Migraciones en tránsito - Red Universitaria de Investigación

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LICENCIADA EN DERECHO POR LA UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFICIA DE COMILLAS Y MÁSTER POR EL INSTITUTO DE EMPRESA, ES ABOGADA EN LA EMPRESA PRIVADA LANDWELL-PRICEWATERHOUSECOOPERS Y MIEMBRO DEL EQUIPO DEL INSTITUTO DE
ESTUDIOS JURÍDICOS INTERNACIONALES.
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LICENCIADA EN GEOGRAFÍA E HISTORIA, MÁSTER EN RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES
Y ESTUDIOS AFRICANOS, MIGRACIÓN Y RELACIONES INTERCOMUNITARIAS, Y GÉNERO Y
DESARROLLO, ES CONSULTORA E INVESTIGADORA EN LAS ÁREAS DE MIGRACIÓN
INTERNACIONAL, GÉNERO EN DESARROLLO Y COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL.
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DOCTORA EN RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES POR LA UCM, ES INVESTIGADORA
DEL INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE DESARROLLO Y COOPERACIÓN (IUDC-UCM), DONDE
COORDINA LA LÍNEA DE DEMOCRACIA, DERECHOS HUMANOS Y DESARROLLO.
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LICENCIADA EN DERECHO Y DOCTORA EN CIENCIAS ECONÓMICAS POR LA UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFICIA DE COMILLAS, ES PROFESORA AGREGADA EN LA ESCUELA TÉCNICA SUPERIOR DE INGENIERÍA, INVESTIGADORA EN EL INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO
DE ESTUDIOS SOBRE MIGRACIONES Y DIRIGE LA REVISTA MIGRACIONES.
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LICENCIADO EN DERECHO Y MÁSTER POR LA UNIVERSIDAD POMPEU FABRA DE BARCELONA, ES TÉCNICO JURÍDICO DE LOS PROYECTOS DE LA FUNDACIÓN DE ESTUDIOS
INTERNACIONALES Y DEL INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS JURÍDICOS INTERNACIONALES.
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LICENCIADA EN DERECHO, EXPERTA EN PROMOCIÓN Y GESTIÓN DE ONG POR LA
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID Y ESPECIALISTA EN DERECHOS HUMANOS
POR LA UNED, ES INVESTIGADORA ADSCRITA AL INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE
DESARROLLO Y COOPERACIÓN (IUDC-UCM).
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PROFESORA PROPIA ORDINARIA DE DERECHO INTERNACIONAL, DERECHO EUROPEO Y
RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES EN LA UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFICIA COMILLAS DE
MADRID, ES TITULAR DE LA CÁTEDRA JEAN MONNET SOBRE DERECHO DE LA UNIÓN
EUROPEA Y DIRIGE EL INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE ESTUDIOS SOBRE MIGRACIONES.
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PROFESOR TITULAR DE HISTORIA DEL DERECHO EN LA UNIVERSIDAD DE EXTREMADURA, ES CONSEJERO COORDINADOR DEL INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS JURÍDICOS
INTERNACIONALES DE LA URJC Y DIRECTOR DE LA FUNDACIÓN DE ESTUDIOS
INTERNACIONALES.
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LICENCIADO EN TRADUCCIÓN E INTERPRETACIÓN POR LA UNIVERSIDAD DE NUAKCHOT
(MAURITANIA) Y MÁSTER EN COOPERACIÓN INTERNACIONAL AL DESARROLLO EN EL
INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS SOBRE MIGRACIONES DE LA UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFICIA DE
COMILLAS, ES TÉCNICO DE PROYECTOS DEL INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS JURÍDICOS INTERNACIONALES Y COLABORA EN LA FUNDACIÓN DE ESTUDIOS INTERNACIONALES Y CON
LA AECID.
Enara Echart Muñoz (coord.)
Migraciones en tránsito
y derechos humanos
COLECCIÓN INVESTIGACIÓN Y DEBATE
ESTE LIBRO HA SIDO FINANCIADO POR LA RED UNIVERSITARIA DE
INVESTIGACIÓN SOBRE COOPERACIÓN PARA EL DESARROLLO DEL
AYUNTAMIENTO DE MADRID.
EQUIPO INVESTIGADOR:
INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE DESARROLLO Y COOPERACIÓN DE LA
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID: ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
(COORDINADORA), MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, JUNCAL GILSANZ
BLANCO.
INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE ESTUDIOS SOBRE MIGRACIONES DE LA
UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFICIA COMILLAS: CRISTINA GORTÁZAR ROTAECHE
(COORDINADORA), MERCEDES FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA.
INSTITUTO DE ESTUDIOS JURÍDICOS INTERNACIONALES DE LA UNIVERSIDAD REY JUAN CARLOS: ALBERTO MURO (COORDINADOR), ELENA
BARROSO ALCÁZAR, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA CUETO, OUSMANE AMADOU N`GAIDE.
DISEÑO DE COLECCIÓN: ESTUDIO PÉREZ-ENCISO
© ELENA BARROSO ALCÁZAR, MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA
ECHART MUÑOZ, MERCEDES FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA, DIEGO GASPAR DE
VALENZUELA CUETO, JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO, CRISTINA GORTÁZAR ROTAECHE, ALBERTO MURO CASTILLO Y OUSMANE AMADOU
N`GAIDE, 2011
© LOS LIBROS DE LA CATARATA, 2011
FUENCARRAL, 70
28004 MADRID
TEL. 91 532 05 04
FAX. 91 532 43 34
WWW.CATARATA.ORG
MIGRACIONES EN TRÁNSITO Y DERECHOS HUMANOS
ISBN: 978-84-8319-636-6
DEPÓSITO LEGAL: M-40.692-2011
ESTE LIBRO HA SIDO EDITADO PARA SER DISTRIBUIDO. LA INTENCIÓN
DE LOS EDITORES ES QUE SEA UTILIZADO LO MÁS AMPLIAMENTE
POSIBLE, QUE SEAN ADQUIRIDOS ORIGINALES PARA PERMITIR LA
EDICIÓN DE OTROS NUEVOS Y QUE, DE REPRODUCIR PARTES, SE HAGA
CONSTAR EL TÍTULO Y LA AUTORÍA.
ÍNDICE
INTRODUCCIÓN 7
Enara Echart Muñoz
CAPÍTULO 1. RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS,
MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL 20
Marta Carballo de la Riva, Enara Echart Muñoz y Juncal Gilsanz Blanco
CAPÍTULO 2. MARCO JURÍDICO EXISTENTE APLICABLE
A LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS DE LOS MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO 84
Cristina Gortázar Rotaeche y Mercedes Fernández García
CAPÍTULO 3. LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO
DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL 139
Alberto Muro Castillo, Elena Barroso Alcázar,
Diego Gaspar de Valenzuela Cueto y Ousmane Amadou N`Gaide
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES 199
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
ANEXO 215
BIBLIOGRAFÍA 219
INTRODUCCIÓN
ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
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8
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mb!tjuvbdj˜o!ef!mpt!efsfdipt!ivnbopt!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup!fo!usft!
qb“tft!dmbwf!ef!mbt!svubt!njhsbupsjbt!bgsjdbobt;!Nbssvfdpt-!Nbvsjubojb!z!
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fo!usˆotjup!fo!mpt!usft!qb“tft!tfmfddjpobept<!3*!efufdubs!z!bobmj{bs!mbt!
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boˆmjtjt-!z!4*!jefoujgjdbs!fm!qbqfm!ef!mpt!bdupsft!jowpmvdsbept!fo!ftuf!
21
INTRODUCCIÓN
qspdftp! ef! usˆotjup;! Ftubept! fnjtpsft! z! sfdfqupsft-! pshbojtnpt!
joufsobdjpobmft-!mb!Voj˜o!Fvspqfb-!POH!z!sfeft!njhsbupsjbt!usbot.
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opt!fogsfoubnpt!b!vob!tfsjf!ef!mjnjubdjpoft<!mb!qsjnfsb!gvf!mb!of!.
dftjebe! ef! dfousbs! fm! pckfujwp! hfofsbm! ef! mb! jowftujhbdj˜o! fo! vob!
ej!!nfotj˜o!nˆt!eftdsjqujwb!qps!mb!jnqptjcjmjebe!ef!sfbmj{bs!vo!fy!.
ibvtujwp!usbcbkp!ef!dbnqp-!mp!rvf!b!tv!wf{!uvwp!pusbt!sfqfsdvtjpoft!
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qsjodjqbmnfouf!qps!mbt!ejgjdvmubeft!ef!bddftp!b!jogpsnbdj˜o!tpcsf!
vo!gfo˜nfop!dbsbdufsj{bep!qps!mb!ufnqpsbmjebe-!mb!jssfhvmbsjebe!z!
mb!jowjtjcjmjebe/
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dpotvmub!ef!mbt!qˆhjobt!xfc!z!ef!mpt!epdvnfoupt!b!mpt!rvf!tf!ujfof!
bddftp! b! usbwt! ef! mbt! njtnbt! op! pgsfdfo! jogpsnbdj˜o! ubo! ejsfdub!
dpnp!fm!usbcbkp!tpcsf!fm!ufssfop!z!fm!dpoubdup!qfstpobm/!Fo!ftuf!tfo.
ujep!fm!mfdups!efcfsˆ!tfs!dbvup!fo!mb!mfduvsb!ef!mpt!ebupt!ftube“tujdpt-!
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qbsuf!tf!jotjtuj˜!fo!btfhvsbs!fm!bopojnbup!ef!mbt!gvfouft*-!tjop!fo!tv!
nbzps“b! qspdfefouft! ef! gvfouft! joejsfdubt! p! fo! fm! boˆmjtjt! ef! mpt!
bdupsft!jowpmvdsbept!fo!mbt!svubt!z!ef!tv!usbcbkp3/!
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ef!dbnqp-!fo!mb!nfejeb!fo!rvf!tf!ib!ovusjep!ef!mb!fyqfsjfodjb!ef!
vop!ef!mpt!qspqjpt!bdupsft!jnqmjdbept!fo!fm!ufssfop-!fm!JFKJ-!bqp.
zbep!fo!qfstpobm!wjodvmbep!b!mb!Gvoebdj˜o!ef!Ftuvejpt!Joufsobdjp.
obmft-!rvjfoft-!eftef!fm!wfsbop!ef!311:-!dpowjwfo!dpo!mpt!njhsbo.
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tpcsf! mb! qpcmbdj˜o! njhsbouf! tvctbibsjbob! fo! Ovbejc/! 311:.
3121Ô/! Ftub! dpzvouvsb! qfsnjuf! ufofs! bddftp! b! dpopdjnjfoup! ef!
qsjnfsb!nbop!ef!brvfmmpt!rvf-!fo!mpt!qb“tft!ef!psjhfo!z!ef!eftujop!
ef! mpt! njhsbouft-! usbcbkbo! b! gbwps! ef! mb! efgfotb! ef! mpt! efsfdipt!
ivnbopt! z! ef! mb! nfkpsb! ef! mbt! dpoejdjpoft! ef! wjeb! ef! upebt! mbt!
qfstpobt!dpodfsojebt!qps!mb!njhsbdj˜o/!Bqpzbs!nˆt!jojdjbujwbt!ef!
ftuf!ujqp-!fo!puspt!qb“tft!dmbwf!ef!mbt!svubt!njhsbupsjbt!bobmj{bebt!fo!
22
ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
ftuf!ftuvejp-!qfsnjujsˆ!dpoubs!dpo!jogpsnbdj˜o!ef!nbzps!dbmjebe!z!
nˆt!dfsdbob!b!mb!sfbmjebe!ef!ftubt!qfstpobt/!
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mbt! qsjodjqbmft! udojdbt! vujmj{bebt! gvfspo! cˆtjdbnfouf! ef! ept!
ujqpt;
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cbkp-!uboup!fo!fm!boˆmjtjt!ef!mbt!svubt!dpnp!fo!fm!efm!nbsdp!
kvs“ejdp!fyjtufouf-!z!tf!cbt˜!qsjodjqbmnfouf!fo!fm!ftuvejp!ef!
mb!mjufsbuvsb!djfou“gjdb!z!bdbenjdb<!ef!ufyupt!kvs“ejdpt!sfgf.
sfouft!b!mpt!efsfdipt!ivnbopt!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup<!
ef!qspzfdupt!ef!btjtufodjb-!bqpzp!z!hbsbou“b!ef!mpt!efsfdipt!
ivnbopt!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup!fo!mbt!svubt!z!mpt!qb“.
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bnqmjbs! brvfmmpt! btqfdupt! nˆt! ejg“djmnfouf! btfrvjcmft! fo!
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dfousbspo!fo!fousfwjtubt!fo!qspgvoejebe!b!jogpsnbouft!dmb.
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ojnbup/! Fo! ftuf! qvoup-! dbcf! tf—bmbs! fm! sfdvstp! b! udojdbt!
dvbmjubujwbt! joejsfdubt! ebeb! mb! bvtfodjb! ef! vo! usbcbkp! ef!
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fm! dbtp! ef! mbt! fousfwjtubt! sfdphjebt! fo! fm! usbcbkp! ef! mpt!
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ubnpt! dpotfotvbs! vob! tfsjf! ef! dpodfqupt! cˆtjdpt! tpcsf! mpt! rvf!
hjsb! mb! jowftujhbdj˜o-! dpnp! tpo! ÓusˆotjupÔ-! tjtufnb! njhsbupsjp-!
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23
INTRODUCCIÓN
tfs!usˆotjup!qbsb!tfs!qfsnbofouf@-!Áefqfoef!efm!bcboepop!p!op!
efm!qspzfdup!njhsbupsjp!p!efm!ujfnqp!usbotdvssjep!fo!vo!qvoup!ef!mb!
svub@*!z!qps!mb!sfhvmbsjebe0jssfhvmbsjebe!dpotubouf!z!dbncjbouf!fo!
mb!rvf!tf!nvfwf!)efqfoejfoep!ef!mbt!opsnbt!wjhfouft!bm!sftqfdup!
fo! mpt! ejgfsfouft! qb“tft! rvf! busbwjftb! fm! njhsbouf*/! Ufojfoep! fo!
dvfoub!ftubt!djsdvotubodjbt!tf!ib!pqubep!qps!vob!efgjojdj˜o!nˆt!p!
nfopt! bnqmjb! efm! usnjop! )bvo! tbcjfoep! rvf! mb! sfbmjebe! nvdibt!
wfdft!ftdbqb!b!ftubt!efmjnjubdjpoft!dpodfquvbmft*-!rvf!foujfoef!fm!
usˆotjup!dpnp!Ófm!npwjnjfoup!ef!qfstpobt!rvf!fousbo!fo!vo!ufssj.
upsjp!obdjpobm-!qvejfoep!qfsnbofdfs!fo!m!tfnbobt!p!nftft!usbcb.
kboep!qbsb!qbhbs!v!pshboj{bs!fm!tjhvjfouf!qbtp!p!fubqb!ef!tv!wjbkf-!
qfsp!rvf!efkbsˆo!fm!qb“t!dpo!eftujop!b!pusp-!fo!fm!qmb{p!nˆyjnp!ef!
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njhsbdjpoft!bduvbmft-!z!tpcsf!upep!fo!mbt!svubt!rvf!vujmj{bo-!tj!cjfo!
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b! mb! nvmujqmjdbdj˜o! ef! mpt! nfdbojtnpt! ef! dpouspm! z! wjhjmbodjb/! Fo!
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qsfnjtb!ef!rvf!mb!sfbmjebe!njhsbupsjb!bgsjdbob!ft!dpnqmfkb-!efcjep!
b!mb!hsbo!wbsjfebe!ef!gbdupsft!rvf!jodjefo!fo!mb!njtnb/!Fo!qsjnfs!
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bebqubdj˜o/!Tpmp!ibz!rvf!wfs!d˜np!tf!ib!jep!dpogpsnboep!mb!ijtup.
sjb!efm!dpoujofouf!qbsb!wfs!fm!qftp!rvf!ibo!ufojep!fo!fmmb!mpt!eftqmb.
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dftpt!ef!eftbsspmmp!efm!dpoujofouf-!b!usbwt!ef!ejwfstbt!qsˆdujdbt!ef!
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24
ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
Ftup!tf!usbevdf-!b!tv!wf{-!fo!mb!wbsjfebe!z!dpnqmfkjebe!ef!mbt!
svubt!njhsbupsjbt!bgsjdbobt-!rvf!tf!efgjofo!fo!fm!ufssjupsjp-!nvdibt!
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rvf!tf!wbo!befdvboep!b!mb!dpotubouf!npwjmjebe/!Fo!fm!dbtp!rvf!opt!
pdvqb-!mbt!qsjodjqbmft!svubt!njhsbupsjbt!fyjtufouft!fo!mb!bduvbmjebe!
tpo-!fo!qsjnfs!mvhbs-!brvfmmb!rvf!tf!ejsjhf!eftef!fm!dfousp!efm!dpo.
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dptuptp! z! mbshp! wjbkf! rvf! dsv{b! fm! dpoujofouf/! Usbt! mb! usbwft“b! efm!
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sfo!mb!w“b!nbs“ujnb!ibdjb!mbt!Jtmbt!Dbobsjbt!fwjuboep!fm!Tˆibsb!z!
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qsjodjqbmft!qvoupt!ef!usˆotjup!tpo!Nbvsjubojb!z!Tfofhbm/!Ftubt!svubt!
njhsbupsjbt!joufsobdjpobmft!ibo!ifdip!rvf!qb“tft!usbejdjpobmnfo.
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sfdfqupsft!z!qb“tft!ef!usˆotjup-!eˆoeptf!vob!dpodfousbdj˜o!ef!nj!.
hsbouft! tvctbibsjbopt! fo! upsop! b! odmfpt! vscbopt! efm! opsuf! z! efm!
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qvoupt!dmbwf!p!fkft!njhsbupsjpt-!bt“!dpnp!mpt!gmvkpt!rvf!mbt!sfdp.
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dvboujgjdbs!gfo˜nfopt!rvf!tf!dbsbdufsj{bo!qps!vob!ufnqpsbmjebe!f!
jowjtjcjmjebe!jnqpsubouft/!Nˆt!bmmˆ!ef!mbt!svubt-!ft!jnqsftdjoejcmf!
dpopdfs!mb!sfbmjebe!ef!mbt!qfstpobt!rvf!mbt!sfdpssfo-!eftef!mpt!qsp.
zfdupt!njhsbupsjpt!rvf!mft!jnqvmtbo!b!fnqsfoefs!fm!wjbkf!ibtub!mpt!
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nfouf-!tf!qsftfoubsˆo!bmhvobt!ef!mbt!qsjodjqbmft!wvmofsbcjmjebeft!
ef!ftubt!qfstpobt-!tv!joefgfotj˜o!gsfouf!b!jnqpsubouft!wjpmbdjpoft!ef!
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25
INTRODUCCIÓN
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dbdj˜o!ef!dvbmrvjfs!efsfdip-!jodmvjep!fm!hsvqp!ef!efsfdipt!djwjmft!z!
qpm“ujdpt/!Qps!mujnp-!mb!qspqjb!ofhbdj˜o!ef!mpt!qb“tft!ef!eftujop!ibdjb!
mb!fyjtufodjb!ef!ftub!sfbmjebe!wvmofsb!mb!tjnqmf!ujuvmbsjebe!ef!mpt!efsf.
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jodmvtjwf!fo!tjuvbdjpoft!ubo!wvmofsbcmft!dpnp!fm!usˆotjup/!Fm!tfhvo.
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usbubept!ftqfd“gjdpt!tpcsf!ftub!nbufsjb!rvf!tpo!bqmjdbcmft!bm!njhsbo.
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26
ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
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27
INTRODUCCIÓN
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28
ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
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29
INTRODUCCIÓN
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2:
CAPÍTULO 1
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS,
MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ
Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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31
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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32
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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37
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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38
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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39
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
MAPA 1
PATRONES MIGRATORIOS DENTRO Y FUERA DE ÁFRICA (1970-2005)
Reino Unido Países Bajos
Alemania
Bélgica
Francia
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Italia
Portugal
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Angola
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Zambia
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Madagascar
Namibia
Botsuana
Suazilandia
Lesoto
Sudáfrica
FUENTE: HAAS, 2007.
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41
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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mb! mjcsf! npwjmjebe! fousf! mpt! qb“tft! njfncsp/! Mb! qptjcjmjebe! ef!
42
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
npwjmjebe!gbwpsfdf!mb!wjhfodjb!z!sfqspevddj˜o!ef!qbuspoft!qsfdpmp.
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43
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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bqbsjdj˜o! ef! ovfwpt! Ftubept-! dpnp! Ftqb—b! f! Jubmjb-! rvf! fnfshfo!
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44
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
qps!ovnfsptpt!bgsjdbopt!b!usbwt!efm!Tˆibsb!ibdjb!Mjcjb-!qsjodjqbm.
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45
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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ef!mbt!ubtbt!qbsb!mbt!qfstpobt!rvf!rvjfsfo!wjbkbs/
Sobre el 2004, tras los acuerdos entre España y Marruecos, las mafias dejaron de
operar desde allí y cambiaron las rutas y los medios. Los primeros cayucos salían
desde Nuadibú y con rumbo norte llegaban hasta Gran Canaria o Tenerife, o si se
desviaban mucho acababan en la Gomera o El Hierro. Tardaban unos seis días y
viajaban 60 o 70 personas por cayuco, aunque los había con más de 100, y como
siempre, “primera clase o turista” según el pago. […] el que más paga, va más
arriba y el más pobre “clase turista” abajo, pisoteado y achicando agua. Así pasaba,
cuando alguna llegaba a la costa y volcaba, algunos se ahogaban en medio metro
46
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
de agua porque venían tan entumecidos que no podían ni ponerse de pie. (Entrevista a informante clave del Ministerio del Interior.)
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No una teoría, sino realidad y una práctica habitual es el uso de “cayucos taxi”. Se
trata de pequeños cayucos que salen de distintos puntos de la orilla con los inmigrantes que posteriormente son trasferidos a un cayuco mayor que se encuentra
“alejado de la costa, pero no en aguas internacionales”. (Entrevista a Gil Arias,
director adjunto de la Agencia Europea de Fronteras Exteriores [FRONTEX]).
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Quizás por la crisis o por la falta de trabajo en España, quién sabe… el hecho es
que, a día de hoy, la inmigración en pateras o cayucos es prácticamente cero.
(Entrevista a informante clave del Ministerio del Interior.)
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47
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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48
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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49
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
MAPA 2
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS TRANSAHARIANAS
s terrestres
s
s marítimas
s aéreas
s
a Árabe
ses de origen
es de destino
CHI
Argel Túnez
Malta
Lampedusa
Estrecho
Ceuta Maghnia
Sfax de Gibraltar Rabat
Melilla Oujda
Trípoli
Zuwarah Casablanca
Zliten
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Ghardaïa Agadir
Fuerteventura
Gadamés
Gran Canaria Sebha
!
El Aiún
IND
PAK
Beirut
Bengasi
BGD
Alejandría
El Cairo
Kufra
Suez
Asuán
Tamanrasset
Nuadibú
Arlit
Dirkou Tessalit
Largeau
Agadez Nuakchot
Cabo Verde Dakar
Conakri Freetown
0
250
500
Mopti
Bamako
Niamey
Uagadugú
Zinder
Kano
Puerto Sudán
Selima
Yamena
Asmara
Atbara
Jartum
Gadarif
Yibuti
Adís Abeba
Monrovia
1.000
Rutas migratorias
Principales rutas terrestres
Rutas terrestres
Principales rutas marítimas
Principales rutas aéreas
Rutas marítimas
Abiyán
Acra
Portonovo
Lagos
Yaundé
Bangui
Mogadiscio
1.500 Millas
Países
Países de la Liga Árabe
Principales países de origen
Principales países de destino
FUENTE: HAAS, 2006.
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51
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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52
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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53
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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54
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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55
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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56
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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57
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64
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65
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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69
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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¿Por qué arriesgamos así nuestras vidas? Para no presenciar, impotentes, la
muerte de los nuestros, la de nuestras viejas madres y nuestros hijos, sobre todo,
por la falta de comida o medicamentos. Es verdad que la mayoría no tenemos
títulos. Tratamos simplemente de vender nuestra fuerza de trabajo a Europa para
alimentar a los nuestros. (Cissokho [Ndoye, en Fibla y Castellano, 2008: 33].)
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6:
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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La gente está viviendo, está pasando por malas condiciones económicas, entonces,
por eso la gente se siente obligada para buscar un remedio y dar una salida a su
situación de precariedad. Entonces ocurre la tragedia de montar, el riesgo de las
pateras. (Mohamed Balga, militante de Pateras por la Vida [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 62].)
Las raíces están ahí, las causas siguen ahí, el problema sigue ahí, estos países
son países donde hay mucha juventud, el 65 por ciento de la población no tiene
25 años y las perspectivas no se ven muy claras. De modo que bueno, simplemente, yo creo que va a bajar la intensidad, pero si no encuentran salidas a los problemas de fondo. Es decir, encontrar un trabajo, una ocupación, creo que la gente
va a seguir intentándolo, con éxito o no. (Amadu Ndoye, profesor de Filología
Hispánica en la Universidad de Dakar, Senegal [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 62].)
Esto no se puede parar. Son básicamente cuestiones económicas, son cuestiones
de salario. Si en Marruecos subieran el salario mínimo de 180 a 380 euros, conozco a varias personas que estarían muy bien en su país […] La gente no se va de
su país por gusto o por placer […] la mayoría se va para mejorar su situación
económica. (Aiman, marroquí [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 63].)
Yo lo haré. Si alguien me ayuda, lo haré. Creo que el resto de mi vida lo pasaré en
otro lugar del mundo. No puedo regresar a Sierra Leona, allí no puedo ver ni
siquiera los restos de mis padres. Los destrozaron, los hicieron pedazos, no pude
verlos porque tuvimos que salir corriendo. (Migrante esperando a saltar la valla
[en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 69].)
Eres un hombre trabajador, pero si no vas a Europa nadie te respeta. Todas las
cosas que ves aquí, que son guapas, bonitas, los propietarios son emigrantes en
Europa. (Senegalés [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 100].)
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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ef!ejtvbejsmf!z!ef!rvf!cvtrvf!pusbt!pqdjpoft!nfopt!qfmjhsptbt/
Todo el mundo sabe que yo le repetía que esperara hasta que le pudiera conseguir un contrato, o para enviarle al extranjero a través de un medio que no
sea difícil. Pero él dijo que había esperado demasiado tiempo. Desde que
obtuvo su bachillerato en 2000 no encontró ningún trabajo. (En Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 99.)
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Dentro de lo trágico de la inmigración, pues hay diferentes clases de inmigrar que
van desde el lumpen inmigración, que es meterse debajo de un camión, una
escala más arriba está irse en una patera de madera, más arriba está una embarcación neumática, que es más rápida, y luego hay otros métodos que es lo que te
decía: inmigración cinco estrellas, que es pagando por ejemplo 5.000 euros y que
te den un pasaporte con visado. (Aiman, estudiante de Filología Hispánica en
Tetuán [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 66].)
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72
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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Mi nombre es Kane Baba Olit Siaka, vine de Malí, salí de Malí hace tres años y
medio para [venir en] patera aquí […] Ha sido duro de caminar, la guagua, el Land
Rover, el agua, la patera, ha sido muy duro. De Malí a Argelia en la guagua, y en
Land Rover de Argelia a Marruecos y después de Marruecos para el Sáhara, de
allí del Sáhara cogimos la patera para aquí, Canarias. (En Fibla y Castellanos,
2008: 103.)
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Una mayoría de esta gente que emigra, que pasa por esta tierra, muere. Una
mayoría no llega a su objetivo y los que llegan a la mar mueren en la mar también. Aquí es una tierra muy árida, no hay nada, y la mayoría de los inmigrantes
que vienen aquí mueren de sed antes de llegar a la mar. (ONG Alter Forum, que
trabaja en el desierto del Sáhara [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 68].)
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qfrvf—pt!usbcbkpt/
73
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
Todo depende de los medios porque para irse de aquí y luego llegar a Marruecos,
si tienes un poco de dinero para poderte desplazar, se puede ir. Es el dinero lo que
esperamos. De vez en cuando, encontramos algún pequeño trabajo en los jardines para alimentarnos, nos las apañamos para poder comer algo. Pero no vamos
a conseguir en el trabajo de los jardines el dinero para llegar a Europa. Hacen falta
unos padrinos en Europa o en África que te ayuden a salir adelante. Otros te pueden
ayudar a llegar allí para empezar a trabajar, los gastos que ha tenido por ti se los
devuelves. (Migrante en tránsito en Maghnia [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 74].)
El problema es que para nosotros la repatriación no es lo peor, incluso si tienes
dinero, objetos de valor como el móvil, te lo quitan todo […] salimos para llegar
a Europa y que no podemos entrar en Europa sin pasar por Marruecos. Si hubiese otra carretera para poder llegar a Europa no vendríamos por Marruecos
porque realmente los marroquíes nos hacen sufrir mucho en la actualidad.
Demasiado, sufrimos demasiado. (Simón, maliense en Maghnia [en Fibla y
Castellanos, 2008: 74].)
Algunos casos llegan a Argelia, son golpeados, algunos se pierden en la frontera,
las mujeres son violadas. También están los agresores. Otros quieren regresar a
pie, son unos 12 kilómetros, vuelven a ser detenidos por la policía y llevados a la
comisaría, desde donde, una vez más, son expulsados. Es un poco duro, pero
terminan regresando. Mientras hablamos hay entre 12 y 15 demandantes de asilo
político, del ACNUR, que están en Magnia, en Argelia. Están en Magnia y no saben
cómo volver aquí. (Pierre, camerunés [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 75].)
Dvboep!dpotjhvfo!mmfhbs!b!Pvekb-!mb!djvebe!nbssprv“!nˆt!dfs.
dbob!b!Nbhiojb-!mpt!njhsbouft!tjhvfo!ftdpoejoeptf!ef!mbt!gvfs{bt!
ef!tfhvsjebe!fo!mpt!cptrvft!dfsdbopt-!eftef!epoef!tvfmfo!tbmjs!ef!
opdif!qbsb!sfdpssfs!mpt!231!ln!rvf!tfqbsbo!Pvekb!ef!Obeps-!dfsdb!
ef!Nfmjmmb-!qbsb!vob!wf{!bmm“!usbubs!ef!fousbs!fo!mb!djvebe!bvu˜opnb/!
Fo!mb!tjfssb!ef!Obeps-!dfsdb!efm!Npouf!Hvsvh-!tf!ftdpoejfspo!mpt!
njhsbouft!rvf!usbubspo!ef!tbmubs!mb!wbmmb!ef!Nfmjmmb/
Una persona, dos personas, tres personas atacan la valla para probar suerte. Una
persona logra entrar. Hay que dejar entrar al menos a una o dos personas. Incluso
nosotros que estamos esperando, si pasa una o dos personas estamos contentos,
pero cada día, cada semana, un mes, otro mes y nadie entra. Por eso vamos a
74
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
convocar a la gente, vamos a llamar a los malienses, guienanos, senegaleses… a
todas las nacionalidades, hasta que seamos 100 u 80 personas, e iremos todos juntos.
Somos militares, si hablamos de los verdaderos militares, esos somos nosotros,
porque nosotros llegamos a pie hasta aquí. Hay gente que ha hecho el camino
hasta cuatro veces, ida y vuelta por las montañas, las colinas, día y noche, allí
donde están las serpientes, donde están todos los peligros, las trampas, pero todo
eso lo superamos y llegamos hasta aquí. Somos como militares. Los seis metros
de ahí, incluso si ponen seis metros de valla, todo el mundo los va a pasar, todos,
incluso el niño pequeño aquel. No nos sorprenden los seis metros, estamos aquí
para eso. Estamos aquí para llegar a Melilla. (Musa, migrante en Nador, pocos
días antes del salto masivo a la valla [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 77].)
Ubncjo!mpt!cptrvft!ef!Nftobob-!dfsdb!ef!Uˆohfs-!p!ef!Cfo.
zvoft-!dfsdb!ef!Dfvub-!tfsw“bo!ef!sfgvhjp!b!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotj.
up/!Eftef!bmm“-!nvdipt!njhsbouft!usbubo!ef!mmfhbs!b!Uˆohfs-!fm!qvoup!
nˆt! dfsdbop! b! ovftusp! qb“t-! eftef! epoef! fm! dsvdf! ef! mb! gspoufsb!
qvfef!ibdfstf-!cjfo!fo!mpt!cbkpt!ef!vo!dbnj˜o-!p!cjfo!usbuboep!ef!
dsv{bs!fm!ftusfdip!fo!qbufsb/
Somos refugiados congoleños y vivimos en este bosque. Hace un año y siete
meses que estoy en este bosque […] Tenemos problemas serios, sobre todo para
comer, empieza a ser difícil. No hay manera de salir para comprar algo ni tampoco de acercarnos al lugar donde está el pozo de agua. Estamos bloqueados desde
hace siete días. Estamos siendo torturados. La última vez los militantes de derechos humanos intentaron ayudarnos, fueron al pozo y sacaron algo de agua para
nosotros y también nos trajeron algunas pequeñas bolsas de arroz. Si no hubiese
sido por eso podrías haber encontrado ya muertos aquí. Somos personas, seres
humanos. Haber sido repatriado no es un delito. Lo ve […] no es un delito […] es
simplemente una oportunidad porque nosotros sabemos que vivimos mejor en
nuestra casa. ¿No es así? Si no fuera por el problema que tenemos en nuestro
país, jamás habríamos aceptado encontrarnos en esta situación. Quedarse en el
bosque un año y siete meses. Es inhumano. (Migrante en el bosque de Benyunes
[en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 78].)
Fo!fm!dbtp!ef!mpt!rvf!tf!ejsjhfo!b!mb!dptub!bumˆoujdb!nbssprv“-!fm!
usˆotjup!ubnqpdp!ft!gˆdjm;!qvfef!evsbs!nftft-!evsbouf!mpt!dvbmft!tf!
wfsˆo!fogsfoubept!b!vob!dpotubouf!wjhjmbodjb/
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
Tengo esta habitación en Takadum. A veces duermo aquí, otras lo hago fuera,
duermo fuera… porque no me fío de la policía. A veces entran en la casa, te cogen.
Te cogen y te deportan al desierto. Arruinas tu vida si te deportan al desierto, allí
te mueres. (Mike, migrante en tránsito desde hace siete años hasta que en 2006
consiguió llegar a Alicante [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 82].)
Fo!dvbmrvjfsb!ef!ftupt!qvoupt-!fm!qbtp!qps!Nbssvfdpt!ft!vob!
fubqb!qfmjhsptb!efm!mbshp!wjbkf!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!ibdjb!Fvspqb-!epoef!
fm!sbdjtnp!z!mb!yfopgpcjb!ibdjb!mpt!tvctbibsjbopt!ftuˆo!bervjsjfoep!
ejnfotjpoft!jnqpsubouft/!Ovnfsptbt!POH!ibo!efovodjbep!hsbwft!
wjpmbdjpoft!ef!EE!II-!dpnp!Nejdpt!tjo!Gspoufsbt-!rvf!zb!fo!3116!
bewfsu“b!ef!ftub!tjuvbdj˜o!fo!vo!ÓJogpsnf!tpcsf!mpt!njhsbouft!bufo.
ejept!fo!fm!Tˆibsb!usbt!mb!dsjtjt!fo!mb!gspoufsb!nbssprv“.ftqb—pmb!ef!
Dfvub!z!NfmjmmbÔ-!z!rvf!qvcmjd˜!pusp!tpcsf!ÓWjpmfodjb!tfyvbm!z!Nj!.!
hsbdj˜oÔ!)3121*-!fo!fm!rvf!efovodjb!rvf!ÓIbtub!fo!vo!56&!ef!mpt!
uftujnpojpt-! mbt! nvkfsft! tvgsjfspo! vop! p! nmujqmft! fqjtpejpt! ef!
wjpmbdj˜o!evsbouf!fm!usbzfdup!njhsbupsjp-!gvfsb!b!nbopt!ef!mb!efmjo.
dvfodjb!pshboj{beb!p!qps!joejwjevpt!rvf!tf!bqspwfdibo!ef!mb!tjuvb.
dj˜o!ef!wvmofsbcjmjebe!qbsb!fyqmpubs!p!jodmvtp!wjpmbs!b!mp!mbshp!efm!
dbnjop!b!ftubt!nvkfsftÔ/
Me violaron durante cinco días, uno tras otro, cinco días. No me pude negar [...]
Deseas estar muerta. Pero la muerte no llega. Violada, violada. Te fuerzan, por
delante y por detrás. Aunque grites, no hay nadie. Nadie que pueda venir a ayudarte. Estás ahí en la arena, te hacen eso durante días. Estás cansada. Lloras,
lloras al mismo tiempo que tu cara se hincha. No hay nadie que te ayude. Nadie.
(Migrante congoleña, en El País, 25/03/201027.)
Mb!svub!efm!ftusfdip
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ufsbt!ef!nbefsb-!u“qjdbt!ef!mpt!qftdbepsft!nbssprv“ft-!qsjnfsp!eftef!
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eft!!ef! fm! Tˆibsb! pddjefoubm! ibdjb! mb! jtmb! dbobsjb! ef! Gvfsufwfouvsb-!
qbtboep!bt“!ef!mpt!25!b!mpt!:1!ln!ef!usbwft“b-!rvf!qpe“bo!sfbmj{bstf-!
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hbs!qps!mbt!qbufsbt!gvfspo!mpt!nbhsfc“ft-!z!zb!fo!fm!ovfwp!tjhmp-!mpt!
tvctbibsjbopt/
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
Fm! bvnfoup! ef! mpt! dpouspmft-! qsjnfsp! fo! fm! ftusfdip! ef! Hj!!.
csbmubs! z! nˆt! ubsef! fo! mbt! dptubt! bumˆoujdbt! nbssprv“ft-! qfsnju“b!
joufsdfqubs!mb!nbzps“b!ef!ftubt!fncbsdbdjpoft!b!qbsujs!ef!mpt!b—pt!
3115.3116-!mp!rvf!b—be“b!ovfwpt!qfmjhspt/
Para ellos, toda la travesía es peligrosa, pero uno de los momentos más peligrosos es la maniobra de abordamiento que realizamos nosotros porque se pueden
poner nerviosos y ponerse de pie y volcar la embarcación y el momento de llegar
a costa y desembarcar. No conocen la costa y muchas veces se meten en sitios, la
costa de Fuerteventura tiene muchas agujas, mucha roca y se meten en zonas en
las que es un suicidio meterse allí ¡no!
Que una patera con 40 personas, cruzada y embarcando agua, la situación es
difícil. Se desesperan y acaban rindiéndose un poco, se echan a dormir, se mueren de frío. (Sargento Miguel Ángel Álvarez, de la Guardia Civil [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 67].)
Qftf!b!fmmp-!mbt!tbmjebt!dpoujobo-!ftub!wf{!fo!mbodibt!ofvnˆuj.
dbt!nˆt!sˆqjebt!qbsb!fwjubs!mb!wjhjmbodjb/!Ubncjo!tvshfo!pusbt!np!.
ebmjebeft-!dpnp!ftdpoefstf!fo!mpt!cbkpt!ef!vo!dbnj˜o!rvf!upnf!fm!
gfssz!rvf!vof!Nbssvfdpt!dpo!Ftqb—b!p!fousf!mpt!dpnfsdjbouft!rvf!
dsv{bo!mbt!gspoufsbt!ef!Dfvub!z!Nfmjmmb!b!ejbsjp-!fousf!pusbt/
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tfqbsb! mbt! djvebeft! bvu˜opnbt! ftqb—pmbt! ef! Dfvub! z! Nfmjmmb-! dpo!
dbtpt!esbnˆujdpt!dpnp!fm!wjwjep!fo!3116-!dvboep-!usbt!vo!joufoup!ef!
tbmup-! nvsjfspo! fo! nbopt! ef! mb! qpmjd“b! 26! qfstpobt/! Mpt! njhsbouft!
ftqfsbcbo!fo!fm!npouf!Hvsvh-!fo!Obeps-!z!nˆt!ubsef!fo!Nftobob-!
Uˆohfs-!qbsb!joufoubs!tbmubs!mb!wbmmb!dpo!ftdbmfsbt!ef!nbefsb!sfdphjeb!
fo!mpt!cptrvft/
Estábamos en la montaña, íbamos a intentar pasar la barrera como solíamos
hacerlo ¿sabes que viajamos kilómetros y kilómetros a pie? Es nuestra forma de
trabajo. Solo en Europa podemos salir adelante. En la noche del domingo fuimos a
la frontera como siempre y allí las fuerzas de seguridad nos localizaron como suelen hacer, pero esta vez fue peor. Realmente fue lo peor. La gente gritaba y corrían
hacia todas partes, lloraban sin parar. Nos dijimos que era como siempre. Como
solían hacer: romper brazos, romper pies, que estaban haciendo como siempre,
pero ayer, realmente, utilizaron la fuerza hasta llegar a terminar con la vida de un
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
ser humano. Por eso estamos tan enfermos, abandonados a nuestra suerte.
(Migrante que trató de saltar la valla [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 69].)
Usbt! ftub! dsjtjt-! fm! hpcjfsop! nbssprv“! fyqvmt˜! b! nvdipt! ef!
ftupt!njhsbouft!rvf!ftqfsbcbo!fo!fm!cptrvf!ibdjb!Tnbsb-!fo!fm!Tˆ!.
ibsb!pddjefoubm-!p!Pvkeb/
Mbt!svubt!efm!Bumˆoujdp
Njfousbt-!mbt!svubt!ef!mbt!qbufsbt!tjhvfo!npwjoeptf!ibdjb!fm!tvs-!
dpo! qvoupt! ef! tbmjeb! dbeb! wf{! nˆt! bmfkbept! ef! mbt! Jtmbt! Dbobsjbt-!
dpnp!Eblimb-!fo!fm!Tˆibsb!Pddjefoubm-!eftef!epoef!mb!usbwft“b-!ef!
811!ln-!evsbcb!usft!e“bt-!p!Ubsgbzb-!epoef!mbt!nbgjbt!p!mpt!qftdbep.
sft!tf!fodbshbo!efm!qbtbkf/!
La mayor parte de la gente que han estado aquí durante siete y ocho años pescando se dieron cuenta de que 1, 2 o 3 viajes es mejor que estar pescando porque
es una cantidad… son 6.000 o 7.000 dirhams, cuando se encuentran con subsaharianos dan 10.000 dh. Y en una patera, es que aquí, actualmente, van cuatro o
cinco pescadores y sacan 1.000 dh, en cambio, si llevas a 17 o 18 subsaharianos…
hay una cantidad de dinero ahí. (En Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 85.)
Z!usbt!mb!usˆhjdb!fyqfsjfodjb!ef!mb!wbmmb!ef!Dfvub!z!Nfmjmmb-!vojeb!
bm!dpouspm!ef!mbt!dptubt!nbssprv“ft-!tf!bcsj˜!mb!w“b!ef!mpt!dbzvdpt-!
fncbsdbdjpoft!nˆt!mbshbt!z!dpo!nˆt!dbqbdjebe!rvf!mbt!qbufsbt/
Mpt!dbzvdpt!fnqf{bspo!b!tbmjs!eftef!Ovbejc-!b!911!ln!ef!mbt!
jtmbt! ef! Hsbo! Dbobsjb! z! Ufofsjgf-! z! tfho! tf! wb! jodsfnfouboep! mb!
wjhjmbodjb! ef! ftub! dptub! nbvsjubob-! eftef! Ovbldipu-! nˆt! ubsef! ef!
Tbjou!Mpvjt-!Eblbs!z!gjobmnfouf!Dbttbnbodf-!mmfhboep!b!mpt!3/111!ln!
ef!usbwft“b!qbsb!mmfhbs!b!Dbobsjbt-!fo!wjbkft!rvf!evsbcbo!ef!nfejb!
ept!tfnbobt/
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kpt!z!bcboepobept-!vujmj{bept-!qps!fkfnqmp-!qbsb!fm!usbtmbep!ef!joejpt!p!
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nfejp!ef!usbotqpsuf!rvf!vujmj{bo!mpt!njhsbouft!qbsb!fousbs!b!Ftqb—b-!
fousf!mpt!rvf!tf!dvfoub!vob!qspqpsdj˜o!nvz!qfrvf—b!ef!bgsjdbopt/
Fo!upep!ftuf!qfsjqmp-!tpo!jnqpsubouft!mpt!ÓqbtbouftÔ-!brvfmmpt!
rvf-!fo!vob!v!pusb!fubqb-!bzvebo!b!mpt!njhsbouft!b!tfhvjs!tv!dbnjop!
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
)cjfo! tfb! tpsufboep! mpt! dpouspmft! ufssftusft-! dpotjhvjfoep-! bmrvj.
mboep! p! qjmpuboep! mbt! qbufsbt-! fud/*-! vo! ofhpdjp! rvf! sfoubcjmj{b! fm!
tvgsjnjfoup!ef!ftubt!qfstpobt/!Fo!pdbtjpoft-!befnˆt-!dpo!fm!cf!.!
of!!qmˆdjup!ef!vobt!bvupsjebeft!d˜nqmjdft/!Bvorvf!op!tjfnqsf!tpo!
of!!dftbsjpt-!z!fo!pdbtjpoft-!mpt!qspqjpt!njhsbouft!tf!pshboj{bo!dpp.
qfsbujwbnfouf!qbsb!btfhvsbs!tv!wjbkf-!qps!fkfnqmp-!dpnqsboep!vo!
dbzvdp!fousf!upept/
B!e“b!ef!ipz-!mbt!svubt!tjhvfo!dbncjboep!z!fwpmvdjpoboep!fo!
tvt! qvoupt! ef! qbsujeb! z! fo! tvt! eftujopt/! Z! dpnp! ejdfo! mpt! rvf! mbt!
sfdpssfo-!tv!pckfujwp!tjhvf!tjfoep!fm!njtnp/
Y cuando llegues a Europa tu fatiga y todas las atrocidades que has pasado se te
van a pasar. Y también si mueres en el agua, también la fatiga se acabó. Por eso
hemos tomado esas dos decisiones: te mueres o ganas el destino. (Mala, migrante de Guinea-Bissau [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 87].)
Tjo!fncbshp-!bouft!ef!dfssbs!ftuf!qvoup-!dpowjfof!ibdfs!nfo.
dj˜o!b!pusb!ef!mbt!gbtft!rvf!qvfef!gpsnbs!qbsuf!efm!usbzfdup!nj!.
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ejgjdvmubeft/!Ft!djfsup!rvf!qvfef!tfs!wpmvoubsjp-!qfsp!nvdibt!wfdft-!
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pctfswbeb-!ebebt!mbt!jssfhvmbsjebeft!rvf!tf!ibo!ebep!fo!ovnf!.
sptbt! pdbtjpoft-! qps! fkfnqmp! fo! fm! dbtp! ef! mpt! nfopsft! efqps!.
ubept/
Estoy aquí para hacer algo, para volver a España debajo de algún camión, de un
autobús. Tengo que hacer algo. Llevaba un año y medio en España, un año y
cuatro meses, luego me devolvieron a mi familia. No hay trabajo ni nada y mi
familia es muy pobre, yo no me puedo quedar con ellos. (Mohsin, menor migrante marroquí [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 101].)
Qbsb!puspt-!fo!fm!qfps!ef!mpt!dbtpt-!z!efthsbdjbebnfouf!tpo!cbt.
ubouf!ibcjuvbmft-!fm!wjbkf!ufsnjob!ef!gpsnb!usˆhjdb/!Tpo!jodpoubcmft!
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RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
mpt! nvfsupt! fo! fm! eftjfsup-! fo! mpt! wjbkft! fo! qbufsb! p! dbzvdp-! p! mpt!
eftbqbsfdjept!fo!bmho!qvoup!ef!tv!usbzfdup/
Es una catástrofe, toda la comunidad está afectada… imagínese… 53 muertos es
lo peor… Es nuestra riqueza, nuestros jóvenes, es la esperanza de que esto cambiará algún día. Se van por problemas sociales, faltan infraestructuras. Nuestra
provincia es rica, vivimos sobre una mina de fosfatos, pero no nos llega nada por el
momento. (Mohamed, miembro de una asociación de Juribga de apoyo a las familias de víctimas de la inmigración clandestina [en Fibla y Castellanos, 2008: 99].)
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efm!usbzfdup-!tfb!dvbm!tfb/
No puedo hacer nada. No tengo medios para traerle aquí, verle con mis ojos,
enterrarle aquí si está muerto, y poder confirmarlo de una vez. En algunos momentos pienso que está todavía vivo. Salgo a la calle y tengo la impresión de que aparecerá por alguna parte. Pero es que no puedo hacer nada. Si está muerto ruego a la
gente que me envíe su cadáver y que Dios les recompense por ello, y si está vivo
espero que vuelva para que le pueda ver. (En Fibla y Castellano, 2008: 99.)
Mbt!usbzfdupsjbt!rvf!ifnpt!wjtup-!tjo!fncbshp-!nvftusbo!rvf!
ftub!ft!mb!evsb!sfbmjebe!b!mb!rvf!tf!fogsfoubo!mpt!njmft!ef!bgsjdbopt!
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ejdjpoft!fo!mbt!rvf!wjbkbo-!fm!eftbnqbsp!fo!fm!rvf!tf!fodvfousbo!z!
mpt! dpotubouft! bcvtpt! z! wjpmbdjpoft! ef! tvt! efsfdipt! b! mpt! rvf! tpo!
tpnfujept/!
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7:
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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Hay que comprender que si alguien toma la arriesgada decisión de adentrarse
en la aventura de la inmigración clandestina es porque está convencido de que
es una alternativa beneficiosa (las más de las veces, porque es la única, claro).
Por eso, por mucho que nos empeñemos en una propaganda sobre los peligros
del viaje, sobre las dificultades de la vida como clandestina, mientras no haya
otra opción asequible y mejor, la decisión de emigrar responde a una necesidad
y por ello es casi ineludible, aunque haya que hacerlo en la peor condición, en
la del máximo riesgo y explotación, la de la clandestinidad. (De Lucas, en Fibla
y Castellano, 2008: 43.)
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MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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84
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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[…] Vinieron al oeste de África y se llevaron todas nuestras cosas, nuestro oro,
nuestra timba. Todas nuestras riquezas se las llevaron a Europa. Y gracias a eso,
ahora Europa es Europa. (Fibla y Castellano, 2008: 65.)
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86
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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Aquí todos vamos al vertedero, de ahí a la carretera para mendigar, y así es como
comemos, así es como nos apañamos. Ellos vienen y atacan en todas partes, lo
queman todo o rompen las tiendas y cogen cualquier cosa de valor, ropa, zapatos… Ayer, todo lo que traje aquí se lo llevaron e hirieron a algunos de mis amigos.
Muchos de ellos llevan llorando desde ayer. Después de golpearnos, cogen todo lo
que quieren y se van. Así es como nos visitan. (Fibla y Castellano, 2008: 77.)
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De repente llegaron cuatro soldados. Yo salí corriendo, pero me vieron y de inmediato dos de ellos dispararon al aire una vez, y después otra vez. Nos arrestaron
al borde del mar. Nos llevaron en vehículos al cuartel del ejército. En el camino
nos golpearon, nos dieron bofetadas y nos pegaron con un cinturón. Cuando llegamos
al cuartel, nos quitaron la ropa y nos registraron. A mí me quitaron 25.000 uguiyas
[unos 70 euros] y el teléfono móvil. Somos seres humanos, trabajadores, estamos
tratando de encontrar la manera de ayudar a nuestros padres. Tenemos derechos.
No somos ladrones, pero la policía nos golpea y nos roba. Da mucha rabia.
(Amnistía Internacional, 2008: 16.)
87
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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Que las condiciones que tiene que cumplir es el acceso, por ejemplo, a poder hacer
ejercicio diariamente, a tener acceso a los teléfonos, a una atención jurídica, a intérpretes [...] todo este tipo de condiciones de las que carecen en este momento. También tendrán que tener atención médica continua, tendrían que estar presentes
trabajadores sociales y también tener información escrita en la lengua que ellos
entiendan acerca de cuáles son sus derechos y posibilidades […] También es fundamental que tengan el derecho de poder, digamos, denunciar cualquier situación que
les parezca injusta en los centros de detención y poder también preguntar acerca de
su detención y las condiciones de la detención (Fibla y Castellano, 2008: 127).
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91
RUTAS MIGRATORIAS DE TRÁNSITO EN MARRUECOS, MAURITANIA Y SENEGAL
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El enfoque basado en derechos considera que el primer paso para otorgar poder
a los sectores excluidos es reconocer que ellos son titulares de derechos que
obligan al Estado. Al introducir este concepto se procura cambiar la lógica de los
procesos de elaboración de políticas, para que el punto de partida no sea la existencia de personas con necesidades que deben ser asistidas, sino sujetos con
derecho a demandar determinadas prestaciones y conductas (Abramovich,
2006).
92
MARTA CARBALLO DE LA RIVA, ENARA ECHART MUÑOZ Y JUNCAL GILSANZ BLANCO
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94
CAPÍTULO 2
MARCO JURÍDICO EXISTENTE APLICABLE A LOS DERECHOS
HUMANOS DE LOS MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO
CRISTINA GORTÁZAR ROTAECHE
Y MERCEDES FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA
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96
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98
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CRISTINA GORTÁZAR ROTAECHE Y MERCEDES FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA
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MARCO JURÍDICO EXISTENTE APLICABLE A LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS DE LOS MIGRANTES
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218
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21:
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243
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244
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245
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!
ESPAÑA MARRUECOS MAURITANIA SENEGAL
Convención Internacional sobre la Protección
de los Derechos de Todos los Trabajadores
Migratorios y de sus Familiares, 1990
..
1993
2007
1999
Pacto Internacional de Derechos
Económicos, Sociales y Culturales, 1966
1978
1956
1987
1963
Convención Internacional sobre la
Eliminación de todas las Formas de
Discriminación Racial, 1965
1968
1970
1988
1972
Convención contra la Tortura y Otros Tratos o
Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes,
1984
1987
1993
2004
1986
Convención sobre el Estatuto de los
Refugiados, 1951
1978
1956
1987
1963
Convención sobre la eliminación de todas
las formas de discriminación contra la
mujer, 1979
1984
1993
2001
1985
Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y
Políticos, 1966
1987
1993
2004
1986
Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño,
1989
1990
1993
1991
1990
246
CRISTINA GORTÁZAR ROTAECHE Y MERCEDES FERNÁNDEZ GARCÍA
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248
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249
CAPÍTULO 3
LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO
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ALBERTO MURO CASTILLO, ELENA BARROSO ALCÁZAR,
DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA CUETO
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251
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279
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29:
ALBERTO MURO, ELENA BARROSO, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA Y OUSMANE AMADOU
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2:1
LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO DE TRÁNSITO
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2:2
ALBERTO MURO, ELENA BARROSO, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA Y OUSMANE AMADOU
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2:3
LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO DE TRÁNSITO
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2:4
ALBERTO MURO, ELENA BARROSO, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA Y OUSMANE AMADOU
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2:5
LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO DE TRÁNSITO
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2:6
ALBERTO MURO, ELENA BARROSO, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA Y OUSMANE AMADOU
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2:7
LOS ACTORES INVOLUCRADOS EN EL PROCESO DE TRÁNSITO
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2:8
ALBERTO MURO, ELENA BARROSO, DIEGO GASPAR DE VALENZUELA Y OUSMANE AMADOU
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Bgsjrvf*-! rvf! ujfof! qps! pckfujwp! fm! dfotp! ef! mpt! tfofhbmftft! sftjefouft! fo! fm!
fyufsjps!z!dbqjubmj{bs!fo!Tfofhbm!tv!fyqfsjfodjb!z!bqsfoej{bkf/
21/! B!npep!ef!fkfnqmp!djubsfnpt!fm!qspzfdup!mjefsbep!qps!mb!Pgjdjob!ef!Obdjpoft!
Vojebt!dpousb!mb!Esphb!z!fm!Efmjup!sfmbujwp!b!mb!sfgpsnb!ef!mb!mfhjtmbdj˜o!wjhfouf!
b!ojwfm!obdjpobm!tpcsf!usˆgjdp!jm“djup!ef!jonjhsbouft!z!usbub!ef!qfstpobt-!qbsb!tv!
befdvbdj˜o!b!mbt!dpowfodjpoft!joufsobdjpobmft!gjsnbebt!qps!Tfofhbm/
22/! iuuq;00xxx/dbsjubt.tfofhbm/psh0njhsbujpo0
23/! Jogpsnbdj˜o! fyusb“eb! ef! mb! qˆhjob! xfc! ef! mb! Gvoebdj˜o! DFBS;! iuuq;00xxx/
gvoebdjpodfbs/psh0tfofhbm/iunm
24/! iuuq;00xxx/djnbef/psh0mb`djnbef0djnbef0svcsjrvft06.njttjpot
25/! Fo! Nbm“;! Stfbv! eft! Gfnnft! Bgsjdbjoft! Fdpopnjtuft-! FOEB-! Dpogesbujpo!
Tzoejdbmf!eft!Usbwbjmmfvst!ev!Nbm“/!Z!fo!Hvjofb.Cjttbv;!Qmbubgpsnb!ebt!POH!ob!
Hvjo.Cjttbv!)QMBDPO!H.C*-!BMUFSOBH-!VojŒp!Obdjpobm!ept!Usbcbmibepsft!
eb!Hvjo-!BttpdjbŽŒp!ef!Eftfowpmwjnfoup!Joufhsbep!ebt!Nvmifsft/
26/! Mbt!djgsbt!mujnbt!bqpsubebt!qps!mb!Efmfhbdj˜o!efm!hpcjfsop!fo!Dbobsjbt!)iuuq;00
xxx/fmejb/ft03121.21.370dbobsjbt028.Ebsjbt.ejdf.djgsbt.jmvtusbo.qpmjujdb.
Hpcjfsop.jonjhsbdjpo/iun*!bwbmbo!ejdip!eftdfotp-!djgsˆoepmp!fo!47/111!fo!
fm!b—p!3117!z!fo!271!fo!3121/
2:9
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
Dbnjobouf-!tpo!uvt!ivfmmbt!
fm!dbnjop!z!obeb!nˆt<!
Dbnjobouf-!op!ibz!dbnjop-!
tf!ibdf!dbnjop!bm!boebs/!
Bm!boebs!tf!ibdf!fm!dbnjop-!
z!bm!wpmwfs!mb!wjtub!busˆt!
tf!wf!mb!tfoeb!rvf!ovodb!
tf!ib!ef!wpmwfs!b!qjtbs/!
Dbnjobouf!op!ibz!dbnjop!
tjop!ftufmbt!fo!mb!nbs/
Boupojp!Nbdibep
B!mp!mbshp!ef!mb!jowftujhbdj˜o!tf!ib!cvtdbep!qsftfoubs!mb!sfbmjebe!
ef! mpt! njhsbouft! fo! usˆotjup! fo! Nbssvfdpt-! Nbvsjubojb! z! Tfofhbm!
Òjnqpsubouft!fkft!ef!mbt!svubt!njhsbupsjbt!bgsjdbobt!dpo!eftujop!b!
Fvspqb-!rvf!ibo!qbtbep!ef!tfs!qb“tft!fnjtpsft!b!qb“tft!ef!usˆotjupÒ!
eftef!mb!qfstqfdujwb!ef!mpt!EE!II-!qmbtnboep!mb!jowjtjcjmjebe!b!mb!
rvf!tpo!tpnfujept!qftf!b!mb!dsfdjfouf!jnqpsubodjb!rvf!ibo!bervj.
sjep!mbt!njhsbdjpoft!fo!mbt!bhfoebt!hmpcbmft/!Qbsb!fmmp-!tf!ibo!bob.
mj{bep! mbt! svubt! njhsbupsjbt! Òovfwbt-! ifsfebebt! ef! mb! ijtupsjb! p!
dsfbebt!qbsb!ftdbqbs!b!vopt!dpouspmft!dbeb!wf{!nˆt!ftusjduptÒ-!mpt!
tjtufnbt!njhsbupsjpt!fo!mpt!rvf!tf!jotfsubo-!mpt!gmvkpt!rvf!mbt!sfdp.
ssfo!z-!tpcsf!upep-!mbt!ijtupsjbt!rvf!tf!wjwfo!fo!ftf!dbnjop-!eftef!
mpt!tvf—pt!rvf!tf!dpowjfsufo!fo!qspzfdupt!njhsbupsjpt!ibtub!mbt!gps.
!nbt! ef! wjbkf-! efufojfoep! mb! njsbeb! fo! mbt! hsbwft! tjuvbdjpoft! b! mbt!
rvf!tf!fogsfoubo!z!tv!joefgfotj˜o!gsfouf!b!mbt!dpotubouft!wjpmbdjp.
oft!ef!tvt!EE!II-!qftf!b!mb!qspufddj˜o!rvf!efcfs“bo!btfhvsbsmft!mpt!
jotusvnfoupt! kvs“ejdpt! fyjtufouft/! Btjnjtnp-! tf! ib! qsftfoubep! fm!
usbcbkp! sfbmj{bep! qps! mpt! ejwfstpt! bdupsft! jowpmvdsbept! fo! ftuf!
ˆncjup/!B!dpoujovbdj˜o!tf!sftdbubo!mbt!qsjodjqbmft!dpodmvtjpoft!z!
sfdpnfoebdjpoft!efsjwbebt!ef!ftuf!boˆmjtjt/
2::
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
2/!BTFHVSBS!MPT!EFSFDIPT!IVNBOPT!
FO!MBT!SVUBT!NJHSBUPSJBT!
Dpnp! tf! ib! tf—bmbep-! mbt! svubt! z! mpt! tjtufnbt! njhsbupsjpt-!tj!cjfo!
nvdibt!wfdft!tpo!ifsfefspt!ef!mb!ijtu˜sjdb!npwjmjebe!efm!dpoujofouf!
bgsjdbop-!tf!ibo!jep!bebquboep!ubncjo!b!mb!bduvbm!dpzvouvsb-!np!.
wjoeptf!tfho!bwbo{bcbo!mbt!qpm“ujdbt!ef!dpouspm!ef!gspoufsbt!ef!mb!
VF-!dpo!fm!dbtp!qbsbejhnˆujdp!ef!mb!Bhfodjb!fvspqfb!GSPOUFY/!Bt“-!
bvorvf! mbt! ept! qsjodjqbmft! svubt! rvf! dsv{bo! mpt! qb“tft! bobmj{bept!
qbsb! mmfhbs! bm! dpoujofouf! fvspqfp! tjhvfo! tjfoep! mb! rvf! dsv{b! fm!
Tˆibsb!qbsb!mmfhbs!bm!Nfejufssˆofp!z!mb!rvf!tbmf!ef!mb!dptub!bumˆoujdb!
svncp! b! mbt! Jtmbt! Dbobsjbt-! ibo! jep! npejgjdˆoeptf! z-! bm! njtnp!
ujfnqp-!wpmwjoeptf!dbeb!wf{!nˆt!qfmjhsptbt-!fo!gvodj˜o!ef!mpt!dpo.
uspmft!ftubcmfdjept/!Fo!fm!dbtp!ef!mb!qsjnfsb-!tj!cjfo!tf!jotjtuf!fo!
rvf! ubo! tpmp! 25! ln! tfqbsbo! ègsjdb! ef! Fvspqb-! mb! sfbmjebe! qbsb! mpt!
njhsbouft!ft!cjfo!ejtujoub-!qbtboep!nftft!p!jodmvtp!b—pt!fogsfo.
uˆoeptf!b!qsvfcbt!ubo!ejg“djmft!dpnp!mb!usbwft“b!efm!eftjfsup-!fm!qbtp!
qps!Pvekb!p!fm!tbmup!ef!mb!wbmmb!ef!Dfvub!z!Nfmjmmb/!Mbt!wjpmbdjpoft!ef!
mpt!EE!II!fo!ftb!svub!tpo!ftdboebmptbt/!Fo!dvboup!b!mb!tfhvoeb-!mbt!
tbmjebt! tf! ibo! jep! eftqmb{boep! ibdjb! fm! tvs;! tj! bm! qsjodjqjp! tbm“bo!
fncbsdbdjpoft!b!Dbobsjbt!eftef!Nbssvfdpt!Òibdjb!mb!jtmb!ef!Gvfs.
ufwfouvsbÒ-!dpo!vo!sfdpssjep!ef!vopt!:1!ln-!mb!tbmjeb!eftef!Nbv.
sjubojb! bnqm“b! mb! ejtubodjb! b! 911! ln! ef! Hsbo! Dbobsjb-! z! eftef!
Tfofhbm!b!3/111!ln-!jodsfnfouboep!dpo!fmmp!fm!sjfthp!ef!mb!usbwft“b!
z!ibdjfoep!rvf!mb!cbmbo{b!tf!jodmjof!nˆt!efm!mbep!efm!Cbstibl!rvf!efm!
CbsŽb/
Fo!dvboup!b!mb!sfbmjebe!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!ftbt!svubt-!qbsuf!ef!
tjuvbdjpoft!ef!hsbo!qsfdbsjfebe!z!dbsfodjb!ef!pqpsuvojebeft!fo!tvt!
mvhbsft!ef!psjhfo!)rvf!tvqpofo!vob!qsjnfsb!wvmofsbdj˜o!ef!tvt!ef!.
sfdipt!fdpo˜njdpt-!tpdjbmft!z!dvmuvsbmft*!qbsb!fnqsfoefs!vo!wjbkf!
sfqmfup! ef! ejgjdvmubeft-! vo! dbnjop! boebep! b! qjf-! fo! dbnjpoft-! fo!
cbsdpt!)nvdibt!wfdft!ef!qpmj{poft*-!qbufsbt!p!dbzvdpt-!fo!gvodj˜o!
ef!mbt!dbqbdjebeft!fdpo˜njdbt!z!ef!mpt!dpoubdupt!ef!dbeb!vop-!rvf!
qvfef! evsbs! tfnbobt! p! nftft/! Tv! tjuvbdj˜o! tf! bhsbwb! evsbouf! mb!
usbwft“b!qps!mb!dbsfodjb!ef!bmjnfoupt!p!bhvb-!ef!ejofsp!)mp!rvf!mft!
pcmjhb!b!usbcbkbs!evsbouf!fm!usˆotjup-!fo!tjuvbdj˜o!jssfhvmbs!z!fo!dpo.
ejdjpoft! mbcpsbmft! efqmpsbcmft-! dvboep! op! b! qsptujuvjstf*-! z! qps! mb!
311
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
wvmofsbcjmjebe! bouf! mpt! bcvtpt! ef! qpefs! ef! mbt! bvupsjebeft! z! ef! mpt!
usbgjdbouft! )dpo! dpotubouft! efovodjbt-! qps! fkfnqmp-! ef! wjpmbdjpoft!
qps!qbsuf!ef!mbt!nvkfsft!p!ef!op!sfdpopdjnjfoup!ef!mb!tjuvbdj˜o!ef!mpt!
sfgvhjbept*/!Z!tjhvf!tjfoep!qsfdbsjb!bm!usnjop!efm!njtnp-!cjfo!qps!
mbt!dpoejdjpoft!fo!mbt!rvf!tf!ebo!mbt!sfqbusjbdjpoft!p!fm!sfupsop-!cjfo!
qps!mb!qpdb!hbsbou“b!ef!joufhsbdj˜o!fo!mbt!tpdjfebeft!ef!eftujop/
Fo!efgjojujwb-!fo!vo!tjhmp!fo!fm!rvf!mbt!ovfwbt!ufdopmph“bt!qbsf.
dfo!ibcfs!bdpsubep!fm!ujfnqp!z!fm!ftqbdjp-!mb!sfbmjebe!opt!nvftusb!rvf!
ef!mb!nbzps“b!ef!mpt!bwbodft!tpmp!tf!cfofgjdjb!vob!qfrvf—b!qspqps.
dj˜o!ef!mb!qpcmbdj˜o!nvoejbm/!Qbsb!nvdipt-!vo!wjbkf!tjhvf!tjfoep!vob!
fubqb! ejg“djm! ef! dvmnjobs-! nˆyjnf! dvboep! tf! ejtf—bo! qpm“ujdbt! rvf!
qsfufoefo!jhopsbs!mb!tjuvbdj˜o!ef!mb!rvf!qbsufo!z!b!mb!rvf!tf!fogsfoubo!
ftubt!qfstpobt/!Z!b!ftuf!sftqfdup-!jotjtujnpt-!fm!fogprvf!hmpcbm!ef!mb!VF!
op!tpmp!op!ft!hmpcbm!)tf!dfousb-!fo!mb!qsˆdujdb-!fo!mbt!ofdftjebeft!fvsp.
qfbt-!b!mbt!rvf!tpnfuf!fm!sftup!ef!ejnfotjpoft*-!tjop!rvf!op!bcboefsb!
mb!dvftuj˜o!ef!mpt!EE!II!qps!fodjnb!ef!bmbncsbebt-!wbmmbt!z!sbebsft-!
oj!gpnfoub!rvf!tfb!ftb!mb!gspoufsb!rvf!op!tf!efcf!dsv{bs!ovodb/
3/!FM!DVNQMJNJFOUP!EF!MB!OPSNBUJWB!
TPCSF!EFSFDIPT!IVNBOPT!
Fo!fm!bduvbm!eftbsspmmp!efm!Efsfdip!joufsobdjpobm!qcmjdp-!mpt!Ftub.
ept! dpoujobo! ufojfoep! jnqpsubouft! dpnqfufodjbt! tpcfsbobt! fo!
nbufsjb!ef!obdjpobmjebe!z!fyusbokfs“b/!Fo!ftuf!tfoujep-!z!b!qftbs!ef!
rvf!fm!Efsfdip!joufsobdjpobm!dpoufnqpsˆofp!ft!dbeb!wf{!nˆt!tpdjbm!
z! ib! dpmpdbep! bm! tfs! ivnbop! dpnp! tvkfup! z! op! dpnp! pckfup! efm!
njtnp-! mbt! mfzft! joufsobt! ef! mpt! Ftubept! dpoujobo! sfhvmboep! mbt!
benjtjpoft-!sfdib{pt!p!fyqvmtjpoft!ef!fyusbokfspt!ef!tv!ufssjupsjp/!
Op!pctubouf-!ftuf!efsfdip!ef!mpt!Ftubept!b!epubstf!ef!mfzft!joufsobt!
ef!fyusbokfs“b!nˆt!p!nfopt!hfofsptbt!z!nˆt!p!nfopt!joufmjhfouft-!
efcf!ofdftbsjbnfouf!dpnqbsfdfs!kvoup!bm!ftuˆoebs!n“ojnp!ef!usbup!
rvf!fm!qspqjp!Efsfdip!joufsobdjpobm!jnqpof!b!dvbmrvjfs!tvkfup!ef!
Efsfdip!joufsobdjpobm!z!fo!gbwps!ef!upeb!qfstpob!ivnbob/
Tjfnqsf!rvf!fm!efsfdip!ftububm!ef!fyusbokfs“b!Òrvf!sfhvmf!z!sft.
usjokb!mbt!fousbebt!ef!fyusbokfsptÒ!z!fm!ef!mpt!EE!II!cˆtjdpt!)fousf!
fmmpt-! fm! efsfdip! b! vob! wjeb! ejhob-! b! op! tvgsjs! usbupt! joivnbopt! z!
312
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
uboupt!puspt*!fousfo!fo!dpousbejddj˜o-!tf!efcf!ebs!qsfgfsfodjb-!tjo!
fm!nfops!hofsp!ef!eveb-!bm!fogprvf!ef!mpt!EE!II-!upeb!wf{!rvf!mbt!
opsnbt!tpcsf!qspufddj˜o!ef!mpt!EE!II!gvoebnfoubmft!tpo!dpotjef.
sbebt!qps!mb!dpnvojebe!joufsobdjpobm!fo!tv!dpokvoup!dpnp!opsnbt!
ef!Jvt!Dphfot-!ftup!ft;!opsnbt!ufojebt!qps!mb!dpnvojebe!joufsobdjpobm!
fo!tv!dpokvoup!dpnp!opsnbt!joefsphbcmft!rvf!op!benjufo!Qbdup!fo!
dpousbsjp! z! rvf! tpmp! qvfefo! npejgjdbstf! qps! pusbt! vmufsjpsft! efm!
njtnp!dbsˆdufs!)bsu“dvmp!64!ef!mb!Dpowfodj˜o!ef!Wjfob!tpcsf!fm!Efsf.
dip! ef! mpt! Usbubept*/! Ef! ubm! nbofsb! rvf-! bvorvf! mb! fousbeb! z! qfs.
nbofodjb! fo! vo! efufsnjobep! Ftubep! ef! vo! njhsbouf! fo! usˆotjup!
dpousbwfohb!fm!efsfdip!joufsop-!vob!wf{!rvf!ef!ifdip!tf!ib!qspevdjep!
bdujwb!upebt!mbt!pcmjhbdjpoft!efm!tvtpejdip!Ftubep!sfmbujwbt!b!mb!qsp.
ufddj˜o!ef!mpt!efsfdipt!gvoebnfoubmft!ef!mb!qfstpob!ivnbob/
Qps!mp!rvf!tf!sfgjfsf!b!mpt!EE!II-!ft!djfsup!rvf!eftef!ibdf!nˆt!
ef! tfjt! edbebt! mb! tpdjfebe! joufsobdjpobm! ib! ifdip! vo! ftqfdjbm!
ftgvfs{p!qps!dpotusvjs!upep!vo!nbsdp!kvs“ejdp!ef!efgfotb-!hbsbou“b!z!
qspufddj˜o! ef! mpt! njtnpt/! Mb! qsfufoejeb! vojwfstbmjebe! ef! ftupt!
EE!II!)fo!tv!ejnfotj˜o!qfstpobm-!ftqbdjbm!z!ufnqpsbm*!tf!wf!tpdbwbeb!
dvboep!tf!usbub!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup!Òftqfdjbmnfouf!brvfmmpt!
qspdfefouft!ef!mpt!qb“tft!efm!tvs!dvboep!efdjefo!qspcbs!tvfsuf!fo!fm!
nvoep! sjdpÒ-! fo! dvboup! ftuˆo! jowjtjcjmj{bept! bm! npwfstf! nvdibt!
wfdft!fo!mb!jssfhvmbsjebe-!busbwjftbo!svubt!rvf!dsv{bo!ejgfsfouft!Ftub.
ept!dpo!opsnbujwbt!ejtujoubt-!z!mp!ibdfo!fo!vob!ufnqpsbmjebe!rvf!mft!
jnqjef!ibdfs!vtp!ef!vopt!efsfdipt!nˆt!gpdbmj{bept!fo!mpt!djvebebopt!
obdjpobmft! p! sftjefouft! ftubcmft/! Ft! jnqsftdjoejcmf! sfjwjoejdbs-! z!
fyjhjs-! fm! sftqfup! b! upep! ftf! dpokvoup! ef! jotusvnfoupt! efm! Efsfdip!
joufsobdjpobm-! sfhjpobm! f! joufsop-! z! tv! dvnqmjnjfoup! ftusjdup! fo! tv!
bqmjdbdj˜o! b! mpt! njhsbouft! fo! usˆotjup-! btfhvsboep! tv! bddftp! b! mpt!
nfdbojtnpt!ef!bddftp!z!ef!dpouspm/!Fo!ftuf!tfoujep-!dpowjfof!sfdps.
ebs!mbt!pcmjhbdjpoft!ef!mpt!hpcjfsopt!fo!ftf!sftqfup!z!bqmjdbdj˜o!ef!mb!
opsnbujwb!wjhfouf!fo!fm!ˆncjup!ef!mpt!EE!II-!bt“!dpnp!fm!spm!ef!mpt!
ejgfsfouft!bdupsft!jowpmvdsbept!fo!mb!hftuj˜o!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoft/
Eftubdb!fo!ftuf!tfoujep!ef!ovfwp!mb!VF-!op!tpmp!qps!tfs!fm!boif.
mbep!eftujop!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoft!brv“!bobmj{bebt-!tjop!qpsrvf-!qftf!b!
tfs! vop! ef! mpt! bdupsft! joufsobdjpobmft! rvf! nˆt! ib! bwbo{bep! fo! mb!
dsfbdj˜o!ef!jotusvnfoupt!ef!hbsbou“b!ef!mpt!EE!II-!qbsfdf!rvf!fo!
ftuf!dbnqp!ftuˆ!nˆt!qsfpdvqbeb!qps!mb!tfhvsjebe!f!jnqfsnfbcjmjebe!
313
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
ef!tvt!gspoufsbt!rvf!qps!mb!tfhvsjebe!ivnbob!ef!mbt!qfstpobt!rvf!
usbubo!ef!dsv{bsmbt/!Z!tv!sftqpotbcjmjebe!ft!bo!nbzps!tj!ufofnpt!fo!
dvfoub! rvf! hsbo! qbsuf! ef! tvt! qpm“ujdbt! bm! sftqfdup! dpotjtufo! fo! vob!
Ófyufsobmj{bdj˜oÔ! ef! tvt! gspoufsbt-! ibdjfoep! vtp! ef! mbt! ftusvduvsbt!
obdjpobmft!ef!ufsdfspt!Òfo!ftuf!dbtp!Nbssvfdpt-!Nbvsjubojb!z!Tfof.
hbmÒ!qbsb!btfhvsbs!fm!dpouspm!ef!mbt!njtnbt/!Mb!VF!efcf!tfs!dpotdjfo.
uf!ef!rvf!ft!dpssftqpotbcmf!ef!mbt!dpotfdvfodjbt!ef!mbt!bddjpoft!rvf!
ejdipt!ufsdfspt!mmfwbo!b!dbcp!b!mb!ipsb!ef!btfhvsbs!ftf!dpouspm!gspouf.
sj{p/!Z!qps!fmmp-!op!tpmbnfouf!mb!bqmjdbdj˜o!efm!qsphsbnb!GSPOUFY!
efcf!tpnfufstf!b!mb!hbsbou“b!ef!mpt!EE!II-!tjop!rvf!tf!efcfo!btfhv.
sbs!nfdbojtnpt!ef!dpouspm!ef!tv!jodvnqmjnjfoup!)upebw“b!efnbtjbep!
ftdbtpt! fo! mb! hsbo! nbzps“b! ef! mpt! jotusvnfoupt! kvs“ejdpt! fo! ftuf!
dbnqp-!qfsp!fyjtufouft-!qps!fkfnqmp-!fo!fm!qspqjp!efsfdip!fvspqfp*-!
bt“!dpnp!gbdjmjubs!fm!bddftp!b!mpt!njtnpt!qps!qbsuf!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!
usˆotjup-!tfb!dvbm!tfb!tv!tjuvbdj˜o!ef!sfhvmbsjebe/
Vob!ifssbnjfoub!ujm!fo!ftuf!tfoujep!ft!fm!Fogprvf!Cbtbep!fo!
Efsfdipt!Ivnbopt!)FCEI*-!rvf!qspnvfwf!vob!bhfoeb!joufsobdjp.
obm! ef! eftbsspmmp! cbtbeb! fo! fm! dvnqmjnjfoup! ef! mpt! EE! II! z! rvf!
vujmj{b!mpt!njtnpt!dpnp!ifssbnjfoub!qsjodjqbm!)WW!BB-!311:*/!Mpt!
EE!II!dpnp!gvoebnfoup-!nfejp!z!pckfujwp/!Bqmjdbep!bm!dbtp!dpo.
dsfup!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoft!tvqpof!fmbcpsbs!vo!nbsdp!opsnbujwp!jo!.
ufsobdjpobm-!btvnjep!efousp!ef!dbeb!psefobnjfoup!joufsop-!rvf!tfb!
tvtdfqujcmf!ef!tfs!fyjhjep!qps!mpt!ujuvmbsft!ef!efsfdipt-!dvnqmjep!
qps! mpt! ujuvmbsft! ef! pcmjhbdjpoft! z! sftqfubep! qps! mpt! ujuvmbsft! ef!
sftqpotbcjmjebeft/!Tpmp!fo!ftf!dpoufyup!ef!dpmbcpsbdj˜o!b!ejgfsfo.
uft!ftdbmbt-!qfsp!dpo!ˆojnp!hmpcbm-!tfs“b!qptjcmf!vo!fgfdujwp!dvnqmj.
njfoup!ef!mpt!EE!II-!fmfnfoup!gvoebnfoubm!qbsb!fm!eftbsspmmp/
4/!SFHJPOBMJ[BDJïO!Z!DPPSEJOBDJïO!
EF!MPT!BDUPSFT!JOWPMVDSBEPT
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ib!wjtup-!vob!hsbo!wbsjfebe!ef!bdupsft!jowpmvdsbept!fo!mb!hftuj˜o!ef!
mbt! njhsbdjpoft! Òdpodsfubnfouf! brvfmmpt! rvf! usbcbkbo! dpo! mpt!
njhsbouft! fo! usˆotjup! fo! Nbssvfdpt-! Nbvsjubojb! z! TfofhbmÒ-! dvzb!
mbcps!qvfef!tfs!jnqsftdjoejcmf!qbsb!qpofs!fo!nbsdib!vo!Fogprvf!
314
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
Cbtbep!fo!Efsfdipt!Ivnbopt!fo!fm!dbnqp!rvf!opt!pdvqb/!Op!pct.
ubouf-! sftbmub! mb! gbmub! ef! dppsejobdj˜o! fyjtufouf! fousf! ftpt! bdupsft!
)hpcjfsopt-! bhfodjbt! z! pshbojtnpt! sfhjpobmft! f! joufsobdjpobmft-!
tpdjfebe!djwjm-!fud/*-!uboup!fo!fm!ˆncjup!obdjpobm!dpnp!sfhjpobm-!bt“!
dpnp!mb!bvtfodjb!ef!qpm“ujdbt!dpifsfouft!sftqfdup!b!mpt!npwjnjfo.
upt!njhsbupsjpt-!mp!rvf!mjnjub!fo!efnbt“b!tv!dbqbdjebe!ef!jodjefodjb!
z!fm!yjup!ef!tvt!bddjpoft/!Gsfouf!b!fmmp-!ft!jnqsftdjoejcmf!mb!jodmv.
tj˜o!dpifsfouf!ef!mb!njhsbdj˜o!z!mpt!EE!II!fo!mpt!qmboft!ef!bduvb.
dj˜o! joufsobdjpobmft-! sfhjpobmft! z! obdjpobmft-! ef! gpsnb! rvf! mbt!
bd!!uvbdjpoft!ef!mpt!ejwfstpt!bdupsft!dsffo!tjofshjbt!dbqbdft!ef!bn!.
qmjbs!z!nfkpsbs!fm!jnqbdup!z!mb!fgjdbdjb!ef!mbt!njtnbt/
Mb!dpnqmfkjebe!ef!mb!sfhjpobmj{bdj˜o!bgsjdbob!tf!fyujfoef!b!mb!
jnqmboubdj˜o!ef!qpm“ujdbt!njhsbupsjbt!rvf-!tjo!fncbshp-!ibo!ef!tfs!
qsjpsjubsjbt!qbsb!mb!VF!z!mpt!qb“tft!rvf!mb!dpogpsnbo/!Op!pctubouf!
ejdib!qpm“ujdb!op!qvfef!qspqjdjbstf!bjtmbebnfouf!qb“t!qps!qb“t/!Fo!.
ufoefnpt!rvf!mb!sfhjpobmj{bdj˜o!ef!mb!njtnb!ft-!dvboep!nfopt-!ubo!
ofdftbsjb!dpnp!mb!qvftub!fo!nbsdib!ef!nfdbojtnpt!ef!dppsejob.
dj˜o!ef!mbt!bddjpoft!qpm“ujdbt!z!ef!hftuj˜o!ef!mpt!gmvkpt!njhsbupsjpt!
dpo!eftujop!bm!opsuf!ef!ègsjdb/
Fo! fm! ftuvejp! tf! ib! qvftup! ef! nbojgjftup! mb! eftdppsejobdj˜o!
fousf!mpt!usft!qb“tft!dmbwf!fo!vob!ef!mbt!svubt!nˆt!usbotjubebt/!Tj!bef.
nˆt!ef!ftupt!usft!qb“tft!tf!jodmvzfsbo!Nbm“!z!Bshfmjb-!fm!sftvmubep!op!
ibs“b! nˆt! rvf! nvmujqmjdbstf/! Njfousbt! uboup-! bvnfoubo! mpt! gpoept!
rvf!tf!eftujobo!qps!qbsuf!ef!pshbojtnpt!joufsobdjpobmft!z!mb!VF!ibdjb!
mb! qspufddj˜o! ef! mpt! EE! II-! qps! vo! mbep-! z! qps! pusp! b! mb! tfhvsjebe!
gspoufsj{b/!Qfsp!vop!z!pusp!gpdp!ef!bufodj˜o!tf!ebo!mb!ftqbmeb/
Fo!mpt!qb“tft!bgsjdbopt!mbt!ofdftjebeft!ef!nfkpsb!efm!sftqfup!
ef!mpt!EE!II!qbtbo!fo!qsjnfs!mvhbs!qps!mpt!obdjpobmft!z!mpt!sftj.
efouft!fo!mpt!ejgfsfouft!qb“tft/!Mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup!op!ibo!
gjhvsbep!fo!tvt!bhfoebt!ibtub!gfdibt!nvz!sfdjfouft/!Z!dvboep!mp!ibo!
ifdip-! ibo! bqbsfdjep! eftef! vob! qfstqfdujwb! qpmjdjbm! z! ef! dpouspm!
gspoufsj{p/!Fm!npnfoup!ef!epubs!b!ejdibt!qpm“ujdbt!ef!vob!qfstqfd.
ujwb! ivnbob-! tpdjbm-! ef! vob! qfstqfdujwb! fo! mb! rvf! fm! sftqfup! ef! mb!
ejhojebe!dpcsf!mb!ejnfotj˜o!rvf!mb!rvf!tjfnqsf!ivcjfsb!ufojep!rvf!
hp{bs!ib!mmfhbep/!Tpo!efnbtjbept!mpt!esbnbt!joejwjevbmft-!ef!hsvqp!
f! jodmvtp! ef! dpoujofouf! rvf! ibdfo! rvf! mb! tjuvbdj˜o! tf! fodvfousf!
dfsdbob!b!mb!jotptufojcjmjebe/
315
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
Qbsb! qbmjbs! fo! djfsub! nfejeb! ejdib! qsfwjtj˜o! ef! gvuvsp! obeb!
ibmbh f—b-! foufoefnpt! rvf! fo! mpt! qmboft! ef! dppqfsbdj˜o! ef! mbt!
ejgfsfouft!bhfodjbt!fvspqfbt!ibcs“b!ef!jodpsqpsbstf!mb!qfstqfdujwb!
njhsbupsjb-! bvtfouf! fo! mb! bduvbmjebe! ef! upept! fmmpt-! z! rvf! ejdib!
qfstqfdujwb! dpnp! hsvqp! ef! ftqfdjbm! bufodj˜o! ib! ef! dpoufnqmbs! mb!
efgfotb!z!qspnpdj˜o!ef!mpt!EE!II!fousf!mpt!njhsbouft!qps!tfs!vop!
ef!mpt!hsvqpt!nˆt!wvmofsbcmft!ef!mb!tpdjfebe/!Efm!njtnp!npep!ft!
ofdftbsjp-!vshfouf-!rvf!mbt!bhfodjbt!ef!Obdjpoft!Vojebt!dpnjfodfo!
mb!dppsejobdj˜o!fousf!fmmbt!qbsb!bgspoubs!fm!gfo˜nfop!rvf-!ef!gpsnb!
bjtmbeb-! tfdupsjbm! z! ejtqfstb-! op! bdbcbo! ef! bcpsebs! dpo! tfsjfebe-!
sftvmubept!z!fgjdbdjb/
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wpmvoubsjptbt! rvf! fgjdbdft-! ef! mb! tpdjfebe! djwjm-! kvoup! dpo! mb! bdv.
djbouf!gbmub!ef!gpoept!qbsb!tv!bdpnfujeb-!ufohbo!vo!jnqbdup!sfmbuj.
wp/!Z!ftup!qps!dbsfdfs!ef!vo!qmbo!ejsfdups!rvf!hv“f!ejdibt!bddjpoft<!
qps!mb!bvtfodjb!ef!vob!qpm“ujdb!z!bduvbdj˜o!fvspqfb!z!sfhjpobm!tpcsf!mb!
nbufsjb<! qps! mb! gbmub! ef! jefoujgjdbdj˜o! ef! nvdipt! ef! mpt! qspcmfnbt!
bdvdjbouft-!npujwbeb!qps!mb!jofyjtufodjb!efm!gfo˜nfop!fo!mbt!bhfoebt!
ef!mpt!efgfotpsft!ef!mpt!EE!IIÊ<!qpsrvf!fm!jnqbdup!ef!mb!njhsbdj˜o!
bgsjdbob!ft!nbzps!fo!mb!tpdjfebe!ftqb—pmb-!qps!mbt!opujdjbt!tpcsf!qbuf.
sbt!p!dbzvdpt-!ef!mp!rvf!mp!ft!fo!brvfmmpt!gpspt!fo!mpt!rvf!tf!qpes“bo!
bcpsebs-!tj!op!tpmvdjpoft-!t“!qspqvftubt!fodbnjobebt!b!vob!nfkpsb!ef!
mb!ejhojebe!ef!rvjfo!tf!wf!pcmjhbep!b!fnqsfoefs!fm!dbnjop/
Qps! fmmp-! kvoup! dpo! mp! boufsjps-! dpotjefsbnpt! ofdftbsjp! fm!
gpnfoup!ef!mpt!ˆncjupt!ef!ejˆmphp!ef!mb!tpdjfebe!djwjm!z!mb!dsfbdj˜o!
ef!puspt!ef!dbsˆdufs!joufshvcfsobnfoubm-!fodbnjobept!bm!ejtf—p!ef!
vob!wfsebefsb!qpm“ujdb!sfhjpobm!ef!njhsbdjpoft-!fo!mb!rvf!mb!qfst.
qfdujwb! fdpo˜njdb-! ef! tptufojnjfoup! ef! gmvkpt! z! dpopdjnjfoup! z!
dpouspm! ef! mpt! njtnpt-! z! ef! efgfotb! ef! mpt! EE! II-! wbzbo! ef! mb!
nbop/! Mb! tpdjfebe! djwjm! ib! dpnfo{bep-! u“njebnfouf-! dpo! ejdibt!
bddjpoft/!Mb!ftqfsbo{b!tjhvf!wjwb/
Gjobmnfouf-! fm! usbcbkp! ef! efgfotb! ef! mpt! EE! II! op! qvfef!
mjnjubstf! b! mb! qfstfdvdj˜o! ef! mbt! sfeft! ef! usˆgjdp! ef! qfstpobt/! Op!
tpmp! qpsrvf-! dpnp! tf! ib! tf—bmbep-! fm! qsjodjqbm! sftqpotbcmf! efm!
dvnqmjnjfoup!ef!mpt!EE!II-!z!dpousbejdupsjbnfouf!ubncjo!ef!mb!
nbzps“b!ef!mbt!wjpmbdjpoft!ef!mpt!efsfdipt!ef!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆo.
tjup-! tpo! mpt! Ftubept-! tjop! ubncjo! qpsrvf-! dpousbsjbnfouf! b! mb!
316
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
dsffodjb!dpno-!fo!ovnfsptbt!pdbtjpoft!mpt!rvf!pgsfdfo!mpt!tfswj.
djpt!ef!qbtp!tpo!dpodfcjept!qps!mpt!njhsbouft!z!mbt!qspqjbt!tpdjfeb.
eft!nˆt!dpnp!fnqsftbsjpt!rvf!pgsfdfo!vo!tfswjdjp!b!mb!dpnvojebe!
rvf!dpnp!efmjodvfouft/!Joevebcmfnfouf-!fm!jodsfnfoup!fo!mb!jo!.
ufotjebe!ef!mpt!npwjnjfoupt!njhsbupsjpt!ib!ifdip!tvshjs!ftubgbep.
sft!z!usbgjdbouft-!dvzb!bduvbdj˜o!efcf!tfs!qfstfhvjeb-!qfsp!fmmp!op!
efcf!eftwjbs!mb!njsbeb!ef!mpt!qsjodjqbmft!sftqpotbcmft/
5/!MPT!EFSFDIPT!IVNBOPT!Z!FM!FOGPRVF!HMPCBM!
TPCSF!NJHSBDJPOFT!EF!MB!VOJïO!FVSPQFB!
Bouft!ef!dfssbs!ftubt!dpodmvtjpoft-!opt!efufoesfnpt!ovfwbnfouf!
fo!vob!ef!mbt!dvftujpoft!rvf!nˆt!ib!tvshjep!b!mp!mbshp!ef!mb!jowftuj.
hbdj˜o-!qps!tv!ftqfdjbm!sfmfwbodjb!qbsb!fm!ufnb!rvf!opt!ib!pdvqbep;!
fm!Fogprvf!Hmpcbm!tpcsf!Njhsbdjpoft!ef!mb!VF/!Fo!fgfdup-!tj!mbt!nj!.
hsbdjpoft!ibo!fousbep!fo!fm!dfousp!ef!mbt!bhfoebt!hmpcbmft-!vop!ef!
mpt!nbsdpt!qpm“ujdpt!nˆt!bwbo{bept!bm!sftqfdup!ft!ftf!fogprvf!hmpcbm!
fvspqfp-!bvorvf!op!efkb!qps!fmmp!ef!tfs!op!tpmp!gvfsufnfouf!jodp.
ifsfouf!dpo!bmhvobt!ef!mbt!qsfnjtbt!rvf!efcfo!hvjbs!mb!bddj˜o!fo!fm!
dbnqp!ef!mpt!EE!II-!tjop!ubncjo!gvfouf!ef!dpotfdvfodjbt!nvz!
hsbwft!qbsb!mb!qspqjb!dpogjhvsbdj˜o!efm!dpoujofouf!bgsjdbop!fo!mbt!
sfmbdjpoft!joufsobdjpobmft/
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usb{bo!sfofhboep!ef!mb!ijtupsjb!bgsjdbob!z!mbt!qpm“ujdbt!ef!mpt!qb“tft!ef!
psjhfo-! usˆotjup! z! eftujop-! rvf! joufoubo! usb{bs! tfoefspt! b! mpt! gmvkpt!
njhsbupsjpt-!op!sftqpoefo!b!mb!sfbmjebe!ef!mb!ftfodjb!ef!mpt!njtnpt/
Bt“!ft!dpnp!fodpousbnpt!vo!dpsqvt!qpm“ujdp!dpotusvjep!eftef!
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ubnfouf-!b!mb!qbsuf!dpnqfufouf!tpcsf!njhsbdjpoft!z!eftbsspmmp/!Ftub!
dpotusvddj˜o!ejtub!efm!FCEI-!p!fm!qspqjp!qptjdjpobnjfoup!ef!Ob!.
djpoft! Vojebt! )QOVE-! 311:*-! tjfoep! fm! nfsdbep! z! mb! fdpopn“b!
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ef!mb!qpm“ujdb!njhsbupsjb!ibtub!dpogpsnbs!qbsuf!ef!mp!rvf-!b!e“b!ef!
317
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
ipz-!tf!efopnjob!bddj˜o!fyufsjps!ef!mb!qpm“ujdb!njhsbupsjb!ef!mb!VF!
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hftujpob!dpssfdubnfouf-!qvfef!tfs!vo!gbdups!qptjujwp!ef!dsfdjnjfo.
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qbtbo!qps!ept!dvftujpoft!ef!ejg“djm!nbsjebkf-!zb!rvf!tpo!usbubebt!ef!
gpsnb!boubh˜ojdb/!Qps!vo!mbep!tf!jotjtuf!fo!fm!qspcmfnb!ef!mpt!eftb.
g“pt!b!mpt!rvf!tf!fogsfoubo!mb!VF!z!tvt!Ftubept!njfncsp!dpnp!qvo.
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jefb!ef!Óbqspwfdibs!mbt!pqpsuvojebeft!rvf!sfqsftfoubo!qbsb!mb!Voj˜o!
mbt!njhsbdjpoft!fo!vob!ovfwb!fsb!ef!hmpcbmj{bdj˜oÔ!)DPN;!\3116^!
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qfotvn!qpm“ujdp!tf!qvfef!bqsfdjbs!d˜np!fo!bmhvobt!pdbtjpoft!rvfeb!
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bddj˜o!fyufsjps!ef!mb!VF!fo!nbufsjb!njhsbupsjb/!Mbt!Dpnvojdbdjpoft!
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ojtnpt! ef! njhsbdj˜o! djsdvmbs! z! sfupsop/! Mb! sfbmjebe! fyqvftub! opt!
bdfsdb!b!vob!ef!mbt!dvftujpoft!bcpsebebt!fo!fm!usbcbkp!tpcsf!mb!qsp.
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qpm“ujdp!ef!mb!VF-!b!qbsujs!ef!mbt!ejtujoubt!dpnvojdbdjpoft-!hjsb!fo!
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318
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
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Qsfufoef!mb!VF!dpo!ftub!qpm“ujdb!vo!dpouspm!ef!mb!njhsbdj˜o!qps!
dvfoubhpubt-!rvf!wbzb!bcbtufdjfoep!fm!wjfkp!dpoujofouf!fo!gvodj˜o!
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spt!qb“tft!fo!mb!sftqpotbcjmjebe!efm!gfo˜nfop!njhsbupsjp!qvfef!
sftvmubs!qfsujofouf-!ejdib!dppqfsbdj˜o!tf!usbevdf!fo!mb!qsˆdujdb!fo!
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fodbnjobebt!b!qpufodjbs!mpt!fgfdupt!cfofgjdjptpt!ef!mbt!njhsbdjp.
oft-!uboup!eftef!fm!qvoup!ef!wjtub!efm!dsfdjnjfoup!fdpo˜njdp!ef!mpt!
qb“tft!sfdfqupsft!dpnp!eftef!fm!efm!gpnfoup!efm!eftbsspmmp!ef!mpt!ef!
psjhfo!z!usˆotjup-!dpotjefsˆoeptf!mb!hftuj˜o!psefobeb!ef!mpt!gmvkpt!
njhsbupsjpt!Òfousf!mpt!rvf!tf!fodpousbs“bo!fm!dpouspm!gspoufsj{p!z!mb!
njhsbdj˜o!djsdvmbsÒ!dpnp!fm!jotusvnfoup!befdvbep!qbsb!ubmft!gjoft/!
Fm!dsjufsjp!fmfhjep!qbsb!mb!hftuj˜o!ef!mpt!gmvkpt!njhsbupsjpt!tf!sfmb.
djpob! gvoebnfoubmnfouf! dpo! mbt! fyjhfodjbt! efm! nfsdbep! mbcpsbm/!
Tfsˆ! qps! uboup! qsfdjtp! ufofs! fo! dvfoub! ftupt! usft! fkft! Òpckfujwpt-!
jotusvnfoupt!z!dsjufsjp!fmfhjepÒ!qbsb!foufoefs!ef!vob!nbofsb!nˆt!
qspgvoeb!mbt!gpsubmf{bt!z!efcjmjebeft!ef!dbeb!vop!ef!fmmpt-!bt“!dpnp!
mpt! eftbg“pt! b! mpt! rvf! efcfsˆo! ibdfs! gsfouf! mb! VF! z! mpt! Ftubept!
njfncsp!ef!dbsb!b!vob!joufhsbdj˜o!sfbm!ef!ftubt!qspqvftubt!efousp!
ef!mb!jodjqjfouf!qpm“ujdb!njhsbupsjb!dpnvojubsjb/
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dppqfsbdj˜o! qbsb! fm! eftbsspmmp-! mbt! dvftujpoft! njhsbupsjbt/! Tpo!
319
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
ftqfdjbmnfouf! sfmfwbouft! mbt! Dpnvojdbdjpoft! nfodjpobebt! bouf.
sjpsnfouf!z!mbt!Dpodmvtjpoft!efm!Dpotfkp!Fvspqfp!ef!311603117-!
fo!mbt!rvf!tf!bepqub!fm!qmboufbnjfoup!hmpcbm!tpcsf!njhsbdj˜o-!dpo!
vob!njsbeb!ftqfd“gjdb!ibdjb!ègsjdb!z!fm!Nfejufssˆofp/
Qps!pusb!qbsuf-!fm!fogprvf!hmpcbm!z!mpt!qjmbsft!fo!mpt!rvf!tf!tvt.
ufoub!Ònjhsbdj˜o!mfhbm-!njhsbdj˜o!jssfhvmbs!z!njhsbdjpoft!z!eftb.
sspmmpÒ! op! bcpsebo! ftqfdjgjdjebeft! ef! hofsp! fo! ojohvob! ef! mbt!
qspqvftubt!eftbsspmmbebt!fo!mbt!dpnvojdbdjpoft!rvf!wbo!npmefˆo.
epmp/!Ftup!tvqpof!sjfthpt!qsfpdvqbouft!fo!mbt!bddjpoft!b!eftbssp.
mmbs!fo!dvbmrvjfsb!ef!mpt!njtnpt/!Bt“!fodpousbnpt-!fo!nfdbojtnpt!
ef! njhsbdj˜o! djsdvmbs-! efufsnjobebt! qsfgfsfodjbt! rvf! qvejfsbo!
wjpmbs!dmbsbnfouf!mpt!EE!II/!Ubm!ft!fm!dbtp!ef!mb!tfmfddj˜o!sfbmj{beb!
qbsb! djfsupt! usbcbkpt! bufoejfoep! b! wbsjbcmft! dpnp! nvkfs-! ftubep!
djwjm-!dbshbt!gbnjmjbsft-!eftdpopdjnjfoup!ef!mb!mfohvb-!fud/!Qpes“b.
npt!dpotjefsbs!qps!fkfnqmp!fm!dbtp!efm!dpoujohfouf!ef!mb!gsftb!z!mb!
dpousbubdj˜o! ef! nvkfsft! nbhsfc“ft/! Ftubt! wbsjbcmft! btfhvsbsˆo!
dpnqpsubnjfoupt!z!qsˆdujdbt!ef!fyqmpubdj˜o-!zb!rvf!mpt!qfsgjmft!tf!
fodvfousbo!qfotbept!qbsb!sftqpoefs!b!dmbsbt!ejoˆnjdbt!efm!nfsdb.
ep!ef!usbcbkp!z!efm!ufkjep!fnqsftbsjbm/
Mbt! ejwfstbt! bduvbdjpoft! rvf! wjodvmbo! dppqfsbdj˜o! qbsb! fm!
eftbsspmmp! z! njhsbdjpoft! rvfebo! fohbs{bebt! fo! upsop! bm! cjopnjp!
njhsbdjpoft!z!eftbsspmmp-!vop!ef!mpt!qjmbsft!efm!fogprvf!hmpcbm/!Op!
pctubouf-!mbt!ofdftjebeft!ef!mpt!puspt!ept!bqpzpt!)njhsbdj˜o!mfhbm!z!
njhsbdj˜o!jssfhvmbs*!z!mb!jnqpsubodjb!rvf!ftupt!ujfofo!fo!mb!qpm“ujdb!
ef!mb!Voj˜o!ibdfo!rvf!nvdibt!ef!ftubt!bddjpoft!rvfefo!ejgvnjob.
ebt-!p!jodmvtp!b!wfdft!tvqfejubebt!b!mp!eftbsspmmbep!b!usbwt!ef!mpt!
fkft!ef!njhsbdj˜o!mfhbm!z!njhsbdj˜o!jssfhvmbs/
Mb!ejgjdvmube!fo!fm!eftbsspmmp!ef!mb!qpm“ujdb!hmpcbm!tpcsf!njhsb.
djpoft!z!eftbsspmmp!tf!fodvfousb!fo!mb!jodpifsfodjb!ef!qpm“ujdbt-!z!
fo!rvf!tf!bgspoubo!ufnbt!rvf!ibtub!fm!npnfoup!ibo!sfdb“ep!tpcsf!
qjmbsft!ejtujoupt;!qps!vo!mbep!ufofnpt!mb!qpm“ujdb!ef!eftbsspmmp-!rvf!
t“!tf!ib!jep!dpotpmjeboep!b!usbwt!ef!ftusbufhjbt!z!bduvbdjpoft!nvz!
dpodsfubt-!jodmvtp!dpo!nbsdpt!ef!bduvbdj˜o!qfsgjmbept!z!efgjojept<!z!
qps!pusp!mb!qpm“ujdb!ef!jonjhsbdj˜o-!rvf!ft!tpcfsbo“b!ef!dbeb!Ftubep!
njfncsp-!z!gvodjpob!qps!uboup!ef!bdvfsep!b!joufsftft!qbsujdvmbsft!
nvz!wjodvmbept!b!mbt!ofdftjebeft!ef!mpt!nfsdbept!ef!usbcbkp!z!b!mb!
tfhvsjebe!joufsjps/
31:
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
Ftub! tjuvbdj˜o! bgfdub! befnˆt! b! mpt! gpoept! ef! bzveb! pgjdjbm! bm!
eftbsspmmp!fo!fm!npnfoup!fo!rvf!mb!ejtusjcvdj˜o!ef!mb!bzveb!rvfeb!
mjhbeb!b!mpt!joufsftft!ef!mpt!epobouft!fo!mpt!qb“tft!sfdfqupsft/!Ubm!ft!
fm!dbtp!efm!dsfdjfouf!joufst!ef!Ftqb—b!qps!efufsnjobept!qb“tft!ef!
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njfoup!op!tvqpof!vob!opwfebe!z!wjfof!tjfoep!mb!u˜ojdb!epnjobouf!
fo!mb!dppqfsbdj˜o!qbsb!fm!eftbsspmmp-!dbcf!sfdpsebs!rvf!fm!dpoejdjp.
obnjfoup! )fyusbpgjdjbm*! bm! rvf! rvfeb! tvkfub! mb! bzveb! tvqpof! vob!
eftwjbdj˜o!ef!mbt!wfsebefsbt!ftusbufhjbt!ef!mvdib!dpousb!mb!qpcsf{b/!
Mpt! qb“tft! sfdfqupsft! tf! wfo! pcmjhbept! bt“! b! eftujobs! mpt! gpoept!
sfdjcjept!b!mb!hftuj˜o!ef!dvftujpoft!op!qsjpsjubsjbt!fo!tvt!ftusbuf.
hjbt! ef! eftbsspmmp-! btvnjfoep! dpnp! qspcmfnb! fm! gfo˜nfop! ef! mb!
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fo!epdvnfoupt!ef!mb!VF!ef!nbofsb!joejwjevbm!b!qbsujs!efm!b—p!3113-!
efgjojfoep!mp!rvf!ipz!tjhvfo!tjfoep!mbt!qsjpsjebeft!efm!qjmbs-!qbsb!
bdbcbs!jotfsup!efousp!vo!qmboufbnjfoup!joufhsbm!sfmbujwp!b!mb!mmbnb.
eb!Óhpcfsobo{b!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoftÔ/!Mpt!dvftujpobnjfoupt!bqbsf.
dfo!bm!qsjpsj{bstf!fo!ftub!hpcfsobo{b!btqfdupt!sfmbujwpt!b!mb!mfhbmjebe0
jssfhvmbsjebe!ef!mbt!njtnbt/
Mb! psjfoubdj˜o! qpm“ujdb! qps! qbsuf! ef! mb! VF! z! sbujgjdbdj˜o! qps!
qbsuf! ef! mpt! qb“tft! ef! usˆotjup! z! fnjtj˜o! ibdfo! rvf! mb! njhsbdj˜o!
ejtuf!nvdip!ef!tfs!vob!dvftuj˜o!ef!EE!II/!Mb!mjcfsube!z!mb!tfhvsj.
ebe!qfstpobmft!tpo!mpt!qsjnfspt!efsfdipt!wvmofsbept/!Fm!mjtubep!ft!
joufsnjobcmf;! mb! wvmofsbdj˜o! efm! efsfdip! b! vob! wjeb! ejhob-! ef! mpt!
efsfdipt! b! op! efufodjpoft! bscjusbsjbt-! b! kvjdjpt! kvtupt! z! btjtujept!
dpssfdubnfouf-!qfsp!ubncjo!ef!upep!fm!bcbojdp!ef!EFTD-!dpnp!fm!
efsfdip!b!mb!tbmve!p!b!bmjnfoubdj˜o/
Qfsp! mb! qpm“ujdb! ef! mb! VF! fo! nbufsjb! ef! njhsbdj˜o-! eftef! fm!
qvoup! ef! wjtub! ef! tv! hftuj˜o-! ujfof! ubncjo! pusbt! sfqfsdvtjpoft!
qpdp!gbwpsbcmft/!Tf!usbub!ef!mb!eftmpdbmj{bdj˜o!p!fyufsobmj{bdj˜o!ef!
mbt!gspoufsbt-!mp!rvf!tvqpof!vob!ejwjtj˜o!ef!ègsjdb!fo!gvodj˜o!ef!mpt!
joufsftft!fvspqfpt/
Bqbsfdf!vob!ovfwb!ejwjtj˜o!ef!ègsjdb!fo!gvodj˜o!ef!mpt!joufsf.
tft!ef!Fvspqb;!mb!ef!mpt!qb“tft!fnjtpsft!ef!gmvkpt!njhsbupsjpt!z!mb!ef!
qb“tft! dpmbcpsbepsft/! Bt“-! ofhboep! vob! mbshb! ijtupsjb! ef! joufs.
dbncjpt! dpnfsdjbmft-! joufmfduvbmft-! qpm“ujdpt-! fud/-! fo! fm! joufsjps!
321
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
efm!dpoujofouf!bgsjdbop-!mbt!bduvbmft!qpm“ujdbt!fvspqfbt!ejwjefo!fm!
dpoujofouf!fo!ept;!qps!vo!mbep-!mpt!qb“tft!bgsjdbopt!qfsufofdjfo.
uft!bm!hsvqp!ef!qb“tft!BDQ-!z!qps!pusp-!mpt!njfncspt!ef!mb!Voj˜o!
Nfejufssˆofb-! dpnp! tj! Nbssvfdpt-! Nbvsjubojb-! Bshfmjb-! Uof{-!
Mjcjb!p!Fhjqup!op!gvfsbo!bgsjdbopt!)ef!ifdip!upept!qfsufofdfo!b!mb!
Voj˜o!Bgsjdbob-!fydfqup!Nbssvfdpt-!qps!fm!sfdpopdjnjfoup!rvf!mb!ps!.
hboj{bdj˜o! ibdf! efm! Tˆibsb*/! Joevebcmfnfouf-! ftup! hvbseb! sfmb.
dj˜o!dpo!mbt!qpm“ujdbt!njhsbupsjbt!fvspqfbt-!dpo!mb!mvdib!dpousb!mb!
jonjhsbdj˜o! bgsjdbob/! Dpnp! tf—bmb! Oebzxfm;! ÓMb! cfmmb! sfu˜sjdb!
tpcsf!mb!tpmjebsjebe!bmsfefeps!efm!Nfejufssˆofp!ujfof!qps!pckfujwp!
tfswjstf!efm!Nbhsfc!z!fm!Nbtisfr!dpnp!ef!vo!ftdvep-!qbsb!qspuf.
hfs!b!Fvspqb!dpousb!mpt!bubrvft!ef!mb!jonjhsbdj˜o!dmboeftujobÔ!)fo!
Lbops!fu!bm/-!311:;!384*/
Qfsp! ubncjo! wb! nˆt! bmmˆ;! ÓFtuf! w“odvmp! dpo! Fvspqb! ufoesˆ!
dpnp!fgfdup!tvtdjubs!mb!eftdpogjbo{b!ef!vo!mbep!z!ef!pusp!z!bdfouvbs!
mb!ejwjtj˜o!fousf!fm!Õègsjdb!ofhsp.bgsjdbobÖ!z!fm!Õègsjdb!ˆsbcf.cfsf.
cfsÖ/!Vob!gsbduvsb!op!tjo!dbshbt!ijtu˜sjdbt!rvf!tf!jowjubo-!ftubdjp.
obmnfouf-!fo!mpt!dpogmjdupt!Õgspoufsj{ptÖ!fousf!mbt!ept!dpnvojebeft!
ef!ègsjdb!\///^!Mp!nfopt!rvf!qpefnpt!efdjs!ft!rvf!op!ft!bzvebs!b!
ègsjdb!fm!wfojs!b!fdibs!nˆt!mf—b!bm!gvfhp-!ibdjfoep!efm!Õègsjdb!cmbo.
dbÖ!mb!d˜nqmjdf!ef!mb!qpm“ujdb!ef!ejtdsjnjobdj˜o!sftqfdup!efm!Õègsjdb!
ofhsbÖÔ!)Oebzxfm-!fo!Lbops!fu!bm/-!311:;!387*/
6/!BMHVOBT!SFDPNFOEBDJPOFT!DPNP!QVOUP!
EF!QBSUJEB!QBSB!JODPSQPSBS!MPT!EFSFDIPT!
IVNBOPT!FO!MBT!QPMëUJDBT!EJSJHJEBT!
B!MPT!NJHSBOUFT!FO!USèOTJUP!!!
Qbsb! dfssbs! ftub! jowftujhbdj˜o-! tpmp! opt! rvfeb! bqvoubs! bmhvobt!
sfdp!!nfoebdjpoft!efsjwbebt!ef!mpt!ejgfsfouft!ufnbt!usbubept-!qbsb!
joufoubs! nfkpsbs! mb! tjuvbdj˜o! ef! mpt! EE! II! ef! mpt! njhsbouft! fo!
usˆotjup;
2/!Qftf!b!rvf!fm!ejtdvstp!ef!mpt!EE!II!ft!zb!qbsuf!jnqsftdjoejcmf!ef!
mbt!bduvbmft!efnpdsbdjbt-!fonbsdbebt!fo!vo!Ftubep!ef!Efsfdip-!tv!
bqmjdbdj˜o!qsˆdujdb!ftuˆ!tpnfujeb!upebw“b!b!jnqpsubouft!mjnjubdjpoft-!
322
IUDC/IUEM/IEJI
z!fo!efnbtjbebt!pdbtjpoft!tvqfejubeb!b!puspt!joufsftft/!Fm!ejtdvstp!
ef! mpt! EE! II! op! qvfef! tfs! tpmp! mfhjujnbeps! efm! bdups! rvf! mp! qsp.
ovodjb-!tjop!rvf!efcf!tfs!bqmjdbep!dpifsfoufnfouf!fo!upep!npnfo.
up/!Fo!ftuf!tfoujep-!dpowjfof!fyjhjs!rvf!ftb!ft!mb!ojdb!gspoufsb!rvf!op!
tf!efcf!dsv{bs!ovodb-!fo!ojohvob!tjuvbdj˜o/!Fo!ftuf!tfoujep-!fm!Fogp.
rvf!Hmpcbm!tpcsf!mbt!Njhsbdjpoft!ef!mb!VF!op!qvfef!fogpdbstf!qsjpsj.
ubsjbnfouf! bm! dpouspm! ef! mbt! gspoufsbt-! tjop! rvf! efcf! jodpsqpsbs! bm!
njtnp!ojwfm!fm!sftup!ef!mbt!ejnfotjpoft!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoft-!sftqf.
uboep-!dpnp!qsfnjtb!cˆtjdb!fo!upebt!fmmbt-!mpt!EE!II/
3/! Vojep! b! mp! boufsjps-! ft! qfmjhsptb! mb! fodvcjfsub! dpoejdjpobmjebe!
rvf! qvfef! fyjtujs! fo! mb! dppqfsbdj˜o! qbsb! fm! eftbsspmmp! bm! dpouspm!
njhsbupsjp-! fo! ftuf! dbtp! b! Nbssvfdpt-! Nbvsjubojb! z! Tfofhbm-! dpo.
wfsujept!fo!mpt!ÓhfoebsnftÔ!ef!Fvspqb-!bvo!fo!efusjnfoup!ef!tvt!
qspqjbt!qpcmbdjpoft/!Btjnjtnp-!dpowjfof!mmbnbs!mb!bufodj˜o!tpcsf!
mb! qfswfstb! ufoefodjb! b! tvqfejubs! mb! Bzveb! Pgjdjbm! bm! Eftbsspmmp! bm!
dpouspm!ef!mbt!njhsbdjpoft-!dvboep!mb!wjodvmbdj˜o!fousf!njhsbdjp.
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qpm“ujdbt-! fdpo˜njdbt-! tpdjbmft-! dvmuvsbmft! z! nfejpbncjfoubmft! fo!
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ejhob-!foufoejfoep!fm!eftbsspmmp!dpnp!vob!bnqmjbdj˜o!ef!mbt!dbqb.
djebeft!z!pqdjpoft!ef!mbt!qfstpobt/!Mb!qspufddj˜o!ef!mpt!efsfdipt!
fdpo˜njdpt-! tpdjbmft! z! dvmuvsbmft! ft! vob! qsjnfsb! hbsbou“b! fo! ftuf!
tfoujep-!rvf!tj!cjfo!qvfef!op!mjnjubs!mbt!njhsbdjpoft-!mbt!dpowfsujsˆ!
fo!vob!pqdj˜o-!z!op!fo!vob!pcmjhbdj˜o-!qbsb!nvdipt/!Fo!efgjojujwb-!
mbt! bddjpoft! ef! eftbsspmmp! efcfo! qbsujs! efm! qbsbejhnb! zb! btvnjep!
qps!mpt!epobouft!ef!eftbsspmmp!ivnbop!tptufojcmf-!z!btfhvsbs!vob!
dpifsfodjb!fousf!upebt!mbt!qpm“ujdbt!rvf!jnqbdufo!fo!fm!njtnp/
4/!Mb!Ófyufsobmj{bdj˜oÔ!ef!mbt!gspoufsbt!ef!mb!VF!ujfof!hsbwft!dpotf.
dvfodjbt-!rvf!tf!ftdpoefo!cbkp!fm!ejtdvstp!fvspqfp!ef!mb!tfhvsjebe/!
Fousf!mbt!dpotfdvfodjbt!qbsb!mpt!njhsbouft!fo!usˆotjup!tf!fodvfousb!
mb! dsfdjfouf! qfmjhsptjebe! ef! mbt! svubt-! rvf! tf! wbo! npejgjdboep! fo!
gvodj˜o!ef!mb!fwpmvdj˜o!ef!mpt!dpouspmft-!qfsp!ubncjo!mb!jnqvojebe!
ef!vobt!bvupsjebeft!rvf-!cbkp!tv!gvodj˜o!ef!ÓhfoebsnftÔ-!tf!bgbobo!
nˆt!qps!dvnqmjs!mb!ÓopsnbÔ!rvf!qps!mbt!dpoejdjpoft!fo!mbt!rvf!mp!
ibdfo/! Qps! fmmp-! mpt! EE! II! efcfo! hvjbs! mbt! bduvbdjpoft! ef! ftub!
nbufsjb-!tvqfejuboep!mbt!bduvbdjpoft!b!mb!tfhvsjebe!ivnbob!ef!mbt!
qfstpobt!b!mbt!rvf!wbo!ejsjhjebt/!Z!fo!ftuf!tfoujep-!fm!Fogprvf!Cbtbep!
323
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
fo! Efsfdipt! Ivnbopt! ft! vob! ifssbnjfoub! ujm-! bm! eftjhobs! b! mpt!
ujuvmbsft!ef!efsfdipt!z!ef!pcmjhbdjpoft!z!ftubcmfdfs!fm!spm!rvf!efcf!
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njhsbouft! fo! usˆotjup-! ujfof! dpotfdvfodjbt! fo! mb! qspqjb! dpogjhvsb.
dj˜o!ef!ègsjdb!fo!mbt!sfmbdjpoft!joufsobdjpobmft-!bm!rvfebs!ejwjep!fm!
dpoujofouf!fo!gvodj˜o!ef!mpt!joufsftft!fvspqfpt-!mp!rvf!dsfb!eftdpo.
gjbo{bt!z!ejgjdvmub!mb!joufhsbdj˜o!sfhjpobm-!ofdftbsjb!qbsb!gpsubmfdfs!fm!
qbqfm!ef!ègsjdb!fo!fm!ftdfobsjp!joufsobdjpobm!z!fo!mbt!ofhpdjbdjpoft!
joufsobdjpobmft-!qfsp!ubncjo!qbsb!mb!bepqdj˜o!ef!qpm“ujdbt!sfhjpob.
mft-!fo!ftuf!dbtp!fo!fm!ˆncjup!njhsbupsjp!z!ef!mpt!EE!II/!Ftubcmfdfs!b!
mb!Voj˜o!Bgsjdbob!dpnp!joufsmpdvups!dpousjcvjs“b!b!vobt!sfmbdjpoft!fo!
qftp! ef! jhvbmebe! dpo! mb! VF-! z! ubm! wf{! bzvebs“b! b! rvf! Nbssvfdpt! tf!
sfqfotbtf!mb!dpowfojfodjb!ef!tv!qbsujdjqbdj˜o!fo!mb!njtnb/
6/!Mb!sftqpotbcjmjebe!efm!dvnqmjnjfoup!ef!mpt!EE!II!ft-!fo!qsjnfs!
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efsfdipt! ef! mpt! njhsbouft! ft! sftqpotbcjmjebe! ef! mpt! hpcjfsopt!
nbssprv“-!nbvsjubop!z!tfofhbmt-!rvf!efcfo!btfhvsbs!mpt!nfdbojt.
npt!ef!dpouspm!z!fm!dvnqmjnjfoup!ef!mb!opsnbujwb!joufsobdjpobm!fo!
tvt!ufssjupsjpt!z-!obuvsbmnfouf-!fyjhjs!rvf!tvt!bvupsjebeft!tfbo!mbt!
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325
Migrante como
ser humano
Tratados
internacionales
Convención sobre el Estatuto de los Refugiados (1951).
Protocolo sobre el Estatuto de los Refugiados (1967).
Refugiados
Migración laboral Convenio sobre migraciones en condiciones abusivas y la promoción de la igualdad de oportunidades y de trato de los
o económica
trabajadores migrantes C143 OIT (1975).
Convención Internacional sobre la Protección de los Derechos de Todos los Trabajadores Migratorios y de sus familiares
(1990).
Convención sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer (1979).
Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer (1999).
Mujer
Menores de edad Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño (1989).
Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño relativo a la venta de niños, la prostitución infantil y la
utilización de niños en la pornografía (2000).
Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño relativo a la participación de niños en los conflictos
armados (2000).
Carta de San Francisco (1945).
Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial (1965).
Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos (PIDCP) (1966).
Protocolo Facultativo PIDCP (1966).
Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales (PIDESC) (1966).
Convención contra la Tortura y Otros Tratos o Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes (1984).
Protocolo Facultativo de la Convención contra la Tortura y Otros Tratos o Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes (2002).
Protocolo Facultativo del Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales (2008).
Convenciones de Ginebra (1949)
Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos (1948)
Consuetudinario
DERECHO INTERNACIONAL APLICABLE A MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO. ÁMBITO UNIVERSAL
RELACIÓN DE INSTRUMENTOS JURÍDICOS CITADOS EN EL TEXTO
ANEXO 1
Inmigración
irregular
Derecho
de inmigración
y asilo
Derecho
de inmigración
y asilo
Reglamento 2424/2001 sobre el desarrollo del Sistema de Información de Schengen (SIS).
Reglamento 377/2004 sobre la creación de una red de funcionarios de enlace de inmigración.
Reglamento 1987/2006 sobre el Sistema de Información de Schengen de segunda generación (SIS II).
Directiva 2001/40 relativa al reconocimiento mutuo de las decisiones en materia de expulsión de nacionales de terceros
países.
Directiva 2001/51 por la que se completan las disposiciones del artículo 26 del Convenio de aplicación del Acuerdo de
Schengen de 14 de junio de 1985 sobre sanciones a los transportistas.
Directiva 2002/90 destinada a definir la ayuda a la entrada, a la circulación y a la estancia irregulares.
Directiva 2003/110 sobre la asistencia en casos de tránsito a efectos de repatriación o alejamiento por vía aérea.
Directiva 2004/81 relativa a la expedición de un permiso de residencia a nacionales de terceros países que sean víctimas
de la trata de seres humanos o hayan sido objeto de una acción de ayuda a la inmigración ilegal, que cooperen con las
autoridades competentes.
Directiva 2004/82 sobre la obligación de los transportistas de comunicar los datos de las personas transportadas.
Reglamento 407/2002 por el que se establecen determinadas normas de desarrollo del Reglamento (CE) nº 2725/2000
relativo a la creación del sistema “Eurodac” para la comparación de las impresiones dactilares para la aplicación efectiva
del Convenio de Dublín.
Reglamento 343/2003 “Dublín II” por el que se establecen los criterios y mecanismos de determinación del Estado
miembro responsable del examen de una solicitud de asilo presentada en uno de los Estados miembro por un nacional
de un tercer país.
Directiva 2001/55 relativa a las normas mínimas para la concesión de protección temporal en caso de afluencia masiva de
personas desplazadas y a medidas de fomento de un esfuerzo equitativo entre los Estados miembro para acoger a dichas
personas y asumir las consecuencias de su acogida Directiva 2003/9 por la que se aprueban normas mínimas para la
acogida de los solicitantes de asilo en los Estados miembro.
Directiva 2004/83, por la que se establecen normas mínimas relativas a los requisitos para el reconocimiento y el estatuto
de nacionales de terceros países o apátridas como refugiados o personas que necesitan otro tipo de protección
internacional y al contenido de la protección concedida.
Directiva 2005/85 sobre normas mínimas para los procedimientos que deben aplicar los Estados miembro para conceder
o retirar la condición de refugiado.
Convenio europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales (CEDH) (1950)
Asilo
Derechos humanos
DERECHO INTERNACIONAL APLICABLE A MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO. ÁMBITO REGIONAL: EUROPA
Derecho
de inmigración
y asilo (cont.)
Inmigración
irregular (cont.)
Directiva 2008/115 relativa a normas y procedimientos comunes en los Estados miembro para el retorno de los nacionales
de terceros países en situación irregular.
Directiva 2009/52 por la que se establecen normas mínimas sobre las sanciones y medidas aplicables a los empleadores
de nacionales de terceros países en situación irregular.
Decisión Marco 2002/629/JAI relativa a la lucha contra la trata de seres humanos (Trafficking).
Decisión 2004/191 por la que se establecen los criterios y modalidades prácticas para la compensación
de los desequilibrios financieros resultantes de la aplicación de la Directiva 2001/40/CE relativa al reconocimiento
mutuo de las decisiones en materia de expulsión de los nacionales de terceros países.
Decisión 2004/573 relativa a la organización de vuelos conjuntos para la expulsión, desde el territorio de dos o más
Estados miembro, de nacionales de terceros países sobre los que hayan recaído resoluciones de expulsión.
Decisión 2005/267 por la que se crea en Internet una red segura de información y coordinación para los servicios
de gestión de la migración de los Estados miembro sobre sistema de alerta rápida (SAR).
Decisión 2007/533/JAI relativa al establecimiento, funcionamiento y utilización del Sistema de Información de Schengen
de segunda generación (SIS II).
Decisión 575/2007 por el que se establece el Fondo Europeo para el Retorno para el periodo 2008-2013 como parte
del Programa general “Solidaridad y Gestión de los Flujos Migratorios”.
Derechos humanos Convenio europeo para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales (CEDH) (1950) (cont.)
DERECHO INTERNACIONAL APLICABLE A MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO. ÁMBITO REGIONAL: EUROPA (CONT.)
ANEXO
DERECHO INTERNACIONAL APLICABLE A MIGRANTES EN TRÁNSITO. ÁMBITO REGIONAL:
ÁFRICA
Derechos
humanos
Carta Africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos (1981).
Corte africana de Derechos Humanos y de los Pueblos (1998).
Derecho de
inmigración o
asilo
Convención para la Regulación de Aspectos Específicos de los Problemas de
Refugiados en África de Adís Abeba (1969).
DERECHO INTERNO: INCORPORACIÓN DEL DERECHO INTERNACIONAL EN ORDENAMIENTOS
JURÍDICOS INTERNOS
Marruecos
Constitución de Marruecos (1962).
Mauritania
Constitución de Mauritania (1991).
Senegal
Constitución de Senegal (2001).
España
Constitución Española (1978).
Acuerdo España-Marruecos sobre circulación de personas, tránsito y readmisión de extranjeros entrados ilegalmente (1992).
Acuerdo España-Mauritania sobre inmigración (2003).
“Memorando de entendimiento” España-Senegal para luchar contra la inmigración ilegal (2006).
RD 1542/2006 por el que se crea la Consejería de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales de
la Misión Diplomática Permanente de España en la República de Senegal.
RD 187/2007 por el que se regula la concesión de una subvención extraordinaria a la República Islámica de Mauritania para la mejora del control de sus
fronteras y lucha contra la emigración ilegal.
RD 1202/2007 por el que se crea la Agregaduría de Defensa de la Misión Diplomática Permanente de España en la República Islámica de Mauritania.
Orden AEC/2333/2007 por la que se establece un régimen transitorio de competencia territorial de las Oficinas Técnicas de Cooperación de la Agencia
Española de Cooperación Internacional en las Misiones Diplomáticas Permanentes de España en la República de Senegal, en la República Islámica de
Mauritania, en la República de Filipinas y en la República Árabe de Egipto.
Todas las normas internacionales sobre derechos humanos pueden encontrarse en la página
http://www2.ohchr.org/spanish/law/
Por su parte, la normativa europea puede consultarse en http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/
justice_freedom_security/free_movement_of_persons_asylum_immigration/index_es.htm
329
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