Pág. 043 - Psicothema

Psicothema 2007. Vol. 19, nº 1, pp. 43-48
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ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODEN PSOTEG
Copyright © 2007 Psicothema
Temperamental and personality variables in child and adolescent
depressive symptomatology
Miguel Ángel Carrasco Ortiz and María Victoria del Barrio Gándara
Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
In this study, we analyzed the relationship between temperament and personality factors and depression in children and adolescents. Temperament was assessed with the Dimensions of Temperament Survey Revised (DOTS-R), personality with the Big Five Questionnaire-Children (BFQ-C), and depressive symptomatology with the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). The sample was made up of 535
participants (274 boys and 261 girls), aged 8 to 15 years. Results show that temperament and personality are significantly related to depressive symptomatology in children and adolescents. Those with
difficult temperaments showed more depressive symptomatology, as did those with high levels of emotional instability or low levels of extraversion, openness, agreeableness or conscientiousness. Multiple
regression analyses revealed greater relevance of personality variables than of temperament variables.
Variables de personalidad y temperamento en la sintomatología depresiva de niños y adolescentes. El
presente trabajo analiza la relación entre factores temperamentales y personales con la sintomatología
depresiva de niños y adolescentes. El temperamento fue evaluado con el Dimensions of Temperament
Survey Revised (DOTS-R), la personalidad con el Big Five Questionnaire Children (BFQ-C) y la sintomatología depresiva con el Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). La muestra se compone de 535
sujetos (274 varones y 261 mujeres) con edades comprendidas entre los 8 y 15 años. Los resultados
muestran que el temperamento y la personalidad presentan relaciones significativas con la sintomatología depresiva infantil y adolescente. Los sujetos con temperamento difícil mostraron más sintomatología depresiva, al igual que aquellos niños con altos niveles de inestabilidad emocional o bajos niveles de extraversión, apertura, agradabilidad o conciencia. Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron
una mayor relevancia de las variables de personalidad que las de temperamento.
There is an important tradition relating emotion, temperament
and personality, whose closest antecedents are in the work of
Eysenck (Eysenck, 1947; 1967) and Gray (1982; 1991). While
temperament and personality have been considered as similar by
some authors (e.g., Eysenck op. cit.; Gray, op. cit.), a large number
of researchers have agreed in establishing temperament as the
nucleus of personality. In contrast, for others it would constitute a
set of stable individual differences, of a more constitutional or
hereditary nature, present from the moment of birth (Chess &
Thomas, 1989; González, Hidalgo, Carranza, & Ato, 2000;
Kohnstamm, Bates, & Rothbart, 1989; Strelau, 1996; Thomas,
Chess, & Birch, 1968). Many studies, especially with child
populations, have related temperaments with personality, and have
shown that the former, through multiple routes, may be an
important precursor of the latter (Digman & Shmelyov, 1996;
Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Sullivan-Logan, 1998; Halverson,
Kohnstamm, & Martin, 1994).
Fecha recepción: 6-10-05 • Fecha aceptación: 27-6-06
Correspondencia: Miguel Ángel Carrasco Ortiz
Facultad de Psicología
Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
28040 Madrid (Spain)
E-mail: [email protected]
Children with difficult temperaments have shown in many
studies a significantly greater tendency to develop depressive
symptomatology (Anthony, Lonigan, Hooe, & Philips, 2002;
Guerin, Gottfried, & Thomas, 1997; Windle, 1992; Windle et al.,
1986). Although there is no consensus on which specific
temperamental characteristic is associated with depression,
negative emotionality has been one of the characteristics appearing
as most relevant (Ato, Carranza, González, Ato, & Galián, 2005;
Garner & Power, 1996; Goodyer, Ashby, Altham, Vize, & Cooper,
1993; Kelvin, Goodyer, & Altham, 1996; Lengua, West, & Sandler,
1998; Rende, 1993). Other associated characteristics, but to a lesser
extent, are the dimensions of approach (Caspi, Henry, McGee,
Moffitt, & Silva, 1995), low adaptation (Guerin et al., 1997) and
lack of attentional control (Caspi et al., 1995; Lengua et al., 1998).
Thus, children with a strong tendency to experience negative
emotions, who find it hard to adapt to changes, who are withdrawn
and who have difficulty controlling their attention, have shown
greater proclivity to develop depressive symptomatology.
Low level of activity is another temperamental characteristic
related frequently with depression (Colder, Mott, & Berman, 2002).
The work of Windle and colleagues (Windle et al., 1986;
Windle, 1991, 1992) on adolescent samples evaluated with the
DOTS-R (Windle & Lerner, 1986) has highlighted the fact that
depression correlates negatively with favourable temperamental
characteristics, such as approach-withdrawal; flexibility-rigidity;
44
MIGUEL ÁNGEL CARRASCO ORTIZ AND MARÍA VICTORIA DEL BARRIO GÁNDARA
positive mood; rhythmicity; low distractibility or concentration
and persistence of attention.
Personality characteristics have also been related with child
depression. The data appear to show consistently that, basically, high
neuroticism and introversion are significant variables in relation to
depressive symptomatology (Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Rabasca,
1998; Fisher, 1993; Saflofske, Kelly, & Janzen, 1995; Williams,
1990). To a lesser degree, and considering the rest of the variables of
the Big Five Model, it appears to be related to high scores in
agreeableness (Barbaranelli, et al., 1998) and openness (Trull & Sher,
1994), and to low scores in conscientiousness (Avia et al., 1995).
The present work aims to study depressive symptomatology in
relation to personality and the temperamental characteristics of the
child. In accordance with the literature, it could be expected that
temperamental difficulties, as well as high neuroticism and low
scores in extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness or openness,
would facilitate the emergence of depressive symptomatology. We
shall study the predictive values of personality and temperament in
relation to depressive symptomatology.
Method
Participants
A random and representative sample of 535 participants was
extracted from the public census. The sample was made up of 274
boys (51.2%) and 261 girls (48.8%), with an age range of 8 to 15
years. Mean age was 11.97 years, with a standard deviation of
2.01. The different ages were grouped in three stages, midchildhood (8-11 years), early adolescence (12-13 years) and
adolescence (14-15 years).
The instrument to be filled in by parents was not completed in
all cases, though the figure of 54.5% that filled it in was a highly
acceptable one for children in this age range. This sub-sample was
made up of 145 sons (49.6%) and 147 daughters (50.4%), for
whom data on social class and temperament was provided. The
number of participants responding to these measures meant that
the estimated populational parameters were maintained.
Instruments
Three instruments were used for this study. The first two
described below were completed by the child, and the third by the
parents. The questionnaires filled in by the children were:
– Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI, Kovacs, 1992).
Spanish adaptation (Del Barrio, Moreno, & López, 1999;
Del Barrio & Carrasco, 2004).
This CDI consists of 27 items, each of which is given a score
of between 0 and 2 according to the intensity of the symptoms
it describes. It is applied individually or collectively, and is
valid for subjects aged 6 to 17 years. Possible scores range
from 0 to 54 points. The psychometric properties of this
instrument have been widely confirmed (Kovacs, 1992;
Saylor, Finch, Basking, Furey, & Kelly, 1984; Frías, Del
Barrio, & Mestre, 1991). In Spanish population the reliability
for the total score was, using Cronbach’s Alpha .80.
– The Big Five Questionnaire-Children (BFQ-C) (Barbaranelli
et al., 1998. Spanish adaptation Carrasco, Holgado, & del
Barrio, 2005).
The BFQ-C derives from the BFQ for adults, a
questionnaire with five scales based on different terms used
for describing a person: extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience.
The Spanish adaptation of the questionnaire has 65 items with
five possible responses, ranging from 5 to 1: 5, nearly always;
4, often; 3, sometimes; 2, rarely; 1, almost never. Each of the
statements in the instrument is responded to by the
participant, who is instructed to mark the response that best
describes you. Scoring of this questionnaire provides five
different scores, one for each of the five factors extracted.
Reliability found in this study for the factors of the BFQ-C
was, using Cronbach’s Alpha: .87 for conscientiousness; .77
for extraversion; .82 for openness; .77 for instability; and
.71 for aggreeableness.
– Dimensions of Temperament Survey Revised (DOTS-R)
(Windle & Lerner, l986; Windle et al., l986). The
experimental version was used in the Spanish translation
and the adaptation for children by Del Barrio and Carrasco.
Parents reported the temperamental characteristics of the
child by means of this temperament scale. It has 54 items
with four response options: 1, usually false; 2, more false
than true; 3, more true than false and 4, usually true.
The Spanish adaptation has seven factors emerging from the
factorial analysis: rhythmicity, general activity, mood (happiness),
persistence in attention, activity during sleep, flexibility and
approach-withdrawal. In addition to these scores for each factor,
the total score of the scale was obtained, with the aim of obtaining
a global score for temperament.
Reliability with North-American adolescents has ranged,
according to the factor considered, between .54 and .77 for
children and from .62 to .89 for adolescents (Windle & Lerner,
1986). Test-retest reliability with a six-week interval ranged from
.59 to .69.
Reliability of the factors found in this sample ranged from .73
to .83 (rytmicity, .83; general inactivity, .79; mood, .71;
persistence in attention, .73; activity during sleep, .81; flexibility,
.70; approach, .73), with an Alpha coefficient of .77 for the total
of the scale.
Procedure
Once the authorization of parents had been obtained, along
with that of the tutors and management at the schools involved, we
proceeded to the assessment, in small groups, of the set of
participants studied. The subjects were evaluated by a
psychologist in the classroom and the teacher was also present.
Participants filled in the instruments individually. The
questions were read out loud slowly to the participants, in order to
control for reading errors in some of the pupils. The temperament
questionnaire was sent to parents and returned via the children
themselves. Once all the data had been collected they were
analyzed using the SPSS.11 statistical package.
Results
– Correlation matrix, means and standard deviations
Pearson correlations (two-tailed) among variables were
computed (see table 1). The correlations found to be significant
45
TEMPERAMENTAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMATOLOGY
This construct, the global temperament, contributed to explaining
depression with a significant predictive value. Predictive capacity
of this variable was 3.3% of the variance (R2ajusted= .033; Beta=
-.191; p= .001). Easy temperament decreases, albeit slightly,
depressive symptomatology. As can be seen in table 3 (Model 1),
the results about scales of temperament show that persistence and
flexibility were the variables that contributed to explaining
depression with a significant predictive value. Predictive capacity
of these variables, were 2% of the variance. High persistence and
flexibility decreases, also slightly, depressive symptomatology.
As regards personality (Model 2), depressive symptomatology
in the children is explained by 32.6% of the variance. Instability,
with 21.8%, emerges as the variable with greatest predictive value,
followed by openness, with a value of 9.3% and to a lesser extent
among the temperament factors and depressive symptoms, were
flexibility and persistence, as well as the overall temperament
score. Participants with the best temperament characteristics,
especially flexibility and persistence, present fewer depressive
symptomatology.
The personality variables correlated negatively and significantly
with depression except for emotional instability. Of all the
personality variables, those that obtained the strongest correlations
were emotional instability, openness and conscientiousness. On the
other hand, we would like remark that the correlations between
temperament and personally ratings were very low.
Table 2 contains means, standard deviations, minimum and
maximum for temperament, and personality ratings as well as for
the total score of depression.
Table 1
Correlations of variables studied
1
1. Rhytmicity
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
.097*
1
3. Mood
.191**
-.077
1
4. Persistence
.078
.179**
-.017
1
5. Inactivity-sleep
.064
.241**
-.031
.062
1
.019**
.085
.190**
-.010
-.105
1
.085
-.168**
.173**
.008
-.079
.132*
1
8. Global Temperament
.682**
.457**
.354**
.38**
.352**
.306**
.229**
1
9. Conscientiousness
.215**
.114
-.032
.19**
.130*
.023
-0.27
.250**
1
.064
.019
.040
.022
-.027
-.011
.030
.069
.391**
1
11. Openness-experien
.151**
.141*
.059
.16**
.058
.046
.056
.243**
.621**
.277**
1
12. Emotional Instab.
-.181**
-.066
-.015
-.049
-.086
-.056
-.070
-.198**
-.330**
-.22**
-.258**
1
.19**
-.007
.079
-.05
.022
-.010
.136*
-.11*
.009
-.08
.056
-.11*
.056
-.06
.233**
-.19**
.409**
-.39**
.394**
-.14**
.284**
-.42**
-.117**
.49***
7. Approach
10. Extraversion
13. Aggreeableness
14. Depression
14
1
-.23**
1
1
2. Inactivity
6. Flexibility-rigidity
13
Temperament (Rhytmicity, Inactivity, Mood, Persistence, Inactivity-sleep, Flexibility, Approach, Global Temperament); Personality (Concientiousness, Extraversion, Openness to experience,
Emotional Instability, Agreableness); Depression (CDI-Total).
* Significance p‹0.05; ** Significance p‹0.01
– Prediction of emotions from the temperament and
personality variables
In order to determine the predictive nature of the personality
variables, various regression analyses were carried out. The
procedures selected were, stepwise multiple linear regression
analysis. First of all, we carried out regression analyses by groups
of predictive variables (variables related to temperament and
variables related to personality); secondly, we studied the total of
independent variables for depression symptoms into the multiple
regression analysis with a hierarchical order of entry of the
predictor variables. Each predictor was initially centered
(converted into z scores) to minimize multicollinearity.
Thomas et al. (1968) used the construct of difficult temperament
comprising the nine dimensions of their model. In line with these
authors, Guerin et al. (1997) and Windle (1992) formed a construct
that indicated a profile of difficult temperament. On the basis of
these researches we have calculate a total score containing all other
temperament scales like a continuous variable. High scores are
characterized by high regularity of rhythmicity, approach,
persistence, positive affect, flexibility and low levels of activity.
Table 2
Means and standard deviations of the variables studied
M
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Temperament
Rhythmicity
Inactivity
Mood
Persistence
Inactivity sleep
Flexibility
Approach
Total temperament
026.73
012.72
021,69
012.86
008.96
014.52
011.87
147.30
06.41
04.55
02.72
03.58
03.72
03.28
02.45
16.14
08
05
11
05
04
04
05
93
038
024
024
020
016
020
016
190
Personality
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Openness to experience
Emotional instability
Agreeableness
057.47
041.20
016.39
024.25
014.27
10.77
05.64
04.55
06.89
03.11
26
14
05
10
04
080
050
025
046
020
Depression
011.24
05.65
00
034
46
MIGUEL ÁNGEL CARRASCO ORTIZ AND MARÍA VICTORIA DEL BARRIO GÁNDARA
low agreeableness (1.1%), facilitates the development of
depressive symptomatology.
While the above results have shown us the predictive value of
each of the sets of predictive variables separately, they do not
allow us to establish the relative weight of some predictive
variables in competition with others in the total set. The regression
analyses on the depression symptoms shown below (table 4)
include a multiple regression analysis on depressive symptom
reports with all scales of temperament and personality centered.
We used a hierarchical order of entry of the predictors in which
personality variables were entered first (variables more strongly
related to depressive symptoms), followed by temperament
predictors. Variables were entered in two steps: 1) personality
scales because they were the most predictive variables; 2)
temperament scales in order to explore the percentage of explained
variance that these scales added to personality. These results
permit us to determine the relative weight and percentage of
explained variance of all the predictive variables for the total set,
Table 3
Stepwise multiple regression analysis predicting depression symptoms (CDI)
from temperament (DOTS-R) and personality (BFQ-N) separately
Model 1 (Temperament
Predictors)
Persistence
Flexibility
Constant
Adj. R2
Total R2
β
T
SE
.010
.010
.020
-.118
-.116
-2.037
-2.001
31.278
.043
.046
.0001
.381
-0.287
-0.113
10.24
-7.46
-3.03
55.74
.0001
.00001
.003
.0001
Model 2 (Personality predictors)
Emotional Instability
Openness to experience
Agreeableness
Constant
.218
.093
.011
.326
β= Standardized regression coefficients. All predictors were centered.
Table 4
Lineal multiple regression analysis predicting depression symptoms from both
temperament and personality predictors
Model 3 (Temperament and
personality predictors)
Constant
Step 1
Emotional instability
Openness to experience
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Stept 2
Persistence
Flexibility
Rhythmicity
Inactivity
Mood
Inactivity sleep
Approach
∆ Adj. R2
β
T
SE
36.15
.0001
.320
-.207
-.187
-.095
.150
5.691
-3.154
-3.101
-1.200
2.470
.0001
.002
.002
.231
.014
-.058
-.064
.097
.025
-.124
-.031
-.006
-1.110
-1.217
1.821
.459
-2.317
-.595
.118
.268
.225
.070
.647
.021
.552
.906
.285**
.030
Note. Regression coefficients were taken from the last step of the model. β= standardized
regression coefficients. All predictors were centreded.
and for the variables measured. We have decided introduce firstly
the personality variables according to our previous knowledge and
the results obtained in the above analysis.
Global depressive symptomatology gave a regression equation
in which the characteristics of personality explain 28.5% of the
variance and those of temperament just 3%. Among the personality
variables, above all the others in terms of predictive value was
emotional instability. The temperament variables obtained scarcely
relevant predictive values. As shown in table 4 adding the step of
temperament main effects resulted in an insignificant increment in
the variance of depression (∆ Adj R2= .030; F (7, 272)= 1.68, p=
.118). Thus, depressive symptomatology is predicted especially by
emotional instability, and to a lesser extent by low openness, low
agreeableness and low extraversion.
Discussion
Temperamental and personality characteristics have shown
themselves to be significantly related to depressive
symptomatology. As regards temperament, the most difficult
children displayed more depressive symptoms. Considering the
specific temperamental characteristics, flexibility and persistence
showed significant correlations and contributed to explaining
depressive symptomatology. Rather than these scores, the global
temperament, it was the set of temperamental characteristics that
provided the greatest explanatory value and this supports Windle’s
(1991) view on the need for an accumulation of temperamental
factors for them to have an effect on emotional adjustment.
Windle et al. (Windle et al., 1986; Windle, 1992b) found, in two
samples with mean ages of 11 and 19 years, that depression
correlates negatively with favourable temperamental characteristics,
obtained with the DOTS-R (Windle & Lerner, 1986), such as
approach-withdrawal, flexibility-rigidity, positive mood, rhythmicity,
low distractibility or concentration and persistence. As Windle
(1991; 1992b) found, difficult temperaments, characterized by lack
of rhythmicity, withdrawal from unfamiliar people, objects or
situations, inflexibility, poor adaptation to changes, negative mood,
high distractibility and low persistence, were consistently related to
depressive symptomatology, in both boys and girls. Adolescents with
four or more problematic temperamental factors were most at risk of
developing depressive behaviours (Windle, 1991).
In this paper depressive symptomatology also varies according
to subjects’ personality characteristics, and this coincides with the
findings of numerous studies (Fisher, 1993; Jorm et al., 2000;
Saklofske et al., 1995; 1998; Watson & Clark, 1992; Williams,
1990). In accordance with such research, the present results show
that children who are highly open, agreeable or stable present
lower levels of depressive symptomatology than those who are
reluctant to conform, closed or unstable.
Other studies with Spanish adolescent populations have
obtained similar results (Del Barrio, Moreno, López, & Olmedo,
1997; Lemos, Fidalgo, Calvo, & Menéndez, 1992): depressive
symptomatology has been associated positively with neuroticism
and psychoticism, and negatively with extraversion. Barbaranelli
et al., (1998), using the same instruments with an Italian
population, obtained significant correlations with depression score
(CDI, Kovacs, 1992): adolescent depression correlated positively
with emotional instability (.38) and negatively with the factors
extraversion (- .35), friendliness (-.30), conscientiousness (-.40)
and mental openness (-.46).
TEMPERAMENTAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMATOLOGY
Emotional instability was the dimension most notably related to
depressive symptomatology, as has been the case in other research
(Barbaranelli et al., 1998; Del Barrio et al., 1997; Fisher, 1993;
Heaven & Shochet, 1995; Jorm et al., 2000; Lemos et al., 1992;
Saklofske et al., 1995). Introversion has also been repeatedly
associated with depression (Barbaranelli et al., 1998; Del Barrio et
al., 1997; McFatter, 1994; Trull & Sher, 1994) and, to a lesser
extent, psychoticism (Del Barrio et al., 1997; Lemos et al., 1992).
Some studies have reported a link between high agreeableness and
depressive symptomatology (Avia et al., 1995; Mongrain, 1993;
Zuroff, 1994), in the results of the present study, low agreeableness
was associated with an increase in depressive symptomatology.
These data are in line with the instrumental model of personality
and emotions (Diener & Larsen, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1991),
according to which certain features of personality propitiate a
favourable or unfavourable environment that influences emotional
states. From this model, McCrae and Costa (1991) attribute to high
agreeableness and conscientiousness a mediating role in relation to
the environment.
The literature reflects contradictory results with regard to
openness and depression: openness has been associated with
depression both with positive (Trull & Sher, 1994) and negative
correlations (Costa & McCrae, 1984, 1994).
Nevertheless, in child populations, with the BFQ-C
questionnaire, the results from Barbaranelli et al. (1998) were
similar to those obtained here: depression correlated negatively
with conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness. The
relationship between openness and depression can be explained by
the association openness has shown with extraversion through
different personality instruments (Aluja, García, & García, 2002).
As regards the predictive nature of the temperamental and
personality variables, personality characteristics predicted
depression to a greater extent than temperament and the most
47
explanatory variable was emotional instability. Temperament
construct is less complex than personality; which is a possible
explanation for a stronger relationship of personality and depression
than temperament and depression; additionally depression is also a
complex emotion. On the other hand there is a limitation: the BFQN is a self-report test while the DOTS-R is a test reported by parents.
Each of informants (children and parents) can reflect different
dimensions of the child’s life (eg., family context versus private
context) (Harris, 1999).
If we consider the temperamental and personality variables
jointly in the regression model, we found that personality has a
more relevant position than temperament, whose predictive value
is minimal and its increment insignificant. We also found that
mood was included and persistence and flexibility excluded. These
results show that personality (emotional instability, openness to
experience, agreeableness and extraversion) overlap the factor of
temperament of persistence and flexibility, however mood predict
depression significantly but the increment is insignificant.
Finally, we should mention an important possible limitation of
this study related to the use of different sources in the evaluation of
the measures, in that personality was assessed by the children
themselves and temperament by their parents. This may be a factor
explaining the discordance between the explicative values of
temperament and personality, given the evidence from previous
research on divergence between sources (Del Barrio, 1990; Epkins,
1993; Lefkowitz & Tesiny, 1985). Despite this consideration,
several studies have demonstrated the validity of data when parents
are the source in relation to stability of temperament, heredity and
problems of adaptation (Cyphers, Philips, Fulker, & Mrazek, 1990;
Guerin et al., 1997; Lemery, Goldsmith, Klinnert, & Mrazek, 1999).
Nevertheless, future studies should consider this aspect and use a
multi-source evaluation that will show whether these results are
maintained when all the information comes from the same source.
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