Aust J Grape and Wine Res - 2020 - Arredondo‐Ruiz - Designs for energy‐efficient wine cellars ageing rooms a review

Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
9
Designs for energy-efficient wine cellars (ageing rooms): a review
F. ARREDONDO-RUIZ1
, I. CAÑAS1
, F.R. MAZARRÓN1
and C.B. MANJARREZ-DOMÍNGUEZ2
1
School of Agricultural, Food and Biosystems Engineering [Heritage, Landscape, Graphic Documentation and Agroforestry
Construction (PADOC) Research Group], Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain; 2 Facultad de Ciencias
Agrotecnológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, 31110, Chihuahua, Mexico
Corresponding author: Professor Fernando Arredondo, email [email protected]
Abstract
The wine sector worldwide consumes a considerable amount of energy, with much of it used for cooling and ventilating cellars (ageing rooms). For this reason, the design of energy efficient cellars is increasingly gaining importance. With the aim of
developing cellars that require little or no energy to maintain wine maturation conditions constant, this article presents a
synopsis of the principles of cellar design for reducing the energy demand of cellars and a graphical review of actual cellars.
The principles are based on the implementation of relevant parameters, such as cellar orientation, shape, depth, envelope
system, passive cooling mechanisms and shading. A chronology of cellar monitoring and modelling is presented because of
its direct influence on the hygrothermal behaviour and design of cellars. Previous studies in the literature were analysed to
determine the underlying influence of these parameters on total energy demand and to suggest the best design options. This
analysis is also based on the experience of the authors and will be useful for those involved in the design of energy saving
wine cellars.
Keywords: bioclimatic design, energy efficiency, energy saving, wine cellar, wine comfort
Introduction
The role of energy in architecture faces serious limitations
because of the lack of energy-related research in the architectural literature (Manzano-Agugliaro et al. 2015). Concern
about climate change is growing, and so is the demand for
information about costs and benefits of mitigating greenhouse
gas emissions (Alberini et al. 2018). Interest in the reduction
of carbon dioxide emissions has recently expanded to several
polluting industries which require improved environmental
management (Ratnatunga and Balachandran 2009,
Kauffmann and Tebar Less 2010). The environmental impact,
however, of the winemaking industry, one of the world’s
oldest industries, remains relatively unexplored (Ratnatunga
and Balachandran 2009, Christ and Burritt 2013).
Although the wine industry is generally perceived as
being environmentally friendly (Marshall et al. 2005), its
considerable energy consumption aggravates environmental
issues (Hughey et al. 2005); wineries directly affect their
local ecosystems (Jia et al. 2018). Wine production has
moved to energy-intensive above-ground buildings, which
are expensive for maintaining suitable temperature and
RH. With rising energy prices, it is necessary to promote bioclimatic strategies that reduce energy consumption (Bisson
et al. 2002).
Efficient heating and cooling designs are one of the best
ways to reduce energy costs in buildings (Mazarrón and
Cañas 2009). The design of energy efficient buildings must
optimise design variables and construction parameters
(Omer 2008). For this reason, it is important to identify
those design variables directly related to the heat transfer
process. As a result, the design phase of a building is crucial
in the adoption of sustainable strategies, because implementation costs are much lower during the first phases of construction (Feng 2004, Wang et al. 2006).
doi: 10.1111/ajgw.12416
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Energy efficient designs, based on energy saving principles, reduce economic costs over the lifetime of a building
because of lower energy consumption. This more than compensates for the higher initial investment as there is less
CO2 being emitted into the atmosphere throughout the life
cycle of the building (Wang et al. 2006).
The objective of the wine-ageing process is to modify the
sensory characteristics of wine and to improve wine quality
(Pacheco et al. 2012). This stage is the longest in the
winemaking process and involves the wine ‘resting’ in oak barrels/casks for several months inside cellars, and evolving for a
certain time before bottling. Once bottled, wine is kept under
ideal cellar hygrothermal conditions. These conditions during
ageing and maturation are fundamental for obtaining sound
final products (del Alamo-Sanza and Nevares 2017).
Given the economic and cultural importance of wine
production worldwide, undertaking research for understanding and minimising the excessive use of energy, related
to the construction and operation of cellars, is imperative.
Such endeavour is critical to ensure that the sector stays
environmentally and economically viable through time.
For the promotion of new research and to provide a
basis for understanding sustainability in the design and construction of cellars, this article will present a literature
review of the key areas of concern currently impacting the
design and the construction of cellars.
Materials and methods
The main objective of this article is to review the climatic
and thermal functions of wine cellars. The intention is to
clarify the efficiency of the varied typologies, such as underground, above-ground and basement, in reducing energy
consumption of cellars. Additionally, it shows the impact of
different design strategies for improving wine comfort, that
is maintaining ideal temperature and humidity conditions
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
during wine ageing. An important aspect to highlight about
this review is the practical experience of the authors in
this area.
The study reviewed the literature on the climatic aspects
and design principles of wine cellars. The authors searched
through six main databases: Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of
Knowledge, Google Scholar, Ingenio and ProQuest. There
was no limit to the years searched to provide thoroughness,
because the authors consider that the study of cellars is
somewhat limited. The search terms were related to ageing
rooms, winery, energy consumption, wine comfort and bioclimatic design in articles, titles, abstracts and keywords. The
primary keywords (winery, wine, wine comfort and ageing
room) were typed into the search engines of the previously
mentioned databases separately; afterwards, when the search engines allowed, the authors would limit the search to
those articles related to construction, energy consumption
and bioclimatic design. When the search engines did not
allow certain key words, however, the authors had to skim
through the articles individually (regardless of the number
of papers presented by the databases) to ensure that no useful article was left undiscovered. The results were classified
into the four categories which were applied in this article:
(i) efficiency of cellar building types; (ii) bioclimatic principles applicable to cellars; (iii) monitoring and modelling of
cellars; and (iv) the influence of sustainability certifications
on winery design.
Bibliometric analysis
Bibliometric analysis of the articles published in the field of
energy efficiency in wineries showed a strong concentration
of research in a few countries, highlighting in particular
Spain and Italy. Dividing each article by the number of
research centres involved gave the following results: Spain
was responsible for 33.7% of production, followed by Italy
(24.2%), USA (8.1%), China (6.7%), Australia (5.4%), Turkey (4.3%) and nine other countries with less than
2% each.
Collaboration between centres in different countries was
infrequent or non-existent in most cases. International collaboration involving the USA (28.6% of the articles),
Australia (40%), Turkey (25%) and France (50%) stand
out. In the literature identified, the number of research
institutions such as laboratories and sub-centres involved,
even within the same university, was also reduced; the
average usually being less than two research institutions per
article.
The centres with the highest weighted production were
the Polytechnic University of Madrid (20.1% of the total),
University of Bologna (15.8%), the University of California
(4%), the University of La Rioja (3.4%) and the University
of South Australia (2.5%); the remaining 58 centres
involved had less than 1.3% weighted production each.
As an approximation of the impact of the publications of
each centre, the impact factor (IF) of the journals in which
they published was used for its corresponding year. The
average IF of all centres was 3.25, although there was a
large variation (SD of 3.10) depending on factors, such as
the number and age of articles or the journals involved in
each case. The University of California stands out with an
average IF of 17.49 due to the great impact of a publication
in the journal Nature. In the centres with the highest production, the average IF is less than 3.0 (Polytechnic University of Madrid 1.24, University of Bologna 2.5, University of
La Rioja 1.27, University of South Australia 2.81). Table 1
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
presents the journals involved and the proportion of articles
that each centre published in them.
The analysis of the keywords defined by the authors
shows great diversity in the terms used, with few outstanding keywords. Of the 209 different terms found, only 11%
appear in more than one article. The most commonly used
terms were wine cellar (seven papers), building design (6),
winery (5), winery design (4), energy saving (4), energy
simulation (3), wine (3) and energy (3). In the case of two
articles there was a large group of keywords: certification,
thermal zone, air temperature monitoring, efficiency,
underground cellar, energy consumption, thermal inertia,
underground building, indoor environment, design standards, wine industry, vernacular architecture, sustainable
development and life cycle cost.
Individually analysing the words that make up the keywords (and grouping singular and plural), the frequency of
some terms increased significantly. Thus, the most prominent were building/buildings (23 times), wine (22), energy
(19), thermal (17), design (17), cellar/cellars (13), winery
(11), air (10), underground (9), temperature/temperatures
(8), system/systems (7), environment (7), sustainable (6),
indoor (6), performance/performances (5), simulation (5),
solar (5), carbon (5), construction (5), analysis (5), monitoring (4), efficiency (4), ground (4), environmental (4), management (4), bioclimatic (4), saving (4) and heating (4).
Efficiency of cellar building types
Mazarrón and Cañas (2008) were the first to simultaneously
evaluate different building types using the terrain to control
indoor hygrothermal conditions. They reported that commercial wineries opt for a variety of solutions for cellars to
assure optimal conditions for ageing; they grouped them
into five types, which are presented from the most to the
least energy efficient (Figure 1).
Underground. The cellar has been dug into the ground.
Many require no external energy inputs and RH is usually
optimal throughout the year without the use of RH enhancing devices (Figures 2, 3).
Earth-sheltered or buried. The cellar is at ground level but is
completely earth sheltered to recreate the conditions of
underground cellars. They can be just as efficient as underground cellars. The literature does not indicate whether RH
enhancing devices are needed in this type of construction.
Basement. The cellar is just below ground level, creating a
cellar below the other facilities. All the walls and floor are
thus in contact with the surrounding earth, except for the
ceiling, and this can reduce the influence of the earth’s thermal mass. Many basement cellars use humidifiers (Figure 3)
to maintain RH at a desirable level.
Side-slope. The cellar is up against or dug into a rock or
earth slope on at least one side. The parts of the building
facing the earth’s thermal mass take advantage of it, so the
outside facing parts could bring the outside climate’s influence inside the cellar if they are not properly insulated. The
need for RH enhancing devices and/or practices will vary
depending on the local conditions and the building’s configuration, with regard to the degree of exposure to the underground and the availability of natural moisture.
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
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10
9
8
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4.03
3.78
5.31
8.10
3.40
4.32
–
1.01
2.43
2.36
1.75
2.69
4.07
1.65
0.52
–
–
4.17
2.29
3.08
–
3.42
0.34
1.08
–
–
1.72
Total No.
papers
(all centres)
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
7
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
7
13
13
13
13
0
13
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
17
9
32
0
0
University
of Bologna
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
33
0
0
0
University
of California
University
of South
Australia
University
of Southern
California
University
of Siena
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
55
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Proportion of articles published in each journal (%)
Universidad
de la Rioja
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
University of
Salamanca
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
University
of Minho
(Continues)
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
University
of Maryland
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
11
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Building and Environment
Energy and Buildings
Journal of Cleaner Production
Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews
Applied Thermal Engineering
Renewal Energy
Journal of Agricultural
Engineering
Transactions of the ASABE
Energies
Tunneling and Underground
Space Technology
Sustainability
Advanced Engineering Informatics
Agricultural and Forest
Meterology
American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture
Applied Engineering in
Agriculture
Applied Mechanics and Materials
Avances en Energias Renovables y
Medio Ambiente
Business Strategy and the
Environment
Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture
Construction and Building
Materials
Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition
Ecological Economics
Informes de la Construccion
International Journal of
Architectural Heritage
International Journal of
Mathematical Education in
Science and Technology
Journal of Accounting, Auditing
and Finance
Journal of Cultural Heritage
Journal
Mean Journal
Impact Factor
2014–2018
Universidad
Politecnica
DE Madrid
Table 1. Main journals with publications on energy efficiency in cellars, shown as a proportion of the total articles of each research centre†.
Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Total No.
papers
(all centres)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mean Journal
Impact Factor
2014–2018
–
1.85
1.13
–
–
3.05
40.88
–
2.49
0.93
2.31
1.09
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Universidad
Politecnica
DE Madrid
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
9
0
0
0
0
University
of Bologna
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
0
0
0
0
0
University
of California
†Boxes coloured light grey, grey and black represent the lowest to the highest number of papers per journal.
Journal of Ecological Engineering
Journal of Food Science
Journal of Radioanalytical and
Nuclear Chemistry
Journal of Industrial Engineering
Chemistry
Journal of Wine Research
Journal of Agricultural Research
Nature
Rudarsko-Geolossko-Naftni
Zbornik
Sensors
Survey Review
Sustainable Development
Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities
Journal
Table 1. Continued
University
of South
Australia
University
of Southern
California
University
of Siena
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
University of
Salamanca
University
of Maryland
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
University
of Minho
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
Figure 1. Main types of cellar construction.
Figure 2. A modern underground cellar in the Spanish wine region of
Ribera del Duero.
Above-ground. In the same fashion as other agricultural and
industrial facilities, the cellar is on flat ground. This type of
cellar features wine production facilities that include air
conditioning systems to control temperature and RH. Since
this type of construction requires total insulation and air
conditioning, it is the least efficient. Sometimes, however,
the other types of construction are not an option. This type
of construction will most likely need artificial RH enhancing
devices and/or practices.
Figure 3. System for modification of RH in a basement cellar with air
conditioning near Peñafiel, Spain.
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Proportion of articles published in each journal (%)
Universidad
de la Rioja
12
The behaviour of each of these construction types, when
comparing the external climatic conditions to those on the
inside of the cellar, differs extensively. Underground buildings
(underground and buried types), cushion external environmental temperature changes, with the help of the large earth
mass covering them. Above-ground construction is, in principle, more vulnerable to changes in outside temperature.
Ganem et al. (2016) analysed the thermal properties of
four cellars and they showed that light insulated envelopes
present no thermal inertia but effectively keep the interior
from the influence of external conditions. In the case of high
mass envelopes, they report that these structures have thermal inertia that moderates the interior temperature and as a
counterpart they present greater exchange of energy flows.
Due to the need to maintain the temperature of cellars stable for long periods of time, underground and buried types
appear to be the most suitable. Above-ground constructions
must have other designs allowing the mitigation of annual
temperature fluctuations of more than 10 C occurring in all
the climatic zones of the Spanish territory: temperature fluctuations in above-ground cellars, exceed 10 C, buried constructions do not exceed 5 C and underground constructions
do not exceed 3 C. Although RH is an important condition for
wine ageing, controlling it is simple with the use of misters or
ventilation systems that do not consume large amounts of
energy (Mazarrón and Cañas 2008).
Underground cellars
One of the first scientifically recorded attempts to study traditional wineries occurred in Spain (Fuentes Pardo et al. 2004).
The team presented a methodological approach for the realisation of institutional schemes for recovering traditional agricultural architecture in a regional context. Through this work,
they monitored the cellars to assess their thermal behaviour
and they graphically documented and analysed more than
800 vintage agricultural buildings (among them, cellars) in
Spain to realise their potential for reuse. Later, Fuentes Pardo
and Cañas-Guerrero (2006) examined formal and functional
characteristics of the vernacular architecture of underground
wineries. They documented construction characteristics and
details plus excavation techniques and classified underground
cellars in the Ribera del Duero region by the type of
construction.
Soil properties have a decisive effect on interior conditions, as well as on the integrity and durability of underground wine cellars. Most soils present similar plasticity and
swelling properties. They are either concentrated in a specific region of the plasticity chart or present zero plasticity.
High plasticity soils are uncommon, owing to the higher risk
of swelling leading to stability problems in wine cellars. In
terms of grain size, silts and sands under 0.4 mm predominate, with a somewhat lower presence of clays. There is no
record of wine cellars having been dug in high plasticity
soils or where gravels or clean sands predominate. New
wine cellars should not be excavated in soils under the previously mentioned conditions of high plasticity (Cañas
et al. 2012).
Cañas et al. (2012) summarised (Figure 4) the construction process of traditional underground cellars in Spain:
1. The site is selected under parameters, such as topography, ground characteristics and distance to any urban
nucleus. Slightly sloped lots are the most adequate for
the construction of traditional underground cellars
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
13
Figure 4. Construction process of a traditional underground cellar.
[Fuentes (2010) reports that the entrance should face
north to decrease sun radiation effects].
2. Excavation begins by ‘cutting’ the entrance of the future
cellar on the slope.
3. Access tunnel excavation begins at the same time as the
internal vault reinforcing process. Excess material is
placed on top of the tunnel to avoid excess transportation
of dug earth, which also works as additional thermal
mass. At the same time, the ventilation chimney is dug,
using pulleys and buckets to extract debris.
4. Once the tunnel and chimney have been dug, cellar digging begins. The cellar chamber is wider and taller than
the access tunnel. When the process is complete, all the
winemaking equipment is introduced into the cellar.
It is quite common to see ‘underground winery neighbourhoods’ grouped in sets of several dozen wineries (Figure 5).
The wineries in each neighbourhood usually have similar characteristics in terms of room shape, type of entrance, construction
materials and depth (Nawalany et al. 2017).
In those areas where there are large temperature variations, underground construction deeper than 10 m is capable
of achieving the highest capacity to reduce outdoor climate variation and maintain thermal stability throughout the year. At
such depth, RH is usually high most of the year, which is a
Figure 5. A Spanish cellar neighbourhood in the Ribera del Duero region.
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Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
desirable condition. When there is no air conditioning equipment, underground construction is the one assuring the most
days in optimal comfort conditions for wine conservation and
ageing (Martin and Cañas 2006, Mazarrón and Cañas 2008).
Furthermore, Benni et al. (2013) report a reduction in overall
energy demand of 100% for heating and 75% for cooling in
comparison with that of an above-ground cellar.
Cadeddu and Cauli (2017) report that the optimal depth
of an underground wine cellar is exclusively related to the
frequency (ω) of temperature variation, which depends on
the chosen period for wine ageing and by a positive constant
κ which describes the thermal characteristics of the soil adjacent to the location of the underground cellar. The optimal
depth calculated by the authors leads to two advantages:
(i) a reduction by a factor of 23 in the amplitude wave of
the temperature function and the result is a reduction of the
temperature oscillation at 1 C with a correct design of
the winery considering climatic and soil conditions; and
(ii) the phase of the temperature wave function at these
depths is exactly the opposite at ground level. As a result,
dampening of excessive temperature fluctuation occurs, limiting heat transfer mechanisms, such as opening cellar
doors, which may increase the temperature of the ageing
room beyond the desirable storage temperature of 13 C.
In the Argentinian region of Mendoza, Ganem and Coch
(2010) highlighted the importance of high thermal mass, since
temperature requirements for storage are strict. For that reason, they proposed underground cellars as the best solution
since any other solution requires electricity to ensure good
quality wine. In 2012, the same authors analysed the trends
existing in the construction of new wineries, especially those of
Marqués de Riscal and Viña Tondonia (Spain), where wellknown architects designed new facilities. Without thermally
monitoring the cellars, they report that energy performance of
these facilities is low, because they have to provide air conditioning systems to maintain correct wine-ageing conditions.
Berghoef and Dodds (2013) highlight the interest of the
Ontario (California) wine industry in being ecological by lowering energy consumption; among the solutions presented,
underground cellars were an option.
Genís-Vinyals et al. (2015) analysed the ‘fresqueras’, a
type of underground construction excavated under dwellings.
Their research highlighted the importance of these structures
for wine conservation. As it has previously been stated, premises for wine storage and ageing call for a specific indoor climate, which can require a high energy input. In this regard,
underground buildings have the potential to reduce energy
demand in comparison to conventional above-ground buildings, by exploiting soil temperature, ground-cover (Nawalany
et al. 2017) and soil humidity. Constructive solutions based
on ground thermal inertia are more effective than other solutions when reducing the effects of outdoor conditions, even
when these have air conditioning systems. It is possible to
achieve the optimal conditions to preserve wine, with a good
design and an adequate amount of terrain, without having to
use air conditioning systems (Mazarrón et al. 2012a). The
more constant, closer to optimal, temperature of vernacular
underground wine cellars is good to slow down the wine ageing process, which results in higher quality wines. In addition,
this type of low-energy design can be applied to modern wine
cellars (Martin and Cañas-Guerrero 2006, Torreggiani
et al. 2018).
Excavation and underground wall construction costs are
high, so insulation may be seen as a valid alternative when
applied to all premises. Underground solutions on the
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
contrary could be a choice when excavation is needed for
some reason (i.e. when deep foundations are mandatory),
or in case of specific local building code regulations such as
height limits (Barbaresi et al. 2017).
Constructive solutions and technological systems that
maximise energy efficiency are becoming a standard in the
industry. Underground cellars solve this, since they have the
ability to provide temperature-peak dampening, thermal
wave phase-shifting and temperature variation break-downs.
These effects depend on the building itself and on the features
of the location; therefore, understanding underground thermal properties and space–time variability of thermal phenomena is fundamental. Building design can take advantage of
underground thermal properties to minimise energy demand
for temperature control (Fuentes 2010).
Basement cellars
The interior environment of basements (Figure 6) is not as
stable as that of deep underground cellars, since the
hygrothermal stability in this type of traditional construction
increases with depth, due to the land’s thermal mass. Nonetheless, basements also offer the possibility of wine ageing;
they can provide adequate ageing and preservation conditions without the need for air conditioning. Semi-basements, however, offer lower thermal inertia and higher
exposure to exterior environmental conditions leading to
higher temperature in spring and summer (Mazarron et al.
2013). These cellar types have an acceptable capacity to
reduce outdoor variations and it can be an inexpensive solution for indoor climate control. Results are similar to the
values obtained by above-ground construction with air conditioning systems functioning for several months (Mazarrón
et al. 2012b). In this regard, under certain Spanish conditions, basements can provide optimal wine comfort levels
(8–15 C at 60% RH) 96% of the time in spring; 7% in summer; 49% in autumn; and 87% in the winter. As a result,
basements do need air conditioning 14.5% of the time
(Mazarrón and Cañas 2008).
Mazarron et al. (2013) report that typical Spanish wineageing basements are constructed under the actual winery
building (fermentation facilities), so they were located
below ground level. These structures are in contact with the
ground through load-bearing walls, are usually made of
25–35 cm thick reinforced waterproofed concrete to avoid
ground leakage. The structures are usually made of
Figure 6. Basement cellar in La Rioja, Spain.
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
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14
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
15
reinforced concrete with cylindrical or rectangular pillars.
The upper framework, is also made of reinforced concrete,
which is held up by the pillars, serving as paving of the
upper winery premises. The normal finish is usually
polished concrete. The semi-underground constructions
have similar characteristics, but a part of their envelope is in
contact with the exterior conditions.
Earth-sheltered and semi-buried cellars
Earth-sheltered construction is the best alternative to underground construction for maintaining a stable interior temperature (they can keep optimal conditions for over 80% of
the time). This type of construction has the advantage of
being close to the surface, which makes it easier when
designing wider spaces (Mazarrón et al. 2012b). Figure 7
shows a model of a winery that uses gravity to transport the
wine throughout the winemaking processes, the final stage
being when new wine is stored in wooden barrels at the
bottom most right side of the model, where it experiences
the ageing process under the influence of the high-mass of
the surrounding earth. In this regard, Nawalany et al.
(2017) studied the thermal conditions of partially underground cellars, concluding that the cellars may be used for
wine storage for ‘the first period of wine treatment’ (without any energy inputs). Moreover, under certain Spanish
conditions, earth sheltered cellars can provide optimal wine
comfort levels (8–15 C at RH 60%) for 97% of the time in
spring; 96% in summer; 61% in autumn; and 67% in the
winter. As a result, earth-sheltered cellars do need air conditioning 20% of the time (Mazarrón and Cañas 2008).
Above-ground cellars with and without air conditioning
When it is not possible to build underground cellars, the
analysis of the thermal loads of wineries stresses the importance of insulation. Cellar designers should consider an integrated approach with many factors involved to address the
following issues: (i) identifying potential critical issues in
energy consumption by the variety of processes taking place
at the winery; (ii) finding overlapping positive and negative
thermal loads for better system design; (iii) supply the
oenologist with useful information to make decisions on
how to utilise surplus thermal energy to make other types
of wines such as sweet dessert wines; (iv) empower farm
management in energy saving decisions; and (v) provide
information for future research on energy demand issues
(Barbaresi et al. 2017). Fortea-Navarro (2016) describes an
above-ground winery located in the variable weather of the
Napa Valley, in which 40 cm wide stone-filled gabion walls
provide enough thermal mass to buffer the external conditions, much in the fashion of the hygrothermal behaviour
presented by basements. Above-ground cellars, however,
without air conditioning or ground thermal mass present a
lower capacity to reduce outdoor variation because they
Figure 7. Model of a modern earth-sheltered winery and its bottom-most
cellar in Samaniego (Basque Country) Spain.
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Figure 8. Air-conditioned above-ground cellar.
have: (i) less control over climate conditions; and
(ii) present the least favourable conditions for conservation
and ageing, as indoor temperature is usually too high during
the summer months, and can be too low in the winter
(Mazarrón et al. 2012b,c). Vertical stratification of temperature in above-ground cellars (Figure 8) varies depending on
the time of year, and it is directly related to outdoor environmental variations. As a result of this behavioural difference, throughout the year, the number of barrel levels is
not significant from October to March in the northern hemisphere. From April to September, however, the number of
stacked barrel layers should be reduced in these types of
buildings, since the wine stored at the higher levels will be
subjected to less favourable conditions: higher and lower
temperature, and greater temperature variation during the
day (Mazarrón et al. 2012a). In this regard, under certain
Spanish conditions, above-ground cellars without air conditioning can provide optimal wine comfort levels (8–15 C at
RH 60%) for 52% of the time in spring; 0% in summer;
18% in autumn; and 56% in the winter. As a result, aboveground cellars do need air conditioning 69% of the time
(Mazarrón and Cañas 2008).
Air-conditioned above-ground cellars (Figure 9) can
modify their temperature and RH intervals as required, at
the expense of energy consumption and the cost of the
equipment (Mazarrón et al. 2012b). For these reasons, the
use of air conditioning systems during the summer months
is strongly recommended for above ground cellars
Figure 9. Above-ground wine ‘cathedral’ provides ample air stratification.
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Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
cellars, the authors found 33 numerical studies on this topic.
Seven of them were methods, five were monitoring models,
three were simulation models, three were monitoring simulation models and 11 were pure monitoring studies.
The authors categorised the methods and/or models for
the examination of the climatic aspects of ageing rooms as
follows: (i) graphic representation methods; (ii) methods;
(iii) simulation methods; (iv) models; (v) monitoring
models; (vi) simulation models; (vii) monitoring simulation
models; and (viii) purely monitoring works. Table 4 provides a complete summary of these methods and/or models.
The influence of sustainability certifications on winery
design
Figure 10. Comfort zone and harmful effects.
(Mazarrón et al. 2012c, Porras-Amores et al. 2014). The
economic feasibility of installing air conditioners depends on
the particular conditions at each cellar (Mazarrón et al.
2012c).
Bioclimatic principles applicable to ageing rooms
Zhou et al. (2016) report that poor communication, design
requirements, cultural differences, and low-quality construction are the main factors leading to a winery’s excess of
air leakage, poor building insulation and deficient indoor air
distribution. For this reason, they developed a methodology
for the evaluation of energy usage in wineries by analysing
condensation, thermal insulation, air leakage and indoor air
distribution.
To date, there are few specific publications on architectural bioclimatic principles for wine comfort (Figure 10) in
above-ground or in any type of cellar (Rodríguez-Gonzálvez
et al. 2014). For this reason, the authors will summarise all
applicable principles in Table 2, which is considered one of
the highlights of this section. These principles are more suitable for above-ground cellars but the other types of construction may benefit as well.
Research on ageing room hygrothermal conditions with
monitoring and modelling
The monitoring and modelling of cellars has been fundamental for the description of the thermal behaviour of such
structures. These activities have supported the quest towards
the achievement of ideal hygrothermal conditions inside cellars at the lowest possible energy cost during the building’s
operation.
The importance of hygrothermal monitoring stems from
two problems: (i) the costly energy input for maintaining
ideal hygrothermal conditions; and (ii) wine loss through
excess wine evaporation and its governing parameters during wine ageing in oak barrels (diffusion and surface emission coefficients) (Ruiz de Adana et al. 2005). There is a loss
range between 1 and 9% of the volume of the wine inside
the wood barrels, depending on cellar conditions (Ruiz de
Adana et al. 2005, Martin and Cañas-Guerrero 2006). Wine
loss can actually be beneficial in small amounts as it helps
oxygenate the wine, but the oxygen level is usually high
enough to produce an important financial impact (Ruiz de
Adana et al. 2005). Table 3 summarises the research on
monitoring and modelling of cellars.
To answer the question which methods and/or models
have been proposed for examining the climatic aspects of
The increasing attention to sustainability is pushing the construction sector to build more sustainable buildings (Navarro
et al. 2017). In this regard, the wine sector has placed environmental sustainability in a priority position, due to both
the consumer’s demand for more information regarding the
environmental impact of their purchases and the growing
interest in environmental issues (Moscovici and Reed 2018).
As a result, several sustainability metrics have been proposed. The global dissemination of sustainability indexes
and that of their configurations are treated as proxy variables for the appraisal of ‘green buildings’. Current evaluation systems range from energy utilisation assessment
systems to life cycle analysis and total quality evaluation
schemes (Navarro et al. 2017); improving energy efficiency
is the underlying factor behind them.
Pushed by positive consumer perception and financial
advantages, the industry has opened to certifications, based on
previous experience from the construction sector. They are
clearly different from other certifications, such as organic and
biodynamic, in the sense that they are broader in scope since
they cover many factors, such as construction (bioclimatic),
energy saving devices/processes, alternative energy sources
and water treatment/recycling. The main findings show considerable interest on the part of the winemaking industry with
an exponential growth in the number of certifications.
Although there are many differences, all certifications propose
formation components and technological updates. Certification
systems differ in mechanics, which lead to issues related to
transferability and consumer confusion (Berardi 2012).
Other issues include varying certification costs, lack of
transparency of certified information and no cooperation
between certification bodies. Given that all of the certifications plan on growing, more research is needed into sustainability certification, especially from the consumer perspective
(Moore and Engstrom 2004).
Recent research related to winery certifications is scarce.
Penela et al. (2009) presented a methodological proposal for
calculation of corporate carbon footprint (CCFP) based on
the ‘method composed of financial accounts’ abbreviated as
MC3. Marras et al. (2015) conducted a carbon footprint
analysis (CFA) in a mature vineyard in the south of Italy.
They claim their study represents an advance since most
CFAs focus only on the winemaking process. The main limitation of the study, however, is that it presents data only
from a single Italian vineyard. Giacomarra et al. (2016) provided evidence that wineries under voluntary standards
showed better economic performance than non-certified
cellars. However, the only standard in their study with a
weak regard to building/construction was ISO 14001 (environmental management systems standard) because it covers
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16
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
17
Table 2. Bioclimatic principles applicable to cellars.
Bioclimatic principle
Concepts
Authors’ notes
Shape
Building shape largely influences
building sun exposure (Tang 2002).
Compactness Index (CI): a ratio expressing the To reduce outdoor exposure and improve CI,
relationship between the building’s volume, its most aerial cellars are usually integrated into
outer surface and its façade (Wang et al. 2006). other winery premises, exposing the least
number of their surfaces to the outside
environment. In many cases, even the roof is
protected from the outside by another room on
top; this same principle is used in basement
cellars.
Sun radiation can increase cooling
energy by up to 25% (Elasfouri et al.
1991).
Very compact building: building with a high
volume to surface ratio. Its exposed heat
gaining or losing surface is as small as possible
(Feng 2004).
In underground cellars the use of vaulted shapes
is common for structural reasons. Many
above-ground cellars have high ceilings to favour
air stratification (Figure 8) and protect the wine
located in the first few metres (3 or 4) above the
ground.
Shape determines total surface exposed
to the outside thus energy losses occur.
Ratio between outer surface and total
constructed volume should be kept
small as possible tending to the ideal
case of a hemisphere (Tang 2002).
The combination of shape and orientation
allows energy savings of up to 36% (Elasfouri
et al. 1991).
The increase of external building surface for
the same volume (lower compactness index) is
proportional to the increase in the energy
required for heating (Aksoy and Inalli 2006).
Shapes such as vaults and domes improve the
shape factor. To reduce outdoor exposure and
improve CI, most aerial cellars are usually
integrated into other winery premises, exposing
the least number of their surfaces to the outside
environment. In many cases, even the roof is
protected from the outside by another room on
top; this same principle is used in basement
cellars.
Orientation
Orientation is the most important and
most studied bioclimatic principle
(Aksoy and Inalli 2006).
The minimisation of sun radiation exposure in
the summer led Gupta and Ralegaonkar (2004)
to optimise orientation of a building for various
shape factors. Their method avoids summer
solar radiation to the highest degree.
What is usually intended in the design of
wineries, is to use the orientation to regulate the
temperature of the wine cellar. Orientation can
influence the temperature of the wine cellar, for
example, orienting it to the south facilitates the
action of the warm winds, generally increasing
temperature. Its effect depends on the thermal
insulation of the cellar.
Amount of sun radiation received
depends on azimuth on wall (Sulaiman
and Olsina 2014).
Studies of architectural elements with different
slopes and angles (Chwieduk and Bogdanska
2004), reveal that the maximisation of solar
energy gain throughout the year requires that
the azimuth angle of the surface should be
approximately 15 .
Sometimes the orientation takes advantage of
certain microclimates, such as in the region of
sherry wines, where the action of the marine
winds is favourable during the ageing process.
A low-cost measure reducing energy
The best orientation of rectangular buildings
demand, increases performance of other for wine comfort is when longest façade faces
passive measures, and reduces interior
north.
heating/cooling load.
In the case of cellars in the northern
hemisphere, the longest or main façade
should be oriented north to keep
internal temperature within wine
comfort range (Pacheco-Torgal and
Jalali 2012).
Ageing rooms with small ground plans are less
sensitive to changes in orientation (Morrissey
et al. 2011).
Ground plan surface is the most crucial factor
regarding adaptability to changes in orientation
(Depecker et al. 2001).
It is more difficult for larger ageing rooms to
provide acceptable energy efficiency (Depecker
et al. 2001).
Optimal orientation increases energy savings
through the avoidance of heat gains from the
sun (Manzano-Agugliaro et al. 2015).
Building envelope
Foundations, roofs, walls, doors and
windows and the period when airconditioning is required are the factors
with the greatest impact on energy
consumption (Chwieduk and Bogdanska
2004).
Heat transfer formulas: design parameters
affecting energy conservation are shape,
orientation and façade thermophysical
properties (Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali 2012).
Within the envelope, the surface that is exposed
such as above-ground, basement has a
considerable influence. The key element is
hygrothermal behaviour.
Envelope determines interior
hygrothermal conditions and heating/
cooling needs (Ahearn 1982)
Two assessment methods for economic
evaluation of building façade insulation:
(a) Çomaklı and Yüksel (2003) used Present
Worth Factor (PWF) to calculate optimal
insulation thickness.
Other variables that are difficult to study are
biodynamic systems. Examples of wineries with
biodynamic ageing such as Bodega Las
Encomiendas (DO Ribera del Guadiana) and
wineries that apply biodynamic principles but in
vine cultivation such as: Cavas Recaredo (DO
Penedés); Finca Mas Blanc (DOQ Priorat); Celler
Joan d’Anguera CDO Montsant) and
Torremilanos (DO Ribera del Duero).
(Continues)
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Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
Table 2. Continued
Bioclimatic principle
Concepts
Authors’ notes
(b) Lollini et al. (2006) carried out threefold
analysis taking energy, economy and
environment into account. Both analyses agree
on the existence of a threshold where more
insulation thickness will not bring significant
energy savings.
Pulselli et al. (2009) conducted an energy and
energy-based cost- benefit analysis. Results
showed that building envelope performance
relies on technologies related to external
climate conditions.
Chel and Tiwari (2009) analysed building
envelope environmental impact through the
estimation of thermal performance, energy
payback time, embodied energy, CO2 emissions
mitigation potential and carbon credits.
Manio
glu and Yılmaz (2006) evaluated the
economics of the envelope and the heating
system (during its operation period) in terms of
thermal comfort.
Table 3. Recent research related to winery certifications and their influence on winery design.
Country
Year
Title
Proposal or research aim
Reference
Spain
2009
A methodological proposal for corporate
carbon footprint and its application to a
wine-producing company in Galicia,
Spain
Authors presented a methodological proposal for
corporate carbon footprint (CCFP) calculation based on
the ‘method composed of financial accounts’ abbreviated
as MC3. Results showed the source of its environmental
impacts and the carbon footprint of each of its activities.
Penela et al.
(2009)
Italy
2015
Carbon footprint assessment on a
mature vineyard
Authors conducted a carbon footprint analysis (CFA) in a
mature vineyard in the south of Italy. They claim their
study represents an advance since most CFAs focus only
on the winemaking process. The main limitation of the
study, however, is that it presents only data from a single
Italian vineyard. Results showed that external carbon
sources such as fuel combustion and soil management
are largely responsible for the GHG emissions of the
vineyard.
Marras et al.
(2015)
Italy
2016
The integration of quality and safety
concerns in the wine industry: the role
of third-party voluntary certifications
Authors provided evidence that the economic
performance of wineries under voluntary standards was
better than that of non-certified cellars. The only
standard, however, in their study with a minimal regard
to building/construction was ISO 14001 because it covers
many facets of environmental concerns.
Giacomarra
et al. (2016)
Spain
2016
Environmental proactivity and
environmental and economic
performance: evidence from the winery
sector
Authors validated a model using a sample of 312 Spanish
wineries. The article indirectly addresses building design
in energy related issues.
Barba-Sánchez
and AtienzaSahuquillo
(2016)
USA
2017
A self-sustainable winery, an advanced
passive building and remote monitoring
of environments in wineries
Please refer to the ‘The influence of sustainability
certifications on winery design’ section for a full
summary of Boulton’s work in his article.
Boulton (2017)
Spain,
Turkey,
France
2017
Eco-innovation and bench-marking of
carbon-footprint data for vineyards and
wineries in France and Spain
Authors proposed a novel carbon footprint approach,
claiming that their approach might be convenient for
pushing small and medium enterprises towards
eco-innovation and sustainability due to its simplicity.
Their approach will allow wineries to identify the most
relevant aspects in carbon footprint terms, as well as
potential improvements, starting from the vineyard and
up to the moment when the bottled and labelled wine
leaves the premises. Results showed that establishing best
practices and resource consumption optimisation,
corporate carbon footprint figures achieve a reduction of
almost 25%.
Navarro et al.
(2017)
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
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18
Year
2005
2005
2005
2006
2007
2008
Spain
Spain
Spain
Spain
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Portugal
Spain
Monitoring models
Purely monitoring
works
Monitoring models
Models
Purely monitoring
works
Purely monitoring
works
Category
The effect of traditional wind
vents called zarceras on the
hygrothermal behaviour of
underground wine cellars in
Spain
An evolutionary wireless
sensor network to monitor
wine cellars
Comparison of analytical and
on-site temperature results on
Spanish traditional wine
cellars
A Fickian model for
calculating wine losses from
oak casks depending on
conditions in ageing facilities
Study of the thermal
behaviour of traditional wine
cellars: the case of the area of
‘Tierras Sorianas del Cid’
(Spain)
Comparison of hygrothermal
conditions in underground
wine cellars from a Spanish
area
Title
(Continues)
Cañas and Mazarrón (2009)
Costa et al. (2007)
Authors presented the first step of an evolutionary
project named WSNet-WineCellar, which aims at
evaluating current techniques in resource-efficient
environmental data gathering, through a network of
‘off-the-shelf’ software to gather information
communicated by a wireless sensor network, placed in
each one of the barrels of an Oporto winery. Result:
the oenologist has a constant source of information
that could provide permanent control of the ageing
conditions.
Authors studied the effect of air extracting chimneys
(zarceras) on overall ageing room hygrothermal
performance. Results: having ‘zarceras’ in underground
ageing rooms improved hygrothermal performance
since they did not affect hygrothermal conditions
significantly inside the cellar, promoting ventilation
and aiding in maintaining a suitable level of RH and
helping in the removal of CO2 produced during
fermentation.
Martin and Cañas-Guerrero (2006)
Ruiz de Adana et al. (2005)
Cañas-Guerrero and Martin (2005)
Martin and Cañas-Guerrero (2005)
Reference
Authors used a simple analytical model to predict soil
temperature. They studied the potential of this model
to predict interior cellar temperature, without taking
ventilation into account. Results: the model was
accurate at predicting interior temperature range but it
was not as accurate at predicting the development of
interior temperature over time.
The model simulates wine loss during ageing and it
was validated through the comparison of the
experimental data with that of actual cellars. Results:
the impact of exterior temperature, access tunnels and
ventilation chimneys on interior conditions of
underground cellars was demonstrated by describing
the behaviour of the previously mentioned built
mechanisms during hot and cold weather outside the
ageing rooms.
Authors monitored temperature and RH. They
highlighted the impact that traditional construction
techniques have on modern construction practices
from the viewpoint of energy-saving. Results:
‘underground constructions have great potential for
passive cooling of wine cellars in continental climate’.
Authors measured RH and temperature of
underground traditional cellars for 2 weeks during the
summer and 2 weeks in the winter. Results: the
interior cellar temperature was more constant than
outside.
Research aim and results
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
19
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Country
Table 4. Summary of research on internal conditions of cellars.
Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
2012
2011
Hungary
Spain
2011
Spain
Simulation models
Method
Purely monitoring
works
Purely monitoring
works
Monitoring models
Ground thermal inertia for
energy efficient building
design: a case study on food
industry
A meta-design approach to
agroindustrial buildings: a
case study for typical Italian
wine production
Effect of variation of
atmospheric pressure on the
222Rn activity concentration
in the air of a wine cellar
Factors of influence in the
distribution of mould in the
air in a wine cellar
Exponential sinusoidal model
for predicting temperature
inside underground wine
cellars in a Spanish region
Title
Authors studied 4 year hygrothermal data from several
wineries and concluded that underground construction
ensured better wine quality at much lower energy
input. Results: ageing rooms that provide ideal
temperature and RH throughout the year without air
conditioning were possible if the design of
underground cellars is correct.
Based on case studies, authors describe a methodology
to calculate winery optimal facility size under Italian
conditions. Results: the methodology allows designers
to preview potential layout solutions.
The largest underground cellar district in Europe
(about 1200 wineries) is located near the Danube in a
loess in the Hajós winery area (Hungary). Authors
monitored natural radioactivity by measuring the
activity of 222Rn. Results: authors compared the
results of the model with the experimental data,
finding that current levels were several times above
the recommended level.
Authors monitored a winery to study the development
of several mould species in a commercial cellar.
Results: less ventilated areas with higher mould
populations in the air presented less diverse mould
species than more ventilated areas, suggesting that the
species established there were more permanent. More
ventilated areas presented more diverse but at the
same time less concentrated species of moulds in the
air.
Authors developed a mathematical model to determine
the annual air temperature cycle inside traditional
underground wine cellars in the Spanish region of
‘Ribera del Duero’. Results: indoor air temperature was
mainly conditioned by the average depth of the cellar
and outside air temperature. The adjustment, however,
between internal and external cellar temperature
varied according to the season. In spring and summer,
the stability was excellent and the influence of the soil
temperature was much greater than that of the outside
air temperature. In autumn and winter, the increased
ventilation reduced temperature adjustment.
Research aim and results
Mazarrón et al. (2012b)
Torreggiani et al. (2011)
Gy}
orfi and Csige (2011)
Ocón et al. (2011)
(Continues)
Mazarrón and Cañas (2008)
Reference
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2011
2008
Spain
Category
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Italy
Year
Country
Table 4. Continued
20
Year
2012
2012
2012
2013
2014
Spain
Spain
Italy
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Spain
Argentina
Monitoring models
Purely monitoring
works
Simulation models
Monitoring
simulation models
Purely monitoring
works
Category
Comfort reliability evaluation
of building designs by
stochastic hygrothermal
simulation
Assessment of basement
construction in the winery
industry
Farm wineries design:
preliminary indications for
integrating energy efficiency
in building modelling
An assessment of using
ground thermal inertia as
passive thermal technique in
the wine industry around the
world
Natural ventilation in
underground wine cellars
Title
Authors propose a methodology for measuring the
reliability of a building’s thermal design to sustain
indoor hygrothermal comfort under different weather
circumstances. Results: the methodology estimated
expected frequency and the duration of discomfort
events in every thermal zone and was based on the
combination of a numeric model with stochastic
simulation techniques and occurrence probability.
(Continues)
Sulaiman and Olsina (2014)
Mazarron et al. (2013)
Tassinari et al. (2012)
Authors assessed the influence of a variety of building
design solutions on a cellar’s energy performance. The
effort was designed with the intention of estimating
the differences in construction costs. Results: the
importance was highlighted of proper design solutions,
whose performance can be quantifiable in the design
phase by means of computer aided modelling and
simulation.
Authors monitored four basements and one
semi-basement belonging to commercial cellars in
Spain for several years. Results: internal environmental
conditions had greater stability than external and were
adequate for wine-ageing and preservation without the
need for air conditioning systems. The existence of
vertical temperature differences was confirmed. In
semi-basement cellars, temperature exceeding an
acceptable level for wine-ageing lasted for several
weeks.
Mazarrón et al. (2012a)
Mazarrón et al. (2012)
Reference
Authors studied the suitability of underground cellars
in providing adequate wine ageing conditions without
energy inputs. They studied the temperature of these
underground structures by means of computer
simulation with the help of a software called
EnergyPlus. Results: underground cellars were
advantageous for wine ageing due to the thermal
inertia of the ground and the ventilation systems
applied to them.
Authors monitored the natural ventilation systems of
underground cellars, focusing on the entrance tunnel,
ventilation chimney and the cave itself to assess their
influence structures on interior cellar conditions.
Results: during heat periods, natural ventilation
influence was negligible on indoor environment,
despite permanently open ventilation grilles on door
and chimney. During cold periods natural ventilation
increased.
Research aim and results
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
21
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Country
Table 4. Continued
Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
2014
2014
Italy
Spain
2014
China
Purely monitoring
works
Graphic
representation
method
Simulation methods
Purely monitoring
works
Method
Influence of winery age and
design on the distribution of
airborne moulds in three wine
cellars
Geomatics and geophysics
synergies to evaluate
underground wine cellars
Underground cellar thermal
simulation: definition of a
method for modelling
performance assessment based
on experimental calibration
The research of constant
temperature and humidity air
conditioning system of
underground cellar
Farm winery layout design:
size analysis of base spatial
units in an Italian study area
Title
Explained the influence of a cellar’s design and
construction date on mould developmet: Results: the
need highlighted for effective planning of temperature
and RH control systems and design policies during the
design phase of the cellar.
Presented a non-invasive multidisciplinary evaluation
of the internal and external physical state of
underground cellars. They integrated topographic
geotechnologies along with geophysical prospecting
equipment. Results: the combination of these
techniques allowed an accurate graphic documentation
of the structures, crack detection, structural damages as
well as the existence of empty spaces behind the walls.
Ocón et al. (2014)
(Continues)
Rodríguez-Gonzálvez et al. (2014)
Barbaresi et al. (2014)
Wang et al. (2014)
Authors applied an air conditioning system to control
humidity and temperature of an underground cellar in
Beijing where many thousands of bottles were stored.
After installing the system, they monitored the winery
and all its ageing rooms to check its effectiveness.
Results: the use of a distributed programmable logic
controller (PLC) kept constant temperature and
humidity at high efficiency, low energy consumption
and remote operation, while meeting the
environmental requirements of various types of wine
storage operations.
Authors studied three possible temperature simulation
models of a basement cellar. They used the EnergyPlus
software and validated their results with data from the
monitoring of the basement cellar for one full year.
Applying both the model described by Mazarrón and
Cañas (2008) to the walls of the winery and the model
from Kusuda and Achenbach (1965) to the ground.
Result: the method can be applied to the design of
highly efficient buildings and systems.
Torreggiani et al. (2014)
Reference
Authors propose a methodology for calculating optimal
size for the various spaces needed for producing Italian
wines. They also defined a set of parametric equations
for estimating spatial units according to production size
on the basis of the correlations found in their study.
Results: quantitative relationships were formulated to
calculate overall farm winery size according to its
hypothetical production capacity.
Research aim and results
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2014
2014
Italy
Category
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Spain
Year
Country
Table 4. Continued
22
Year
2014
2015
2015
2015
2015
2015
Italy
China
Italy
Italy
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Italy
Italy
Monitoring
simulation models
Monitoring models
Method
Monitoring
simulation models
Purely monitoring
works
Simulation models
Category
Performance assessment of
thermal simulation
approaches of wine storage
buildings based on
experimental calibration
Experimental analysis of
thermal interaction between
wine cellar and underground
Indoor air temperature
monitoring: a method lending
support to management and
design tested on a
wine-ageing room
Effective predictions of the
airflows involving barrels in a
wine-ageing room
Distributed wireless
monitoring system for ullage
and temperature in wine
barrels
Numerical simulations of the
airflows in a wine-ageing
room: a lattice
Boltzmann-immersed
boundary study
Title
Authors validated a method to assess above-ground
building modelling through optimised sensor
placement. The correctness of the use of the term
‘air-wall’ as a horizontal partition was also verified.
Building-underground interaction is site dependent,
therefore, accurate design must look into every aspect
of the thermal interface between them. Results:
designers are helped to optimise cellar energy
modelling.
Authors thermally monitored underground cellars.
They also monitored adjacent land temperature. With
the monitoring data they adapted the equations in a
way that better suited the experiment. Results: their
equations proved suitable for reproducing the surveyed
phenomena.
Authors validated an accurate and cost-effective
method for quantifying temperature monitoring in
indoor spaces, through an experimental temperature
test, taking place in an Italian ageing room. Results: the
method allows the identification of homogeneous
temperature zones, the number of sensors needed and
the minimum data recording frequency.
Authors measured the airflow around the barrels of an
underground cellar; indoor air temperature monitoring
is a basic activity giving useful information in many
fields. Specific installation procedures, however, have
not been defined in scientific literature. Results: it is
now possible to arrange barrels for the minimisation of
wine evaporation and mould formation.
Authors designed a low-cost wireless communication
system for monitoring ageing room barrels, so the
ageing is more controlled. They controlled both barrel
temperature and filling level, obtaining real-time data.
Results: the information provided by the system can
help to more accurately control final product quality.
Authors propose a methodology for the calculation of
air-flow in a wine-ageing cellar. Results: the findings
could be used by wine companies for the prediction of
the airflow present in wine-ageing rooms.
Research aim and results
Barbaresi et al. (2015)
Tinti et al. (2015)
Barbaresi et al. (2015b)
Barbaresi et al. (2015a)
Zhang et al. (2015)
De Rosis et al. (2014)
Reference
(Continues)
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
23
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Country
Table 4. Continued
Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
2018
2017
Italy
Portugal
2017
USA
Purely monitoring
works
Monitoring
simulation models
Monitoring models
Purely monitoring
works
Graphic
representation
method
Distributed monitoring system
for precision enology of the
tawny port wine ageing
process
Effects of different
architectural solutions on the
thermal behaviour in an
unconditioned rural building.
The case of an Italian winery
Experimental calibration of
underground heat transfer
models under a winery
building in a rural area
Remote monitoring of winery
and creamery environments
with a wireless sensor system
Assessment of underground
wine cellars using geographic
information technologies
Title
Authors propose a distributed oak barrel monitoring
system inside two adjacent wineries. The
interconnected sensor network continuously measured
wine temperature, pH, redox potential, wine dissolved
oxygen, room temperature and room RH. Results: the
system was able to detect differences between wood
barrels and between storage conditions. Further results
will be reported once the project, under which this
research is carried out, is completed.
Authors, through simulation, tested several different
architectural elements for the improvement of the
thermal behaviour of unconditioned wineries, through
energy simulations validated on an Italian case study,
they compared the data obtained from the simulations
under a variety of temperature ranges. Results: the
greater the combination of architectural solutions for
building improvement, the better the thermal
behaviour became.
Authors report three-dimensional thermal data models
calibrated on experimental underground soil affected
by a winery building in rural Italy. Temperature varied
in space and time and it was directly influenced by
ground, climate and building characteristics. Results:
the importance of taking the previously mentioned
aspects into account for the improvement of the design
of underground spaces for geothermal energy
utilisation was indirectly demonstrated.
Authors demonstrate the characteristics of a newly
designed wireless sensor system. The system’s ability to
provide real-time data in one convenient location
differentiates it from older systems. It is not only a data
collection system but it also provides immediate data
visualisation, enabling informed decision-making,
based on past and current environmental-conditions
measurements. Results: effective CO2 decrease in
fermentation spaces, when a sensor was installed, was
demonstrated. The nature of air composition depicted
the cyclic nature and variation of batch operations. The
resulting information provided a better cellar design
basis.
Authors analysed underground cellars using
geographic information technologies by means of a
laser scanner. Results: a fast and accurate field
technique was developed for representing
underground spaces. Post-processing time, however,
can be slow but the results were accurate.
Research aim and results
Morais et al. (2018)
Torreggiani et al. (2018)
Tinti et al. (2017a,b)
Madrid et al. (2017)
Herrero et al. (2015)
Reference
Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 26, 9–28, 2020
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2018
2015
Spain
Category
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
Italy
Year
Country
Table 4. Continued
24
many facets of environmental concerns. Barba-Sánchez and
Atienza-Sahuquillo (2016) validated a model using a sample
of 312 Spanish wineries. The article indirectly addresses
building design in energy related issues. Boulton (2017)
reported the construction of a new winery at the University
of California, Davis, which aimed to create a completely offgrid building with its own independent energy and water
utilities to: (i) eliminate hydrocarbon fuels from its operation; (ii) capture and sequester carbon dioxide from its fermentations; and (iii) create a zero-carbon footprint facility.
As a result, the UC Davis winery complex achieved the
Leadership in Energy and Enironmental Design (LEED) Platinum certification, and it was ranked in the top 3% of all
LEED Platinum buildings finished in that period; it was also
the first water and energy self-sustainable building. Navarro
et al. (2017) proposed a novel carbon footprint approach,
claiming that their approach might be convenient for pushing small and medium enterprises towards eco-innovation
and sustainability because of its simplicity. They presented
data for promoting eco-innovation, since their inventory
can enable wineries to benchmark their data with that from
the study. Moreover, their approach will allow wineries to
identify the most relevant aspects in carbon footprint terms,
as well as, potential improvements, starting from the vineyard and working up to the moment that bottled and
labelled wine leaves the premises. Results showed that the
establishment of best practices and resource consumption
optimisation achieved a 25% reduction in CCFP figures.
It is quite clear that both building construction and building
operation throughout the lifetime of the building affect the
environment. As a result, building certifications aim to reduce
energy use, atmospheric and environmental impact, water use,
construction materials and construction and demolition waste.
Finally, the creation of environmental building codes is
obviously not an object of science. Instead, it is a social and
antagonistic process in which some interests are censored
and others are strengthened. The existence of clashing interests is evident in the complex multitude of codes and green
building standards which surface as a response to current
environmental circumstances. Profit-making construction
certification codes, such as LEED, Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability and Building Research
Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, provide
some examples. Antagonistic standards that do not overlap
can create a situation where no compromise is possible
because there is no benefit. All building standards are, in
this regard, social accords favouring a precise group of beneficiaries because they incorporate the interests of those who
actually make the standards (Moscovici and Reed 2018).
Discussion
It is clear from the bibliometric analysis undertaken that
researchers and institutions should pay more attention to
inter-institutional cooperation and agreements. In contrast,
in the case of the impact of cellar design factors and components on overall thermal performance (at low energy cost),
two main categories were recognised based on climatic
aspects: underground, above-ground as well as a variety of
cellars combining both types of construction.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
25
preservation conditions with a good design and an adequate
amount of terrain without using energy intensive air conditioning devices. Excavation and underground wall building,
however, are costly operations. Nonetheless, underground
cellars could benefit from modern technologies such as electronically operated fans to aid in ventilation if RH or temperature are too high.
Above-ground cellars
Above-ground cellars rely on low-mass insulation and high
energy demanding air conditioning devices to prevent outside conditions from influencing the interior as opposed to
underground cellars which provide high thermal mass from
being underground to maintain optimal hygrothermal conditions. There is a need for more research on:
• evaluation methods for adjacent elements/buildings providing shading to cellars and their overall influence on
energy consumption;
• the orientation and shape of above-ground cellars for
optimal wine comfort without using air conditioning;
• self-shading cellars;
• natural ventilation and air-flows around wood casks
inside cellars;
• evaporative cooling systems since they can also aid in
maintaining ideal RH inside cellars and save energy at the
same time;
• manual irrigation of cellar floors to keep RH at the
desired level;
• nocturnal convective cooling;
• natural ventilation;
• radiant cooling; and
• earth-air cooling.
Applicable to all types of cellar construction
More research is needed on the modelling of the combination of passive bioclimatic strategies to achieve wine comfort, thus more attention should be paid to:
• meta-design process methodologies for winery design;
• retrofit interventions in wineries;
• other vernacular cooling technologies and their application to wine cellars; and
• winery certifications should be more closely monitored so
their ethical challenges improve.
Conclusions
This document provides a complete review of research
papers addressing the climatic aspects of wine cellars for
avoiding artificial energy inputs, as a first line of defence
against costly energy bills, associated with increased electrical power consumption. The cited papers use a variety of
methods, such as simulation and monitoring of cellars. The
present review demonstrates how a variety of design factors
such as building design and construction impact the overall
energy performance of cellars, affecting energy efficiency
and consumption of the global winemaking industry. Moreover, this paper explores the role of cellar components, such
as ventilation, shape, orientation, building envelope, shading and passive cooling, on maintaining ageing conditions
constant while minimising energy expenditure.
Underground cellars
There is sufficient knowledge to calculate ideal underground
cellar depth, so the cellar will not need the application of
artificial energy inputs for the ageing and storage of highquality wine. It is possible to reach optimal wine
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded in part by the Spanish Ministry of
Economy and Competitivity (MINECO) under the
COWINERGY project (BIA2014-54291-R), the Technical
17550238, 2020, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajgw.12416 by UACH - Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Wiley Online Library on [02/05/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Arredondo-Ruiz et al.
Designs for energy-efficient cellars: a review
University of Madrid (UPM), The Autonomous University of
Chihuahua (www.uach.mx) and by the Mexican National
Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT). Special
thanks to José Luis García Fernández, Regina Dupuis, Francisco Orozco González, Mario Ochoa, Mary Mulfinger,
Kevin Márquez, Arely Márquez and Garth Murrin.
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Manuscript received: 12 June 2019
Revised manuscript received: 8 September 2019
Accepted: 15 October 2019
© 2020 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc.
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