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leaders, for example, are “inept.” In other words, the theoretical contribution of the
book is unclear, although it indicates what type of work must be done. On the other
hand, the cases themselves are excellent. In very lew books is it possible to come
abreast of the events and trends and excitement of development in such a broad sample
of non-western nations. Impressionistic these descriptions may be, but they are also
intelligent, restrained, informative, and above all intriguing as their authors dewribe
a contemporary panorama of events and forces that is world-wide and almost inipossible for any one person to know with the degree of depth available in this book.
For the anthropologist a question remains. Are there cultural and social activities
and processes a t the developing nation level that are a proper field of study for our
discipline? Would entry into such an arena expand our understanding and answer some
of our own theoretical problems? For those who would like to consider this idea, I
recommend this book.
Old Societies and New Stutes: The Quest for Modernity in Asiu and Africa. CLIFFORD
GEERTZ(ed.) New York: The Free Press of Glencoe (Macmillan), 1063. viii, 310
pp., index. $6.95.
Reviewed by CHANDRA
JAYAWARDENA, The Universily o/ Sydney
In this welcome symposium a group of social scientists examine various aspects of
the political systems of nations which have become independent since 1945. The collection is composed of the following essays: Edward Shils, “On the Comparative Study of
the New States”; McKim Marriott, “Cultural Policy in the New States”; David E,
Apter, “Political Religion in the New States”; Clifford Geertz, “The Integrative Revolution-Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States”; Lloyd Fallers,
“Equality, Modernity and Democracy in the New States”; Max Rheinstein, “Problems
of Law in the New Nations of Africa”; Mary Jean Bowman and C. Arnold Anderson,
“Concerning the Role of Education in Development”; and Robert LeVine, “Political
Socialization and Cultural Change.” For reasons of space not all these essays will be
included in the following discussion.
The aim of the symposium is to examine, through comparative analysis, the principles that seem to underlie the political development of the “New States.” The basic
theoretical interest of most of the writers is political integration. From different angles
they examine the development or the lack of development of a consensus whereby
policies can be formulated, debated, and executed within the framework of an accepted
and stable political society.
The essays center around the theme of the role of traditional social structures and
cultures in the process of political development, particularly “primordial ties and sentiments.” By “primordial ties and sentiments” the writers mean ties of kinship, trilw,
caste, custom, language, region, religion, etc. These primordial ties, which function a>
traditional modes of social placement and as sources of personal security, are a threat
to the viabiiity of the new states when citizens prefer to emphasize racial, regional or
religious loyalties a t the expense of loyalty to the nation as a whole. The new states
are compared in respect of attempts to achieve political integration and modernization
in the face of such divisive factors, as well as the consequences of such efforts for the
emerging political system.
Apter distinguishes between “mobilization systems” (as exemplified by Ghana,
Guinea, Mali, and Indonesia) and “reconciliation systems” (as exemplified by India
and the Philippines). In the former, political integration is achieved by the propagation
Book Reviews
90 7
of a “political religion,” i.e. a set of political beliefs regarded as inviolable and absolutely
true; variant beliefs are castigated as heresy. The whole of human life is determined by
a devotion to these sacred beliefs. Political religion is closely associated with one-party
political systems and dictatorship. I n contrast, reconciliation systems, associated with
liberal democratic regimes, are characterized by the secularity of political doctrine,
limitation of the power of the state, and a dispersal of the centers of power. H e argues
that mobilization systems with their dominant political religions are likely to develop
into “new theocracies,” i.e. “modernizing autocracies within the framework of neotraditionalism, using ritual to institutionalize political religion” (p. 98-whatever this
may mean).
Geertz approaches the problem of political integration through a n examination of
the function of primordial groups as political parties and pressure groups. He points
out that political conflicts between primordial groups are aggravated, if not created,
by independence. He emphasizes the fact that racial, linguistic, and other ties are
extended to form nation-wide blocs which differ from the small localized groups traditionally based on such bonds. Nation-wide blocs tend to break down the insularity of
such groups by focusing attention on national issues and political institutions. While
the formation of blocs may intensify and magnify differences, and lead to separatist
movements, attempts are continually made to limit conflicts to competition and
adjustment within an accepted political framework. If this is achieved, primordial
ties may continue to be politically significant throughout the process of modernization.
Marriott, Fallers, and LeVine are concerned with the wider topic of the influence
of tradition on the modern situation. Marriott explores the difficulties in finding symbols for the unity of the new state. Asians search the past for unifying symbolsand
themes, and find that there are several heritages; to emphasize one is to alienate those
who acknowledge another. The result is a process of sifting and re-combination to
produce a n unhistorical synthesis suited to the needs of the present. The process is
even more marked in African nations with their relative lack of a developed inter-tribal
“great tradition.”
I n an illuminating essay Fallers sketches the development of social stratification in
Western nations as i t has been in5uenced by the development of political democracy.
He shows how the present system is the end-product of a partly unique historical
process, Against this background he compares the traditions which mould the present
in India, the African states, and Islamic countries, showing how different traditions
result in the emergence of different patterns.
Interesting as these essays are, most of them provide only a limited understanding
of the working of the political systems they discuss. The main reason for this limitation
seems to be the fact that most of the writers-Fallers, for example, is an exception-are
almost totally concerned with diffuse sentiments and traditional loyalties, with “nonrational” motivations. There is no more than a passing mention of the politics of economic development. There is no comparative examination of the political correlates of
policies concerning nationalization, the control of foreign capital, industrial investment, etc., or the groups which seek to influence such policies. I t appears as if all that
occurs in the political field in the new states is the expression of diffuse solidarities. There
is little attempt to reveal the nature of interest groups beneath the surface of primordial politics. Political integration and the creation of solidarity being the main concern,
little interest is shown in patterns of struggles for power. There is a n odd failure to
see that there may be “rationally-oriented” political groups with realistic policies in
Asia and Africa as well as in the United States and Western Europe.
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One of the unifying themes of the book is an interest in the prospects for the development of Western “liberal democracy” in the new states. The examinations of their
political systems thus often take the form of assessing how far they deviate from the
model of the stable, rational, liberal democratic regimes of the U.S.A. and Western
Europe. Such comparisons are fruitful only if the model is a realistic one which, perhaps, by and large it is. Yet, some doubts may be raised as to whether the contributors
have always taken a dispassionate view. Thus Apter argues that “political religion” is
a distinguishing characteristic of communist countries and several new states, ignoring
the several palpable examples of political religion in politics in the United States, I t
is a piece of ethnocentrism matched by Marriott’s description of the Indian emperor
Asoka as “an archaic figure once hardly known to exist outside the work of British
epigraphers” (p. 35).Again, Geertz attributes the left wing vote of Indian and Chinese
laborers in Malaya to the success of Marxist parties in harnessing primordial loyalties.
Is it too fanciful to see this as a consequence of the laborers’ perception of where their
economic interests lie?
In his introductory essay Shils remarks that, “One of the greatest dangers in the
study of new states is that we shall interpret their experience and possibilities within
too narrow a schema” (p. 13). While all the essays in this collection are interesting,
even stimulating, they have often failed to overcome this danger.
New Nations. LUCYMAIR.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. 235 pp., suggestions for further reading, index. $4.50.
Reviewed by WALTERGOLDSCHMIDT,
University of Colqornia, Los Angeles
The most significant revolution of the past decade has been the transformation of
Africa from a colonial continent to a continent of independent nations. Since these
nations have also been made full citizens in the international community and since
their populations are overwhelmingly illiterate, untrained, and oriented to ancient
tribal communities, this revolution is more than merely the development of new political entities; it is the bringing of all people, whatever their cultural orientations, into
the arena of world affairs.
This revolution has not gone unnoticed. But thus far the chief analysts have been
political scientists and the participants in the revolution themselves. Dr. Lucy Mair,
in her New Natiolzs, is the first anthropologist to analyze the emerging African societies
on a broad scale. Since, in fact, the socio-cultural problems of forging new nations are
more important than the political, it is high time that anthropology entered the discourse. “This book tries to explain [she writes], in terms of the extension of the scale
of social relationships, the characteristic changes that are taking place in the major
social fields, and it has seemed pertinent in the explanation to examine also some current discussions of the general problem of social change” (p. 9).
Unfortunately, this book will disappoint those who look for anthropological answers
to the great questions posed by the emergence of Africa. But before I turn to the
evaluation, let me say what the volume covers.
In keeping with the title, Dr. Mair treats with the new nations of Asia as well as
Africa, but it is quite clear that her real interest and knowledge are south of the
Sahara, and only passing and uncertain references are made to other countries (the
dust jacket is a giveaway; it shows a map of Africa). Dr. Mair takes matters up topically, and after a preface and a general discussion of political scale, she devotes the
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