and
your
of
students'
to suit the needs
draw on the variousapproaches
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Exercises
and mistakesis
1 Do you think that the distinctionmadebetweenerrors
important?
of teaching(or learning)'d: Io" think that
2 From your own experience
Give your reasons'
detailedteachercorrectionof written work is effective?
3
- Inmediumtolargesizedclasses(i.e.over30students),whatproblems
to correcttheir own work?
you seein getting-students
lDeviseyourownsetofcorrectionprocedures.Youcanmodifytheliston
page125.
2Useyourcorrectionsymbolstoindicatethemistakesinthefollowingpiec
of writing, whichis in the form of a letter'
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vh'/ qord b4tufoivc'rry "ru'o/t'
hir;L in rhesed,ags,Pe'r+w7s
I as/eftw,t fhe 6{orrffl4'ti'C
(b^'t Irw [,tlec.
yneaw,ckh
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'q:o+h ar
Soinrlirnq I m,wst ts tdl YzLL.
a
lchwwle in,p/^t
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worte
Ubtlt 6,^d I
b,znte. I nni r"*t'ctt',3x'c^t,r19
{or rhis ! I hoPe to gain
"more a't barn/?.
L of rne fo fuauea/'L You'r
TtEts. / arrn,cn@1y to,kruow
them. EoLipue rVL(, I
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SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
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References
2
. or
F o r u s e f u l q e n e r acl u i d a n c eo n c o r r e c t i o ns r - eR J W i n g f i e l d( 1 9 7 - l ) F
studentcorrectionseeCJ Brumfit in S Holden (1983)CorrcctirrqY'ritt(ll
work. The ideasin this chapterowe a good deal to thesetrvo articles.Seealso
R W h i t e ( 1 9 8 0 )p a g e s1 0 6 - 9 a n d . l H a r m e r ( 1 9 8 3 )p a g e s1 , 1 0 - 1 .
For correctionsymbolsseeJ Willis (1981)pages112-3 and L Dangerfieldin
A Matthews et al (eds) (1985)pages195-8.
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Aboywrote
a poem
NICHOI.AS CTIAPIVTAN
A b o y u ' r o t ea p o e m .
I t w a sf r o m h o n r e w o r kf r o m c l a s s ,
L I ew r o t ca b o u tc l i f f ' t o p s ,
A n d h o wt l r cu i n d sl r i r s s
H e j u s tl c t i t I t o * '
f r o m h i sh e a dt o h i sp e n ,
B u t h i ss p c l l i n g* ' a sb a d ,
" C , d o t h i sa g a i n l "
A b o y w r o t ea p o e m ,
A n d t h o r r g hot f h i sn r a r k .
A n d t h i st i m eh ec h c c k e ri tl
A n d w r o t eo f t h e d : r r k .
H e c h a n g e da n dc o r r e c t e r l .
G a v ei t i n t h en e x td a y ,
He got "B+ Good effort"
a n dt h r e wi t a w a y .
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NicholasChapmanis 12 and attends
QueenKatherineSchool,Kendal,
Cumbria.
in the TimesEducational
Published
S u p p l e m e n1t6 . 8 . 8 5 .
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11
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Writingactivitiesfor children
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11.1
for
Reasons
teachingwriting
yearsold' who
The agegroupwe havein mind hereis that of gupilsi9.".trt7-8
ageare
this
at
have,Jnlyreclntly startedelementaryschool.Sincechildren
tongue,we
good at learningorally and arestill learningto write in their mother
them to write
i""d to explainand perhapsjustifywhy we shouldwant to teach
just
givingthem a few
in anotherlanguageat this stage,apartfrom perhaps
Won't ii just be yet anotherlearningburdenfor
routinecopyingexercises.
them?If iiweri, thenit mightbe betterto keepwritingto an absolute
whenwe look at
minimum.But it doesnot liaveto be a burden,aswe shallsee
the many
the varioustypesof activityproposed,especiallyif we k-eepin mind
applyto
good reasoniit .r. arefor teachingwriting at this age' Someof these
l-.u.n.r,of all ages.A number,however,arepeculiarto children'
(a)Childrenusuallyenjol,writing.Thisispartlybecausetheyhaveonly
copyingstill
startedto write in their mothertongue.Even activitieslike
havea certainnoveltYvalue.
This is one^
(b) Most childrenexpectto be taughtto write (and readof course)'
it aspart of
see
they
of the thingsyouhaveto do rvhenyou go to schooland
learninga language'
- but evenmoreso,needa breakfrom oral
(c) children,like olderstudents
work.Theyenjoytalking.ofcourse.buttheysoongettired,evenifyo
activiiies.Writing activitiesprovidea very important
keepchanging'ttLe
afterwhichthey
quiet (or relativelyquietl) period-foithem in the lesson,
usuallyreturntooralrvorkrefreshedandlessrestless.
to work at theirownpace.whichis
(d)
' ' writing giveschildrenan opportunity
differences
u.ru ,.iJ*ing for them.Rememberthattherecanbe very big
theirmotorskillsarestilldeveloping'
learnersat thisagebecause
betrveen
rvhich
(e) Accessto the rvrittenlanguagesometimesclearsup difficttlties
r29
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
GRITING
y
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
1 1 . 1. 1
Someguidelines
for teaching
writing to children
theycannottell you about
childrenhaveu'henlearningorall.v.Sometimes
theyarenot evenawareof themthemselves.
because
thesedifficulties
Writing activitiesprovidean opportunityfor personalcontacr.This againis
very importantfor learnersof thisage,who areStillgettingusedto the
Whentheyarewriting,you cango andwork with
environment.
classroom
themindividually(at leastwith thosewho needandwantthisattention),
them.This is sometimesmore important
sort out difficultiesand encourage
than the writing activityitself.
Children like and needto havea recordof manyof the thingsthey do in the
- of dialogues
andsongstheyhavesung.
theyhavepractised
classroom
althoughtheylearnquickly,theyforget
Again thisis importantbecause,
quicklytoo. You shouldnot forgetthattheyleadverybusylives- in and
outofschool!
Childrenneedtheextrolanguagecontactthat writing canprovide.
if there
throughsomesortof homeworkactivity.Thisis essential
especially
need
course.
of
Homework,
next.
onelessonandthe
is a longgapbetu'een
not be a burden.For example,if childrenareaskedto illustratea song(see
1 I . 2 . 1 ( i )b e l o w ) .t h i su ' i l l h e l pt o k e e pt h e mi n t o u c hw i t h t h e l a n g u a g e
astheydraw!)as
(theyareverylikel,vto be heardsingingit to themselves
well asbeingenjovable.
to showtheirparents.Parentsare usuallypleased
Childrenneedsomethirtg
when they heartheir childrenutter a few wordsin a foreignlanguagebut
they are usuallymore convincedthat they are makingprogress(even
perhapsif they are not) if theyhavetangibleevidencein the form of
written work. They usuallyexpecthomeworkto be in the form of writing
too.
The main purposefor goinginto the reasonsfor teachingchildrenof this ageto
write is that they lvill helpus to seehow we shouldgo aboutit. Two things
especiallyshouldbe kept in mind. First,rvritingmustnot impair oral fluency.
There is no reasonwhy this shouldhappenprovidedthe pupilsgetplenty of
opportunitiesfor hearingandusingEnglishand if writing is treatedasan
extensionof oral work. Secondly,we shouldnot try to teachaspectsof the
written languagewhichlearnersat this agecannotbe expectedto understand
and copewith. For example,they aretoo youngto do sentencelinking
that thesecanbe turnedinto a kind of
activities(exceptin the few instances
than
game)andthe kind of textstheywritearemorelikelyto be imaginative
coherent.Rememberthat the pupilsarestill learninghow to organisetheir
ideasin theirmothertongue.
(a) Give thepupils plent;' of opportunitiesfor copying.
This willhelp them feel at easewith the written languageand shouldalso
providethemwith recordsof thingstheymayneed,e.g.listsof words,
copiesof songs,poemsanddialogues.
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(b) Give thepupils adequateopportunitiesto useorally learnedlanguagein
writing.
In short,theywill needa fair amountof controlledpractice.particularlyto
z
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FORCHILDREN
WRITINGACTIVITIES
r,-_--
reinforcekey structures
andvocabulary.
This neednot andshouldnot be
boring.(In fact,mostworkbooksfor childrentry to makethistypeof
andenjoyable.)
activityinteresting
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(c) Provideactivitieswhich thepupils can do at their own speed.
r-<-
Somepupilswill finishan activityveryquickly(andcallout for attention!).
You shouldbe preparedto extendthe activity(by someform of parallel
writing) or havean extraactivityready(whichneednot be a written one).
Slowerpupilsshouldasfar aspossiblealwaysbe giventhe opportunityto
finishan activityin someform (that is, they must not be left feelingthat
theyhavefailed,otherwisetheymaybeginto getdiscouraged).
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(d) Work with thepupils wherever
possible.
)-ala
Writing activitiesprovidea breakfor the pupils- but not, asa rule, for
the teacher!Somepupilswill actuallyneedyour help. With all of them
writing will providean opportunityto get to know them a little better
personally.
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(e) Make surethatthepupils beginto seewritingasa meansof communication.
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This canbe donemainlyby gettingthe pupilsto write to one anotherin
class(see17.2.3and 11.2.4),whichis an activitythe learnersparticularly
enjoyat thisage.
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(f) Encouragethepupils to be creative.
9-
This shouldbalancecontrolledand language-focused
activitiessuggested
in (b). At thisagetheyhaveplentyof imaginationandtheyshouldbe
to useit.
encouraged
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(g) Make writing activitiesenjoyable.
b
This is the mostimportantprovision.Rememberthat manypupilsarejust
startingon a programmewhichmay lastfor years.It would be a pity if they
were turnedoff at this earlyagethroughboredomor failure.You musttry,
therefore,to ensurethat theygetasmuchfun out of writingastheydo
f r o mo t h e ra c t i v i t i e s .
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71.1.2
The organisation
of writtenwork
Seealso4.7.3. At thisagethepupilswill normallybe makinguseof
workbooksor activitybooks.Thisin itselfwill helpto keeptogethera good
dealof theirwrittenwork. Sometimes,
however,materialhasto be cut out and
a folder will be usefulfor keepingtogetherthis and other looseleafmaterial.
As a rule at thisageit is betterto askpupilsto work with exercise
books
(ratherthana folderfor everything).
The kind of exercise
book theyuse(i.e.
the distancebetweenthe lines)may alsobe importantfor writing.Pupilswill
needat leasttwo exercisebooks:onefor vocabularylistsand relatedactivities
(e.g.Word Bingo)andthe otherfor copiesof dialogues,
songsandpoems,
to iilustrate.They may alsoneedonefor
whichtheyshouldbe encouraged
projectwork suchasmakinqan illustrated
dictionary.
11.2
Writing activities
Thesehavebeendividedinto four groups- copying.practicewith words,
andcreativervriting- but thereis inevitablysome
practicewith sentences
groups.
overlapbetweenthese
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TEACHINW
G RITING
11.2.1
Copfing
(a) Joirtingup dorstoform v'ords
Thisverybasicactivitycanbe
usefulin the earlystages.
partly to givethe PuPils
practicein formingthe letters'
More thanthat, however,it
givesthe pupilsthe illusion
that they are Producingthe
It is of
wordsfor themselves.
coursean activitythey are
familiarwith throughPuzzle
booksthat containhidden
objectsin pictures.
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Join tire dots ond circle
the number.
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( b ) Finding rhe word that is different
The pupilsare givensetsof 4-5
wordslike thosein the diagram
and are askedto find andwrite
out the word that is different.
This combinesreadingwith
writing. ChildrenenjoYthe
asPectof this
problem-solving
activity.
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(c) Labelling items
For this the pupilsusewordslistedfor them in a box to identifyand label,
for example,individualobjects,peopiein a group,objectsin a Scene'etc.
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bird
lorry
cat
Pig
tractor
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cow
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donkey tree
house
woman
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puzzles
(d) Completingcrossh)ord
The pupilsuseor selectwords
from a list to comPletesimPle
crosswordpuzzleslike these.
The puzzlescanbe more
extensiveasthe PuPilsProgress.
black
blue
brown
green
orange
red
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(e) Finding words
'hidden'in
The pupilshaveto find andwrite out wordswhich havebeen
boxeslike the onebelow.The wordsmaybelongto a set(e.g.animals,
clothes,etc.) and at a laterstagemay form a sentence,suchasan
instruction.The pupilscanalsomaketheir own wordboxes,working
individuallyor in groups,usingwordswhichtheyhavebeengiven.
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(f) Filling in speechbubbles
with the
The pupilshaveto fill in speechbubblesby matchingthe sentences
a
sequence.
form
pictures
if
the
situation.The activityis more interesting
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(g) Forming dialoguesor storiesfrom ittmbled sentences
See4.3.1(c) for thisactivity.Thismakesa goodpairworkor groupactivity
the pupilshavealreadyheard.
andcanbe basedon something
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( h ) Playingv,ord bingo
See4.2.3(e) for thisactiviti'.Thisis a lie-vactivitvfor learnersat thislevel
vocabularv
setsneedto be keptfreshin their mindsthrough
because
aswell asspelling,because
constantrevision.It helpswith pronunciation
the pupilscantell 1'ouwhichwordsto writeon the boardandthenhearyou
readthemout. You canalsoplay'phrasebingo'withthe pupils,but be
carefulthat this doesnot presentproblemsfor slowcopiers.
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( i ) Making copiesof songs,etc.
songsandpoems(i.e. any
The pupilsmaketheirown copiesof dialogues.
material)in a booksetasidefor thispurposeandprovidd
key reference
Thisagainis a veryimportantactivity.Most pupils
theirown illustrations.
materialof thiskind.
whenillustrating
exhibita gooddealof imagination
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1r.2.2
Word activities
For the activitiesin this sectionthe pupilshaveto provide(i.e. think of and
spell)the wordstheyneed.
(a) Completingcrosswords
T h i si s s i m i l a tr o 1 1 . 2 . 1( d )
exceptthat the pupilsarenot
givenany of the words.They
may,however,be givenpicture
clues(perhapsplacednextto or
to
linkedto the relevantsouares
be filledin).
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W R I T I N GA C T I V I T I EFSO RC H I L D R E N
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(b) Labellingitems
This is similarto 11.2.1 (c), exceptthat the pupilshaveto providethe
words.Theycanalsobe askedto drawor completethe picturesneeded.
For example,theymaybe askedto labelitemsin a zooor fridgewhichthey
havedrawn.
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(c) Making lists
l-Ll-LL
For example,the pupilsmaYbe
askedto compilelistsof:
- thingstheywouldlike to eat;
- countriesthevwouldlike to
visit;
- animalsthey would like to see
(or haveaspets)(etc.)
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(s)alt
qsnake
(1) n pa,rrot
They canthen comParetheir
choiceswith a friend.
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(d) Classifyingitems
The pupilshaveto identifYand
(the
then arrangein categories
have
to
normallY
wiil
headings
be providedor at leastworked
out with the classbeforehand)
thingsthat theycanseein a
plcture.
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( t) n t?na/l d"g
(e) Completingtexts
That is, the pupilsput in the missingwords.The textscanbe dialoguesthey
by a picturesequenceor songs'poems
havepractised,storiesaccompanied
andriddleswhichtheyhaveheard(etc.).
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S a l l yg o e sr o u n dt h e . . ' . . ,
S a l l yg o e sr o u n dt h e . . . . . ,
S a l l yg o e sr o u n dt h e " . ' .
on a SaturdaY..,..l
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or texts
Correctingsentences
bv a pictureso that the pupilsarecorrecting
Theseshouldbe accompanied
mistakesof fact(not grammar).For example:
V-
Thereis a boatin the Picture.
Tl,urrva/re frlrd b{at;
A g i r l i sg o i n gh o m e .S h e ' sg o t a
bottlein her hand.
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(g) Making u'ords
The pupilsaregivenone long
word and.workingin pairsor
smallgroups,seehow manvne\\'
wordstheycanmakefrom it.
like to look
Theysometimes
to
throughbooks try to find
words(andthis is a goodu'avof
in class
gettingtheminterested
readers).
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COMPIT/T/ON
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(h) Making notes
Thisis particularlyimportantduringa gamewhentheymay needto keepa
recordof whatobjectsthel'havewon or whichanimalstheyhaveseen(if
the gametakesthemto a zooor a safaripark).Usuallythe itemsto be
phrases
haveto be writtendown.If much
notedarewords.but sometimes
writingis involved,pupilsshouldwork in pairs(i.e. one actuall,v-'pla-ving.
the othernrakingnotes)so asnot to slotl'thegamedown.
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1r.2.3
Sentenceactivities
The purposeof theseactivitiesis to reinforcekey itemsof structure(often
Thereis no reasonwhy thiskind of
togetherwith a gooddealof vocabulary).
(in
manipulativepradticeneedbe boring an-vcasemostchildrenenjoy
for thiskind of practice.
repetition).Most workbooksprovidegoodactivities
belowwill
you
this.
any
case
the
suggestions
may
need
to
supplement
In
but
help you to seeif the workbookhasleft out anyusefulareasof activity.
(a) Writingparallel texts
That is, the pupilshavea modeland haveto write one or more parallel
versions.This is particularlyusefulif the pupilswrite dialogueswhichthey
canthen practisewith one another.Later on, they canbe askedto write
(5-6 sentences)
whichwill givethem some
shortnarrativesequences
practicein basicsentencelinking(and,but, so) and sequencing
ffirst, then,
after that).
(b) Completingspeechbubbles
Thisis like 11.2.1(f), exceptthatthe pupilsnow haveto supplythe
sentences
for thernselves.
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(c) Wrilingsentence
sequences
usingthe same
Thisis a devicefor gettingthepupilsto writesentences
structure.For examDle.
thevusethe davsof the weekto write about
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WRITING
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Althoughthis
or perhapsa character
from theircoursebook.
themselves
involvesrepetition,thereis alwaysroom for imagination!
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to qo ro Wq-"mazYt!
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(d) Compiling information
whichprovide
For this activitythe pupilshaveto write somesentences
in the coursebook
or
information,for example,aboutone of the characters
abouta topic. It often involvesrepetitionof a structure(andcanbe used
to a picture.
just for that purpose)andmaybe donewith reference
Notice that in the examplesbelowthe pupilsalsopractiseincidentally
pronominalreference.
?ro{esso,?afenl'sgota f{6eopeHe's1of a cdf and a dog.
He'salso gof d monstecl
Pr-ofessor
Patenl'sqofa qfamoPhonz
He'salso gof
-a ,afdevis'ion
He's7of
big pier.
(e) Completingqttestionnaires
that havebeenpreparedfor
For this the pupilswork with questionnaires
someverybasicquestion
them.It canbe a usefulwayof disguising
to questionone
questionnaires
such
course
use
of
pupils
can
The
practice.
another.
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(0 Makingnotes
This is similarto keepingrecordswhileplayinga game.NIanyactivities
involvekeepingsomekind of recorclin the form of a list.For example,the
form. the differences
pupilscanbe askedto writedown.in sentence
mistakes
theycanfindin a pictLrre.
of
number
or
the
pictures
tetweentrvo
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SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
)
u
I
(s\
nnaires
\,\./ Writing questio
Thisis similarto (e) aboveexceptthat the pupilshaveto rvritethe
asu'ell.Seea.6(a) and (b) for details.Younglearners
questionnaires
enjoytestingone another!You must,however.checkthat theycananswer
thel'are
because
Also, wheninterviewing,
themselves.
the questions
andadults.theyneedtime to record
slowerat writingthanadolescents
answersand preferablyshouldsit down to do this so that they write neatly.
(h) Recor ding p ersonal inf ormatiort
andtheyrvill
Younglearnerslike talkingandu'ritingaboutthemselves
family
address.
(names,
age,
personal
data
veryhappilywrite down
or likesand dislikes.The
details.etc.)or makelistsof theirpossessions
linkingpracticesentence
elementary
can
be
used
for
some
activity
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(i) Writing notes
-
in detail.That is, the pupilswrite
See4.5,wheiethisactivitvis described
to one another(andto you) in class.This is a key activityfor young
learnersbecauseit getsthemto write quickly.Thusin five minutesthey
canget a lot of writing practicesendingand answeringnotes.For sentence
.2.a@)for morecreativewriting)the pupilscan:
practice(see,11
- askfor something(e.g.one of a numberof picturecardswhich another
pupilhasin front of him)I
-- askfor somepersonalinformation;
-
r-a
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ask abouta characterin the coursebook.etc.
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138
camels ?
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WRITINGACTIVITIES
FORCHILDREN
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11.2.4
Creativewriting
activities
Pupilsat this ageneedplentyof opportunitiesto uselanguageimaginatively.
theyarealwayswillingto showyou theirwork and
Unlike manyolderlearners,
to ask'CanI saythis?',so that fewermistakesoccurthanmightbe expected.
Let pupilswork togetherin pairsor smallgroupswhereverpossible.
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(a) Writing notes
See11.2.3(i). For this activity,however,givethem tasksthat will require
longersequences.
For example:
L-t
FeidoY
DearEleno,
Please olrsw W a picfure o?
v
a ry\ontfer.
ft hosb;geyes
V
G^ ol la nq leefh stn4-lhsrets
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a vef/v lonqlaif
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(b) Writing aboutpictures
See4.6 (i) for the basicideabehindthis activity.Choosepicturesthat will
encouragethe pupilsto usefantasyand rehearsethe ideaorally first so that
they understandthe kind of thing you want. Pupilscanalsodraw pictures
for one anotherto write about.
(c) Writing rolecards
See4.6 (f) for a descriptionof this activity.The pupilscanasksomeoneto
be a characterfrom the coursebookor an animal!
For Gca,o(
Yor,a*<,fr^l"y7bln.
/n" wrz arle'1\ta
rto^,
Yor+t6al
Ytu
Cu&
vT%'
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l-of DOtd,
!
Yoq ere q caf.
Yo, €qf q lo( qna
qr? verS {aL.
*yo,n
"furt
anol
?o,A 66annof
cl-i, b .
lot| .cqn\of
You ( i ke, 5l <.,?ta 3.
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(d) Making up stories
Seefor example4.6 (e). You canstartby askingthe pupilsto write short
dialogues,rvithtwo speakers,
which they shouldthen cut up and giveto
anothergroupto piecetogether.Then let themtry their handat very
whichtheyshouldalsocut up for another
simplestories(5-6 sentences),
g r o u pt o p i e c et o g e t h e r .
139
1
F_
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SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
L-
( e ) Writing nottces
See7.3.8(b). You cangivethe pupilssmallpicturecardsfor thisactivityor
let themusetheirown ideas(i.e.theymaypreferto write aboutthingsthey
wouldactuallylike or thingstheyhave).childrenveryoftenlike to
exchangethingsso the activit)'canbe authentic.The pupilscanalsowrite
rulesand regulationsfor their classroom,for example,or for a club or
recreationpark.
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RULE5 FoRouR PLAYPARK
I 6e happy!
2 MqkeI l6rof noiset
3
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Do nof brinq your
moartter o?-'fAther!
(0 Writing book reports
See5.5.2(d). Whenthe pupilshavereachedthe stageof usingclass
readers- or evenlookingthroughthem- they canbe askedto write 2-3
'reports'on them.The reportsshouldbe pastedat the back of the
sentence
book for other puPilsto read.
lf's a very qcrod
book. I tike'if.
BvI it ls sqd.
lf-fs qboufo
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't/rL
fh^ts ba*, AlL
t*rz stottl th r1,Gt
verl tn[orc*fing.
I oarit fi'/r^irrWi.t.
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(g) Writing messages
See7.3.8(c) for the basicidea.The pupilswill happilyenterinto writing
places:the moon, the bottom of the sea,a
from other Strange
messages
balloon,the middleof the desert,etc.
L.
=
Dgatr M unu a'fi'e Da'd',
I an, u'nd.o/r the- ,t'a'l lt ts t'uft' lvn'<' a'v'aLZhene
uft m,aflw bt'q frrs+L. I lltu)e a lrt af ftenda Oft'g
#envd t'sJo,rt"ooCo*,t's. He irs,at'rng th:'i^ l,fa'rfu*!
140
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FORCHILDREN
WRITINGACTIVITIES
canalsobe donein postcardform (see7.3'8(j)) andthey
Writingmessages
canalsobe writtenin code.
code.
Writeoutthecomplete
C=X E=Z
A:V
B:W D:Y
likethis.
Thenwritemessages
HJ IYVT
YZVMIDXF,
JI
DO'NHT WDMOCYI/T
NVOPMYVT KGZVNZXJHZ
OJ HT KVMOT
TJ PMN,
vllt/
whenit is
Don't forgetto get your pupilsto sendbirthdaymessages
as
done
can
be
card
the
of
preparation
The
someone'sbirthday.
homework.
Make a birthdaycardfor a friend. Draw a pictureand write a message.
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MonyHoppyReturnsof theDoYl
AVervHoppVBtrthdoY!
HoppyBrrthdoyto You!
VeryBestWrshesfor yourBirthdoy!
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(h) Projectwork
One usefuland enjoyableprojectfor learnersat this ageis to get them to
maketheir own picturedictionaries.The pupilscanwork on their own or
in groups(evenif theywork in groups,so asto help one another,theymay
like to maketheir own copy).For the dictionary,they will needan exercise
book.Theycandrawtheirown picturesor cut suitableonesout of
The intentionis not to getthemto keepa recordof all or even
magazines.
-on1' of the wordstheyhavelearntbut only to write aboutitemsthat
abouttheirwords(not
interestthem.Theyshouldwritesentences
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SKILLS
T E A C H I NW
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1
and from time to time eo back and add to what they have
definitions)
rvritten.
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aAffit tio*rrs
lt*vvtv'n':
is'a vsrAold' robhit , Ror"tty liu-e's
irr, rn5 €a"fd'In,
b
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aa
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(see5'5'2 (g))' which
Most pupilsalsoenjo,vmakinga classwallsheet
will provideu fo.ut for a numberof writing activities,e.g' little stories,
captionsandballoonsfor pictures.jokesandriddles(etc.).Both the
picturedictionaryandthe $'allsheetshouldbe spreadover a schoolyear
e'g' on a summercourse)'
iunlessthe pupilsareworkingintensively,
in8.2.2caneasilybe adaptedfor
Many of the projectssuggested
youngerlearners.
Discussion
Exercises
or desirableto teachyounglealnersto
Do you think it is eithernecessary
write in a foreignlanguage?
Would you givechildrenopportunitiesfor creativewriting earlyon in the
courseor would you restrictthem (for example)to copyingand
reinforcementactivities?
What are the things1'ouwould do to makesurethat childrenreallyenjoy
writing?
How ilportant do,vouthink it is to ensurethat children'swritten work is
neatandtidy?
Examineany children'Scourseto seewhat provisionis madefor writing
activities.Is there a workbook?If so, arethe u'ritingactivities(a) interesting
(b) useful?
.2.4.
s I7 .2.1.-11
for eachof the four section
otheractivities
2 Suggest
a
J
Make a list of the projectsin 8.2.2whichcouldbe adaptedfor childrenand
work out how you u'oulddevelopone of them.
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References
to writeseeo Dunn (1934)andS Holden(ed)
on teachingyounglearners
(1e80).
io. u .ung. of writing activities,seeD ByrneRoundaboutResourceBook
M Igguldenet al
and relatedWorkbooks(ModernEnglishPublications);
sam on Rqdio321(Longman);K JohnsonNowfor English(Nelson)l
(MacMillan)andSnap! (Heinemann).
Kaleidoscope
The illustrationsin IL}.I (a) and (e) are ftom Samon Radio321;the
illustrationin71.2.7(f) hasbeenadaptedfrom Kaleidoscope;I'he
i l l u s t r a t i o ni n
s 1 1. 2 . 1 ( c )a n d( d ) ; 7 7 . 2 . 2( a ) a n d( f ) ; 1 1 . 2 . 3( i ) a n d 1 1' 2 . 4@ )
are from theRoundaboutWorkbooks.
t42
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the Englishscript
Teaching
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12.1
The needsof the
learners
All studentswhosenativelanguagedoei not usethe Latin scriptwill haveto be
you may
taughtthe symbolsneededfor writingEnglish.In somecircumstances
alsowant to improvethe handwritingof thosewho alreadyusethe Latin script.
In order to be ableto do this effectivelyand, no lessimportant,
you will needto inform yourselfof the learners'areasof
sympathetically,
'problemareas'arenotedbelow.
possible
Four
difficulty.
of the newsymbols.Thisis not just a
haveto learnthe shapes
(a) The students
alphabet,the orderof which
English
of
the
questionof teachingthe letters
is mainlyirrelevantfor teachingpurposes.Instead,somedecisionhasto be
takenhow to groupthe symbolstogetherfor effectivepractice,takinginto
andcontrast.For example,the
accountfeatureswhichallowcomparison
btter A. may be derivedfrom the letter C ; the lettersA- and O. on the
otherhand,needto be contrasted.
(b) The students
haveto learntwo setsof symbols:loweranduppercase(that
Again,a decisionhasto be madewhetherto
is, smalllettersandcapitals).
teachbothsetsof symbolstogetheror whetherto teachfirstthe small
lettersandthenthe capitals.
mayhaveto learnto writein a newdirection:that is,from
(c) The students
left to rightinsteadof from rightto left.This will only applyto certain
groupsof learners(for example.to Arab studentsbut not to thosewhose
scriptsof the North Indian
employsoneof the Devanagari
nativelanguage
the new scriptis not to be
Thisphysicalaspectof mastering
languages).
underestimated.
mayhaveto learnthe positionof the symbolsof the scriptin
(d) The students
the Englishscriptmay be viewedas
relationto the ruledlines.Essentially
whilethe
upwardsand downwards,
sittingon the line andextending
'hang'fromthe lineabove'
for example,
in the Devanagariscripts,
s-vmbols
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E
SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
Adult learners
Anotherkey factoru,ill.of course.be the ageof the learners.
will
therefore
and
quicklv
learn
more
(and
probablv
need)
to
will
rvillwant
practice.u'hichto a largeextent,giventhe right
requireconcentrated
out of class.For children,the
guidance,the1,canprovidefor themselves
period.While it is assumed
longer
programmeshouldbe spreadovera much
script,theywill
theirnativelanguage
that theywill alreadyhavemastered
their motor skilis
all
not
and
difficulties
handwriting
probablystill havesome
will be equallywell developed.Hencethe needfor copyingactivitiesas
in i 1.2.1.Younglearnerswill alsobenefita gooddealfrom
suggested
thatgivethemthe opportunityto play,andtheywill
handwritingactivities
almostcertainlyneedsomekind of workbook.
12.2
LettershaPes
of the newsymbols,we needto identify
the shapes
For the purposeof teaching
and convenientlytaughttogether.
effectively
u'hich
can
be
groupsof letters
One,for
havebeenproposed(seenoteson sources).
Variousgroupings
ten groups.asshownbelow.Upperandlowercaseletters
example,proposes
practice.
with punctuation
are taughttogether,integrated
1
2
3
4
5
i.l,t
v,w,b
u,y(+?and!)
n,m,h
k , p ( + . a n d, )
6 f.s.r
7 c,e,o
8 a,d.g
9 j,q,"
10 z (+ numerals)
t h e e g r o u p :e , i , u , t
thec group:c. a, d
the o group:o, w
t h en g r o u p :n , m , x , v
5
6
7
8
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Another approachhaseightgroups,eachidentifiedby a letter, for the lower
casesymbols.
1
2
3
4
-
the r group:r. s
t h e/ g r o u p :l . h , k , f . b
t h e7 g r o u p :j , p , y
t h ez g r o u p z: , E ,p
lFId
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and are dividedinto the followingnine groups:
Capitalsare taughtseparately
-a
1 C,O,Q,A,E
2 N,M,K,H
3 U,V,W,X
4 P,R,B
5 D,L
6 T,F
7 l,J
8 S,G
9 Y,Z
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numerals
Awarenessof groupingssuchastheseis usefulif you want to do remedialwork
in certainareas(for example.you may find that somestudentsare consistently
miswritingor confusingsomesymbols).
12.3
Procedures
for
teachingscript
144
At the start,moststudentswill needto be madeawareof someof the
importantdifferencesbetweenwriting the Englishscriptandwriting in their
nativelanguage.For this purpose,if they are askedto write somethingin their
own languageand to notesomeof the essentialmovements,a broad
comparisoncanbe madebetweenthis andwriting in English.You will also
needto draw attentionto the positioningof the right forearmon the desk,at
somethinglike 80",andthe flexiblemovementsof the wristto produceanticlockwisemotions,whichsometimesgivestudentsa lot of difficulty.You must
shouldalso
thesepoints.Two'warm up' activities
be preparedto demonstrate
be noted:
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TEACHINGTHEENGLISHSCRIPT
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(a) Rhythmicpatterns
taJl
shapesof the English
To get the studentsusedto someof the characteristic
scriptand the movementsneededfor makingthem, you can askthem to
draw rhythmicpatternslike thoseshownbelow.They are particularly
importantfor studentswho arehavingto learnto write from left to right
(for whom evendrawinghorizontallinesacrossthe pageis a useful
activity).Rhythmicpatternscanrelateto someof the basicshapesof the
letters,asin the examPlebelow:
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Many teacherspreferto get their studentsto draw thesepatternson blank
paper.For childrenthe activitycanbe presentedasa game,suchas
climbingup and down mountains.
(b) Writing in air
tl
It generallyhelps,whateverthe ageof the students,to practisetracingthe
shapeof the lettersin the air. This helpsthem to concentrateon the way a
letter is formedand enablesthem to go on practisingaslong astheylike.
For this activitydraw a largeversionof the letter on the board,with
arrowsindicatingthe directionsto be followed,and then demonstratethe
movementsyourself. The studentscanmakelargemovementsfirstof all,
to writing
graduallymakingsmallerones.Studentswho are accustomed
of strokes
a
series
to
make
from left to right canbe helpedby beingasked
or circleswhichstarton the left and movetowardsthe right.
The examplebelowshowshow letterformationin the air canbe
presentedin a fun-likeway for children:
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proceduresfor
teachingscript
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(a) Give thestudentsclearand carefullymademodelsto follow.
Draw theseon the boardif a workbookis not available.In anycase'a
attention.You
modelonthe board,drawnby you, will helpto concentrate
script.
mustalwaysbe preparedto demonstrate
1,45
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SKILLS
TEACHINW
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(b) Sftowthestudentsn'hereto beginthestrokesfrom u,hicheachletteris made
(tlrcremay be morethanonestroke).
For examole:
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(c) Get the studentsto practiseseveralspecimensof eachletter.
( d ) Get the studentsto practisethe new lettersin combinatiort tvith previously
Iearned ones.
Thesemay be simply patternsof lettersor words, phrasesand short
sentences.
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A matterwhich rpquirescarefulattentionis the actualpositioningof the
symbolson the lowerhorizontalline.At the startit willprobablyhelpthe
studentsto practisewithinthe limitsof an additionalruledor dottedline, as
shownbelow.
L-a-Lg.
Someteachers,however,arguethat anyruledlinesat the startmakeit more
difficultfor the studentsto write well becauseit restrictsthe sizeof their script,
and they thereforepreferblank paper.
On the whole,it would seembetterto separatethe teachingof capitals
This permitsthe kind of groupingaccordingto shape
from lower cases1'mbols.
asshownin the secondexampleon paget44.It alsotakesinto accountthe
many differencesbetweena lower caseletterand its uppercasecounterpart
(for example,r and R,g andG).
In
In addition.therearesomeotherfactorswhichneedto be considered.
introduce
to
the
course
to
decide
how
early
in
the firstplace,we shallneed
writing practice.Shouldwe get the studentsto practisemakingthe shapesof
the lettersvery earlyon, evenbeforetheycanread,perhapsasa breakfrom
oral work, or shouldu'eu'aituntil theyarefamiliarwith the symbolsthrough
=
]1
_)
IJ
-)
--J
1
I-.
:l
--J
-_J
I-r
-_l
IJ
Il--
IJ
-)
I.J
-)
-_J
-J
-l
I.J
!,-{
146
L-{
=
-
TEACHING
T H EE N G L I S H
SCRIPT
practice?
someform of readingrecognition
Althoughthereis clearlyno one
answerto thisquestion,on the whole,if thereis time for thisactivity,whichis
a kind of drawingexercise,
it wouldseema goodideato introduce
essentially
problemsof actuallymakingthe symbolsas
to the mechanical
the students
soonaspossible.Youngerlearnersenjoy this kind of activity,while adult
instructionin both readingand
studentsmay actuallyneedto haveaccelerated
writing in order to becomeliteratein the foreignlanguageasquicklyas
possible.
^fhe
paceof that part of the writingprogrammewherethe studentsare
beingtaughtthe symbolswill relateto the agelevelof the learners.The work
of youngerlearners,for example,shouldbe carefullysupervisedin class,
althoughthis doesnot rule out a certainamountof practiceashomework.
sheets
on the otherhand,mightwell be givencyclostyled
Adult students,
copyingmaterial,so that, afteran introductionto the
containingappropriate
continueto work on their own out of class.
practised,
they
to
be
items
We mustalsodecidewhatkind of scriptwe are goingto teach.Do we
teachthem someform of cursivewriting from the Startor do we delaythe
introductionof this until they havelearnedto print? Again, the agefactoris
relevant:youngerlearnersareprobablybesttaughtthe printedform first. On
the other hand,thereis no greatharm in introducingfrom the starta kind of
modifiedcursive,of a kind rvhichis easyto write and easyto readandwhich
standsverycloseto theprintedform. In makinga decision,we haveto takethe
needsof the learnersinto account:adult students,for example,would probably
be intolerantof anythinglessthancursive,sincethis is the only form they can
using.
themselves
envisage
-
-
-
Discussion
1 Which wouldyou prefer?
(a) to teachcapitalsand lower caseletterstogetheror separately;
(b) to teacha print scriptfirstor a modifiedcursive.
Give your reasons.
2 How importantis the teacher'sown handwritingasa model?Would you be
preparedto changeyoursto helpyour students?
Exercises
1 lvtakea list of any difficultiesthat your studentshave(or might have)with
the EnglishscriPt.
2 Choosesomeof the lettersof the Englishalphabet(capitalsandlowercase)
andwork out the strokesneededto form them.
-z
-z
Jz
-)
.t-
-t-
*t
)-
References
Two usefularticleson teachingthe EnglishscriptareGK Pullum(1971)and
BH Seward(1972).
The first groupof symbolson page144is from J Bright and R Piggott
Handwriting(CUP 1976);thesecondis from BH Seward(1972).
Someusefulmaterialsfor teachingEnglishscriptareJ Bright and R Piggott
Handwriting(CUP I976); D Cobb It'sFun to Write(Longman1984)
R PhilpotEngtishHandwriting(Collins1983)and P Smithand A InglisNew
NelsonHandwriting(Nelson1981).The firstand lastbooksmentioned
books.
in theform of teachers'
providedetailedguidance
The illustrativematerialin i2.3 (a) comesfrom ly'ewNelsonHandwriting..
in 12.3(b) and 12.3.1arefrom It'sFttnto Write.
Otherillustrations
I+/
-z
,-/
I
-r
)
U
I
-/
U
.J
Appendix: Cohesivedevlces
_/
-/
U
.)
=
_/
H
The purposeof this appendixis to providea more extensivereferencelist of the
in2.2.2.It is intendedto serveasa checklistof
rhetoricalfeaturesdiscussed
itemswhichshouldgraduallybe learnedin the courseof a writing programme
goingup to the intermediatelevel.For more completetreatments,seeQuirk et
al (1972)and HallidayandHasan(1976).
A Logicaldevices
listedbeloware givenin
For easeof reference.the logicalconnectors
Some
examples
are
also
provided.
order.
alphabetical
2
2
)
H
_/
-,
)
y
(a) Addition
I
again
also
and
andthen
besides
equally
further (more)
in addition(to . . .)
indeed
in fact
moreover
too
whatis more
u
)
)-/
)
I-.
!l
l
Examples:
I-/
The housefacesnorth, so it nevergetsthe sun..A/so,it is ratherdamp.
--)
The childrendo not like one another.Moreover,they often quarreland
startto fight.
I
F-1
y
I
Shehardlyevergoesto the theatre.In fact, shehasnot beenfor months.
)-J
(b) Comparison
I
comparedwitfr
in the sameway similarly
in comparisonrvith likewise
Examples:
I usedto work fifteenhoursa day.In comparisonwith that,my presentjob
is more like a holiday!
The doctoradvisedhim to giveup smoking.Similarly,herecommended
him to eat muchlessandtakeplentyof exercise.
(.) Contrastand concession*
besides
naturally
but
nevertheless
however of course
in contrast on the contrary
instead
on the other hand
-l
H
I
-,
-l
_)
y
)
--Jl
I
-__
F-.
FJ
still
whereas
while
yet
:J
:l--J
I.J
I-.
l-.
_l
* Someoi theseitemsimplybothcontrastandconcession
(for exampl
e: however)
, whileothers,
suchason thecontrary,on lhe otherhand,aremoreclearlyconcernedwith contrastive
relationships
betweensentences.
On thewhole,however,it seemedmoreconvenient
to subsume
theseitemsunderoneheadins.
F-.
-)
--J
I-a
IJ
148
.l
:l
-/
=
AppENDtX:
COHESTVE
DEVTCES
g,
a-
:
Examples:
He did not showanyonethe papers.Instead,assoonashe got a chance.hc
burntthem.
Sheis not asprettyassheusedto be.Nevertlteless,
sheis stilla verv
attractivegirl.
His firstnoveltook him onlv a fe*' n'ecksto u ritc. *'/lilchis nc\t onc to.k
overa year.
g_
(d) Enumeratiott
.L)
f i r s t ( l y () s e c o n d ( l ve) .t c .) l a s t
( ) n t ( ) [ rt r t ' (t l r r r )t
finally
next
t o ( [ r g { i 1111 i 1 h ;
in the (first)place
morc inrprlrtlnt thcrr
Examples:
His job involvesa numberof things.Firsr,he is responsiblc
for sencral
administration
in the office.Secondly,
he hasto look afterthe hnancialside
of the business
. . . Finally,he hasbeenaskedto buildup outsidecontacts.
Therewereseveralgoodreasonsfor changingthe plan. To beginwith, it
involveda lot of money.On top of that,it neededtoo manypeople.
\
..r,J
+)
[-
(e) Exemplifi.cation
as(evidence
of . . .)
for example
for instance
let us (takethe caseof . . .)
suchas
thus
to showwhat (I mean)
J4
Examples:
rz
-l
4
r--2,
I
L-
l-
Most countriesdo not grow enoughfood for their needs. Let us takethe
caseof the United Kingdom.
Most peoplearesuperstitious
in someway. Thus,a lot of peoplebelieve
that the number13is unluckv. . .
(0 Inference
ifnot,...
otherwise then
in (that)case that implies
Examples:
He left the countrythe sameday.In thatcase,he musthavehad his
passportwith him.
You mustget somemore petrol. Otherwise,we will not haveenoughto get
us to the nexttown.
La
(g) Summary
L
La
in all
in short
on the whole
in brief in conclusion to sum up
Examples:
L
t
Shespendsa lot of moneyon clothes.Sheis alsofond of buyingexpensive
jewellery.In short,sheis extremelyextravagant.
r49
L,
J
-)
y
-)
--l
y
SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
y
The caris not newbut it is in goodcondition.The pricetoo is very
. On thev,hole,Ithink it is quitea goodbargain.
reasonable
The film hasa veryunusualplot,with plentyof action.Both the actingand
photographyare excellent.To swn up, this is a film you shouldnot miss.
(h) Time"
after(a while)
afterwards
at first
at last
at (thesametime)
before(thattime)
finally
in the end
meanwhile
next
since(then)
so far
then
(uPto) (then)
l.J
I
u
_-/
)-/
-/
u
I
II
I
IJ
_J
He tried to openone of the smallwindows.At first it remainedfirmly
closedbut. in theend,aftera greatdealof effort,he managedto openit a
few inches.
. . . andthe fire hasfinallybeenbroughtundercontrol.Severalmenare
of the explosionarestillbeing
the causes
. Meanv,hile
stillmissing
investigated.
-/
-'
v
_J
-
( i ) Result
then
therefore
thus
Examples:
Most peoplewere opposedto the schemeon the groundsthat it wastoo
Accordingllt,it is now beingre-examinedto seeif costscanbe
expensive.
reduced.
Seveninchesof snowfell duringthe night.blockingmostmain roads.,4sa
result,trafficconditionshavebeenchaotic.
In the past,no one hastakenhis advicevery seriously. Hence,it is very
probablethat he will not be inclinedto help on this occasion'
(j) Reformulation
)-/
y
P
ts
-
ts
-/
-2
in other words that is (to saY)
to put it more (simPlY)
rather
y
Examples:
F
Towardsthe end of the partyhe got up and dancedon the table.In other
words,he madea completefool of himself.
Most peoplefelt that the projectwasnot worthwhilein proportionto the
amountof time it would taketo completeit and equallythe financial
expenditureinvolved.To put it moresimply,it wasa wasteof time and
monev.
*That is, indicatingtemporalrelationships.
asthe
groupof devices,
Thisis a veryopen-ended
numberof bracketeditemsshows.For example,insteadof.at thesametime,we mayhave'.at that
timelatthatmoment.
ts
4
ts
)
ts
F
-/
=1
!150
I
-
Examples:
accordingly for that reason
hence
asa result
of that is . ' .
consequentl.vthe (consequence)
I
--/
y
-
A P P E N D IC
XO
: HESIV
DE
EVICES
(k) Replacement
again
(better) still
alternatively on theotherhand
Examples:
I t i s v e r yl i k e l yt h a tw e s h a l l g ob v c a r .e r . c nt h o u s hi t i s a l o r r gd r i r c .
l e e ds o m em e a n so f t r a n s p o rrtrh i l c\ \ ' cl r r cr h c r c .
b e c a u sw
e eshaln
we mightfly out andhirc a cartvhcnrrc urrivc.
Alternatively,
, e m i g h th a v et o a r r a n s ea p u b l i cn r c c r i n rs( )
I f t h i n g sg e ta n yw o r s ew
the matter.Betters/i//,we couldevenorganisca dcnronstrittion.
discuss
Lt
(l) Transition
asfar as . . . is concerned now
toturnto...
asfor...
with (reference)
to . . .
incidentally
4
--r'l
Examples:
We canleavemostof the detailsof the proposaluntil the nextmectinc.
thisneedscarefulconsideration.
Now, asfar dsmoneyis concerned,
In the end, he decidedto sellhis car.Thrs,incidentally,provedto be a
*)
l'T.
")
I
\
s'J
mistake.
*)
J--2,
u.-
.1
-z
2
1-2.
J--
*,2
f;
---z
Jz
D
B Grammatical
and lexicallinking
devices
In this sectiontherearefurtherexamplesof the devicesreferredto in2.2.2(b)
and2.2.2(c).
(a) Useof pronominalforms to replacenounphrases
Napoleonwasa greatsoldier.He wasalsoa greatadministrator.
Johnbought a newcar.It costa lot of money,but it goesa lot betterthan
his old one.
on holidayto Brazil. Theirfriendsarevery
John and Marlt are,eoing
envious.
He decidedto takesomeheavyshoeswith him. He thoughtthatthese
would be usefulin casehe wentwalking.
(b) Useof pronominalforms to replaceadverbials(nounphrasesof timeand
place)
He left thefollowingday.He knew thenthathe wasnot comingback.
We calledon themsoonafterbreakfast.We shouldhaverealisedthat rhls
wasa bad timefor a visit.*
I decidedto takemy booksbackto thelibrary.WhenI gotthere.lfoundit
wasclosed.
L.
Lt
7-
*Noun phrasesare alsoused as replacives.For example:John was born jrtsr beforethe war. AI tltat
t l r n eh i s D a r e n t sl i v e d i n L o n d o n ,
1 <.1
IJL
9z
i
I
-)
.-1
-.4
SKILLS
WRITING
TEACHING
.14
or selttetlces
(c) {Jseof pronominalforms to replaceclauses
Iftis is a sreatmistake.
Somestudentswork all night iustbeforean exan"L.
1l u'asquiteunexpected.
John hasjust resigned.
abovethe pronominalformsall referbackto
Noticethat in the examples
They may alsorefer forward.For
mentioned.
previously
something
example:
Thisis what you shoulddo. You shouldbe veryfrank.
My adviceis asfollows. Be veryfrank.
(the,this,that,etc.)to referbackto a previousnoun
(d) Useof determiners
phrase
Thievesbroke into a jeweller'sshopin North Streetlastnight. Thethieves
enteredtheshopthrougha smallbackwindow.
I boughta pocketcalatlatorlast}'ear.Thatcalculatorhasprovedvery
useful.
Former andlatterareusedto referbackto one of two previousnoun
phrases.
John and Tombothtook part in the play. Only theformer hashad any real
experienceof acting.Thelatterhad neverevenbeenon the stagebefore.
(e) Repetitionof key words
are not usedvery muchby commuters.As a
Theseparticulartrain services
rule,commutersrendto travelmuchearlier.
(f) (lseof synonymsto avoid repetition
Thesecarswere firstmadein 1972.When they were firstproduced, they
werenot vervpopular.
If you haveany thoughtson the subject.pleaselet me know. I shallbe
interestedto hear your ideas.
(g) Useof a constructionimplying whole-partor part-wholerelationship
You will needto take someroolswith you. You canget a hammer,a saw
and a screwdriverfrom mostbig departmentstores.
Largecarsand lorriesare not advisedto usethis route.Thesevehicles
shouldtakethe otherroad.
(h) Useof relatedwordforms
(i)
-_-4
U
4
E
--1
v
.
E
-1
V
-1
.z
'1.
b
-.2
)1
I
f==:F
-!!1
1
---.
<
F
were madelate last
so far. The arrests
Sevenpeoplehavebeenarrested
night.
--
Useof parallelstructures
1rls equallypossiblethat it will fail.
It ispossiblethat the plan will succeed.
1
4
<
F
t52
l<
l-
l_.
r_:
rI
)f
t;
t:
r_:
ill
ili
L1
-l
il'
TJ
il'
-],
i:
i:
i_'
a'
a'
L?
i:
r
EIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography
'Teaching
ABBorr,e
English
Spelling to Adult Beginners'
English Language TeachingJ ournal
XXXIII:21979
ABBorr, .rand wrNGanD,e The
Teaching of English as an
I nternational Language (Collins
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ALLEN,s r and cAMIBELL,n N (eds)
Teaching English as a Second
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ALLEN,r p a and coRDER,
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The Edinburgh Course in Applied
Linguistics 3 (Oxford University
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ARNoLD,a
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The Modern Researcher(Harcourt,
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BYRNE,D Teaching Oral English
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1988)
'li"
l*
--t
Ls-l
I
le16)
H.\RrvlER,
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1983)
HEDcE,t
R, HILL, p and prNces,e, Teaching
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BRUMFrr,c Communicative
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tr
H.ALLIDAY,
lt e x and HASAN,
R
Cohesion in English (Longman
BROUGHTON, G, BRUMFIT, C, FLAVELL,
'a:
t
FLEMTNc.
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GLENDTNNINc,
Write Ideas(Longman 1981)
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HEAroN,i B Beginning Composirion
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HEAroN,J B Writingthrouglt
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HEDGE,
r Pen to Paper (Nelson
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'a.t
DUNN,o Developing English wirh
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LJ
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BRTERE,
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H o R N \. '
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Q U I R K . R , G R E E N B A U M ,S . L E E C H , G
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wrLLrs,t TeachingEnglishthrough
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W T N G F T E L DR.J
'Five
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Dealingwith Errorsin Written
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zAMEL,
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zAilrEL,
v 'The Composing
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TheArt of TESOLSelected
Articles
from EnglishTeaching
Forum(1982)
J
--
J
v
.)
-Hl
.)
H
Index
_)
L '
-l
.-z
->.a
l
--1
v
to teaching
Approaches
writing21-3
G u i d e l i n efso r t e a c h i n g
writing2T -29
\A'riting
to
Children,teaching
- activitiesl3I-12
- guidelines
130-1
- reasons129-30
Handwritin1
g43-7
1-2. 10-14.27
Coherence
C o h e s i o1n7- 1 9. 2 7
devices17-19.
Cohesive
148-1-s2
- grammatical
17-18
-lexical 19
- logical17
- p r a c t i c oe f 3 8 - 4 0 .5 5 - 9
Communication
- activities
in earlvstages
40-2
- activities
at postlevel60-4
elementary
- non-personal
12-14
- personal10-12
purpose9-14
Communicative
70-2
Comprehension
Controlledwriting21-2
Copying34
- activities34- 6. 132-4
- evaluation
of 34
Correction123-7
- procedures
124-7
Dialoguewriting
- reasons
f.or32,48
- reinforcement
activities
3 6 - 7 .5 0 - 1
- visualcuesfor 83-6
Dictation38
- dicto-comp60
Drafting1,716-22
Errorsandmistakes
123
Essaywriting111-13,116-22
- alternatives
to 111-13
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43-6.
6J-R q7-?
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writing.for
r e m e d i awl o r k 1 1 3 - 6
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25-6
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3 6 - 4 0 .5 0 - 9 ,7 1 - 2 ,8 3 - 6 .
8 9 - 9 1 ,9 9 - 1 0 2
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Letter\\'riting
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40-2
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level
5 1 - 3 . 6 0 - 1 . 9 9 - 1 0120. 9
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uriting 55-9. 81-3
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16
for u'riting9
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36-,10
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exercises
60
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(seealso
activities
Role-playing
61-2,99-109
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g activities
99-102
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Texts
- aspracticeformat25,32
-
analvcis nf 10-14
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81-3
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83-7
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83-6
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87
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23-4
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compared
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27-9
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for
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32
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level113
- reasons
6-7
for teaching
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21-3
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of 17-19.
148-52
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99-109
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for teaching
i03-9
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19-93
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Writtenlanguage
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purpose9-14
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15-17
resources
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17-19
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