‘Clorinda Matto de Turner’s Aves sin nido is not a feminist novel, but an indigenous one’ By Emilia Vandamme 1 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 Clorinda Matto de Turner (1852-1909) was one of the most prominent writers of Spanish Latin America. She played a major role in championing the rights of middle and upper class women in 19th century Peruvian society and she was the first to fight for human rights for the Peruvian Indigenous people. Through her writing and, in particular her novel Aves sin nido (1889), Turner sensitised her audience to “the voices of the silenced, of resistance, of domestic or political violence, of women’s experience in the private and public space” (Medeiros-Lichem, 2002, p.2). She used literature as an instrument for sociopolitical and moral reform. Aves sin nido recounts the plight of the Indigenous under the oppression of the powerful local authority in the small town of Kíllac, in the middle of the Andes. The Indians fight for freedom with the help from local women. Some may argue that “no es una novela feminista, sino indigenista”, but in fact Aves sin nido is both a “novela indigenista” and “feminista”. It raises awareness of the problems facing native populations across the Americas in the late 19 th century, but also “deconstructs the hierarchical division between male and female to challenge the subordinate position of women vis-à-vis men” (Kaminsky, 1993, p.18). Through Aves sin nido, Turner encourages the Indigenous population as well as women to rise up and reclaim their rights and their place in society. Turner was adamant that Indigenous be included in the framework of the new Peruvian Nation (Ward, 2002). By bringing to light the appalling conditions of the Indians in Peru and describing in detail their way of life, their traditions and customs, and culture, Turner gives the reader a unique appreciation of Indians as humans. Through the setting, plot, characters, and as well as language, Turner uses the novel as a vehicle to criticise the oppression of the native population of Peru by small town officials, judicial authorities, and priests, which she had witnessed herself first-hand. Turner also includes an important representation of women who lead this movement of reformation of the Nation in favour of Indians. She applauds, through her characters, women who are stronger and more decisive, slowly escaping from gender constructs and social norms. These women fight, like Turner, for a new order and new institutions in Peru, particularly in education and law, for the protection of minorities and women (Showalter, 1992). Aves sin nido portrays the fundamental struggle of the Indigenous for basic human rights and a decent quality of life. Turner develops the setting, plot and characters to fully reflect their life and to emphasise the types of suffering they endured. The novel is set in a town called Kíllac which is steeped in corruption and barbarism under the powerful authority, unable to include the Indigenous in society. This is contrasted by the capital, Lima, represented as the city of progress and civilisation where “se educa el corazón y se instruye la inteligencia” (p.79) and “el domicilio tendrá garantías, y las autoridades conocerán lo que es cumplir su misión” (p.113), offering more freedom to the Indigenous who are not subject to the corrupt authority. Turner clearly sets the scene for the suffering of the Indigenous, at the beginning of the novel, as the narrator explains that Kíllac was “un pequeño pueblo del interior del Perú, donde la carencia 2 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 de escuelas […] y la depravación manifiesta de los pocos que comercian con la ignorancia y la consiguiente sumisión de las masas, alejan […] de la verdadera civilización que, cimentada, agregaría al país secciones importantes” (p.25). Turner explains that the lack of education in Kíllac has led to the rise of injustice that the reader will note throughout the novel. Aves sin nido recounts the abuse of the Indigenous families, such as the Yupanqui and Champi families, by the powerful authorities that reign in the town. They are marginalised from the rest of society, treated practically as slaves and paid minimal sums. They are victims of the hierarchy between the Creole (Peruvians born of Spanish blood and mixed with Indigenous) and the Indigenous, abused by “el cura” (priest), “el gobernador” (governor), and the “cobrador” (tax collector). The Indigenous are “saved” by Marín, a “forastero” (outsider) family that has moved to Kíllac from Lima. The Yupanqui family is unfairly charged large amounts of taxes by “el cobrador”, even though he is very much aware that they are low on money (p.8). The Champi family is also punished by the “Juez” (Judge) who appropriates their cattle (“El Juez redactó en seguida un auto de embargo de las vacas y alpacas”(p.73)) and falsely accuses and arrests the husband, Isidro Champi, for having killed another Indian (“ordene usted la captura de Isidro Champi” (p.83)). Isidro had, in fact, nothing to do with the matter, but being Indian was naturally accused: an inevitable victim of the system of exploitation. As Fernando Marín explains: “le han encarcelado solo para que aparezca un culpable” (p.130). The Indigenous are expropriated of their assets with no way to defend themselves. They were badly abused, as racism increased, and they were segregated (Davies, 2005). The Creole felt much more superior and entitled to take the Indians’ belongings and disregard them completely in society. They treated them like animals, “haciéndole vivir en idéntico nivel que sus animales” (p.53). Through her characters, Turner creates a clear image of the Indigenous who suffer and those who are responsible for inflicting suffering. As Turner explains herself in the “Proemio”, the novel includes a stereotypical “photograph” of the indigenous (1889, p.3). Indeed, Juan Yupanqui is your perfect example of an Indigenous husband that “loans” wool to the “comerciantes” and takes part in the traditional “reparto antelado”, the corrupt wool trade that forces Indigenous families to enter into a cycle of poverty and debt as the tax collector “fijan al quintal de lana un precio tan ínfimo” (p.7). Marcela Yupanqui is the typical traditional Indian mother who knits “un poncho listado con todos los colores que usan los indios” (p.15). Turner details her characters through customs, behaviours and culture to strengthen her case about their repression in society and mistreatment by the Creole. For example, Fernando states: “Estos desheredados rarísima vez comen carne, y los adelantos de la ciencia moderna nos prueban que la actividad cerebral está en relación con la fuerza nutritiva” (p.53), highlighting that Indians have been condemned to a vegetarian diet and that it puts them in a weaker position in comparison to the Creole. Turner wants to present to the reader a clear and accurate representation of the Peruvian indigenous and 3 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 their suffering “para que él (the reader) juzgue” (p.3). For instance, after the fights in Kíllac, led by the authority against the Indigenous, Doña Petronila, the wife of the governor of Kíllac, describes the bodies of the poor Indians killed, in gory detail: “estoy viendo las caras de los indios muertos, bañados en sangre, cubiertos de tierra” (p.55). It is an effective visual photograph of the Indigenous’ suffering. Zola believed in the same idea of using the novel as a photograph so that the reader can “interpret the phenomenon himself” (1880, p.3). Turner represents the Indigenous precisely and in true form, as Manzoni explains: “nos presenta al indio como personaje humano” (1960, p.17). Turner wants to reform the idea that people have had of the Indigenous people: that they are merely “bestias productoras” (p.53). She wants the Peruvian Creole not to see them as “the Other” anymore but as she sees them: “sus hermanos” (p.4). Turner gives the Indians endearing human qualities such as “buenos” (p.24) and “generosos” (p.28). They are defined by the “cariño” (p.40) and the “belleza peruana” (p.18). Turner further conveys the suffering of the Indigenous through the characters of the corrupt authority: the dominant triangle of the priest, the governor and the tax collector who preside over Kíllac and are described as a “trinidad aterradora que personificaba una sola injusticia” (p.43). The three “notables” (prominent citizens) represent the corrupt force of authority that abuses its power. The “notables” are represented as drunkards, womanisers and thieves. Turner creates a very negative image of them. For example, Marcela explains that the priest “nos embargó nuestra cosecha de papas por el entierro y los rezos” (p.11), he seized their harvest of potatoes as payment for burials and prayers. Turner exposes her anticlerical view and criticises the Church that can act in such a corrupt way. Such alarming injustice is also seen through the actions of the “cobrador” who kidnaps Rosalía, one of the Yupanqui daughters, to sell her in Arequipa. He wants to punish the Yupanqui family for not having provided the wool in time (p.23). The inhumane act of the taxman is emphasised, making the reader feel pity for the Indigenous who cannot defend themselves and protect their family from the powerful and corrupt Creole. As Turner expresses through the narrator in the novel: “aquí nada se puede hacer contra las maquinaciones en masa de los vecinos notables que constituyen los tres poderes, eclesiástico, judicial y político” (p.126). All three important people manipulate the Indigenous and there is nothing they can do to fight back. Through the characters of the “forasteros”, Turner also describes the plight of the Indigenous. These intellectual and educated Creoles have moved from Lima and sympathise with the Indigenous. For example, the Marín family constantly helps the Indigenous families to escape the mistreatment from the authority and to fight for a better future. They want to modernise and civilise Peru. Having experienced living in Lima, the Marín family is witness to the different treatment of the Indigenous in Kíllac. At the end of the novel, they move back to Lima, back to civilisation, as they cannot stand the injustice and ignorance 4 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 in Kíllac any longer. Lucía tells her husband: “¡Nosotros no podemos vivir aquí! Y si tú insistes, viviremos librando la sangrienta batalla de los buenos contra los malos.” (p.24), proving her consciousness of the oppression of the Indigenous and her understanding that, if they remain in Kíllac, their lives will need to be dedicated to helping them. The Marín family as well as Manuel, the son of Doña Petrolina, are two key “forasteros” who defend the Indigenous in the novel. They are both well educated. Manuel “no habiendo perdido un día en las labores escolares” (p.39), was now in his second year of law school. Lucía also had “una buena educación” (p.10). Turner highlights the “forasteros”’ great education as she believed this was the key to success for building a better Nation. For Turner, education was crucial to overcoming ignorance and racism in society (Ward, 2002). In addition, the use of language is a key element for Turner in Aves sin nido, which enables her to write a “novela indigenista”. Turner includes the Indigenous language (Quechua) to emphasise her critique of the exploitation of the Indigenous by the elite. At that time, language created a vast division between the rich Creole and the poor Andean Indians (Regan, 2017). Turner includes elements of the Quechua language to represent the Indigenous and their customs and roots. Although some may argue that her interpretation of the language spoken by the Andean Indians is limited (as there is a lack of syntactic constructions or phonetics from their Quechua language) (Arribas García, 1991), the reader grasps this element of Indian culture. The Quechua words such as “llama” (p.10) or “tacarpus” (p.10), seen in Italic, give the reader a first-hand appreciation of the difference with Spanish. Turner “works with linguistic self-consciousness” to remind the Creoles that Quechua is their mother tongue and the origins of their roots (Denegri, 1996, p.179). Turner emphasises that the majority of Creoles have been blinded by power and wealth and have forgotten where they actually come from (Denegri, 1996). Turner is outraged that Creoles negate they are connected to the Indigenous, who were their ancestors. Turner believes that Quechua, and not Castilian, should be “el vinculo imperecedero de unión para la raza peruana” (1888, p.303). She wants to establish Quechua and their culture as the historical base for the Peruvian Nation (1888) that will bind the two “races” together. Although one could argue from the above that Aves sin nido is simply a “novela indigenista”, Turner nevertheless includes her feminist voice throughout. As Gambaro defines “a work is feminist when its leading characters are women and are repressed or in rebellion” (Quoted in Castillo, 1992, p.30). Women are central characters in Aves sin nido. They are the “motors of reform” of the Peruvian Nation as they fight to promote a more just society (Davies, 2005, p.322). Turner’s female characters represent three types of women in society. Firstly, Lucía is the strong “outsider” woman of Latin America who has found her voice. She is the light and hope of Kíllac: her name “Lucía” signifies light in Spanish. She is the 5 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 stereotypical image of the “ángel del hogar”: a woman who, although remains confined to the household, makes her voice heard and gains influence (Showalter, 1992). She is liberal, progressive, intelligent and educated, and defends the rights of the Indigenous. Lucía “había recibido bastante buena educación y la perspicacia de su inteligencia alcanzaba la luz de la verdad estableciendo comparaciones” (p.17). She represents the woman who is no longer an object (as they were considered in the early 19th century), but a subject. She explains: “cuando hace algo malo el infeliz indio peruano es obligado por la opresión, desesperado por los abusos” (p.140), highlighting their oppression and abuse. As the narrator clearly explains: “su corazón quedó interesado por la familia de Marcela, y estaba resuelta a protegerla contra todo abuso” (p.13), ready to do whatever it takes to protect the Indigenous family. The second type of female character in Aves sin nido is Doña Petronila who personifies the Peruvian Creole woman of the province, without education, who cares for those that suffer: “Doña Petronila es el tipo de la serrana de provincia con su corazón tan bueno como generoso, pues que obsequia a todo el mundo, y derrama lágrimas por todo el que se muere” (p.28). Although she is the “hija de un notable” and wife of the “gobernador Don Sebastían” (p.12), and remains confined to the household, she nevertheless defends women and the Indigenous. This is noted during her argument with her husband, as he says that “las mujeres no deben mezclarse nunca en cosas de hombres, sino estar con la aguja, las calcetas y los tamalitos”. She strongly replies: “Sí, eso dicen todos los que para acallar la voz del corazón y del buen consejo, echan a un diantre nuestras sanas prevenciones. […] -agregó con intención, golpeando la mesa con la palma de la mano” (p.28). She will not support any injustice and mistreatment toward or about women. She also has an active role in defending the indigenous. For example, she asks Fernando Marín for legal advice to help the “gente de malos tratos” (p.123). Finally, Marcela and Martina represent the third type of female character: the Indigenous woman. Marcela is the wife of Juan Yupanqui and initially warns Lucía about the corruption of the “notables” and the abuse that her family has had to endure. She explains to Lucía: “Como tú no eres de aquí, no sabes los martirios que pasamos con el cobrador, el cacique y el tata cura” (p.8). Marcela denounces the abuse of the power in Kíllac and is the first to oppose such social constructs of society. She is constantly trying to prevent the persecution of her family and that of all the other Andean Indians of Kíllac. She tells her husband: “Juanico, yo me voy luego donde la señora Lucía. Tú estás desconfiado y taciturno, pero mi corazón me está hablando sin cesar desde ayer” (p.17), wanting to ask for help from Lucía after the kidnapping of her daughter by the “cobrador”. The roles between her and her husband seem to have been inverted as she is the proactive person in the family and he more passive. The narrator affirms that Marcela “lleva un mundo de esperanza en el corazón” (p.105), in hope for the freedom of the Indigenous. 6 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 Similarly, Martina, the wife of Isidro Champi, also seeks help from Lucía because of the suffering of her family. She asks the Marín family to help her fight for justice and for the liberation of her husband. She believes that such unfairness should be stopped. She clearly understands the corrupt power of the authority, stating: “Nacimos indios, esclavos del cura, esclavos del gobernador, esclavos del cacique, esclavos de todos los que agarran la vara del mandón” (p.140). Through her novel, Turner highlights her crusade both for the Indigenous and for women in 19th century Peruvian society. She argues strongly that both women and the indigenous must be better educated so as to integrate more in society (Polar, 2005). She did not want education to simply be to make women better wives and mothers (as it was in society in the 19th century). She wanted women and the indigenous to take on larger roles in society. Her ideas were completely in line with those of President Manuel González Prada (1844-1918) who at that time also wanted to modernise the Nation (Ward, 2002). He believed that there was a need to include the Indigenous and women in the “Proyecto National” and that this would be through education. Turner argues: “necesitamos propagar en todos los tonos la urgencia de multiplicar la escuela y el taller, para que de allí salgan los verdaderos ciudadanos del Perú” (1980, p.180). Turner believed in a multi-ethnic Nation where the educated Indigenous and Creole would live together with mutual respect of their shared history. Through the adoption of the Yupanqui daughters, Margarita and Rosalia, by Lucía and the Marín family, Turner shows hope for the future. The girls are the “Aves sin nidos”, “birds without nests” (a representation of the Indigenous) (Austin, 2010, p.523) who, after their parents death, are included in the new Peruvian society through education as Margarita enters “uno de los mejores colegios de la capital” (p.130). In conclusion, Aves sin nido is a “novela indigenista” and “feminista”. Turner portrays the plights of the Indigenous in Peru, who were supported in their cause by the newly educated middle-class women. These women in society were also fighting to gain rights and inclusion for themselves in the new Peruvian Nation. 7 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3463197 Bibliography Arribas García, F. (1991). Aves sin nido. ¿Novela indigenista?. Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana. Vol.34. p.63-79. Austin, E. (2010). Insufficient Motherhood and Ideological Psychosis in Matto de Turner's "Aves sin nido". Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos. Vol. 34 (3). p.517- 536 Castillo, D. (1992). 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