Dinámica de la red de drenaje en sistemas orogénicos
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Dinámica de la red de drenaje
en sistemas orogénicoscuencas: implicaciones sobre
los sistemas petroleros
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Junio 2015
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Departament de Geologia
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Dinámica de la red de drenaje
en sistemas orogénicoscuencas: implicaciones sobre
los sistemas petroleros
MARC VIAPLANA MUZAS
Memoria presentada para optar al grado de doctor en Geología
Director:
Julien Babault
Cerdanyola de Vallès, Junio 2015
ProyectocoͲfinanciadoporelministeriodeeconomíaycompetitividad(nºproyecto:CGL2010Ͳ
15416/BTE)yunconvenioREPSOL/UniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona,(Noviembre2011).
A la meva família,
als que hi són i als que se n’han anat.
Nuestras vidas son los ríos
que van a dar en la mar,
que es el morir:
allí van los señoríos,
derechos a se acabar
y consumir;
allí los ríos caudales,
allí los otros medianos
y más chicos;
y llegados, son iguales
los que viven por sus manos
y los ricos.
Jorge Manrique
Agraïments/Agradecimientos/Remerciements
Arribat aquest moment miro enrere i em sembla mentida haver arribat fins aquí. Penso en tota
la gent que m’ha ajudat a tirar endavant, que ha estat molta, i no puc fer res més que dedicarvos unes paraules que són insignificants comparades amb l’ajuda rebuda.
En primer lugar quiero agradecerte la confianza, esfuerzo y paciencia a ti, Julien. Confiaste en
mí desde el trabajo de máster y lograste un convenio entre la Universidad y REPSOL para
ofrecerme este Doctorado. Siempre recordaré las largas horas de “manip” al sótano
escuchando, como no, “El sótano”. Me has guiado, orientado y aconsejado cuando estaba
perdido... Sin ti, esto no hubiera sido posible. Muchísimas gracias Ju!
Este doctorado tampoco hubiera sido posible sin la ayuda de Xavier Legrand, que nos apoyó
con el proyecto desde Repsol. Mercie beaucoup! On doit aller à pécher pour célébrer la fin de
la thèse!
A todos los miembros de Repsol que han confiado en mí y me han ayudado en todo lo posible.
José Luis Tornero, Elvira Álvarez, Carlos Díaz, Valerio Memmo y Claudia Bertoni. Un
agradecimiento especial a Manu por la ayuda prestada y la paciencia.
Stephane Dominguez, has sido una pieza clave en este doctorado. Has hecho que todo en el
laboratorio estuviera preparado para cuando llegara, me has ayudado en la preparación de las
“manips” y en todo lo que te he pedido. He aprendido mucho junto a ti. Te agradezco la
confianza que has tenido en mí y también la paciencia y los consejos. Mercie Steph! ;-)
A Christian Romano, por haberme ayudado en cualquier pequeño (o gran) problema que me
encontraba en el laboratorio, además de las charlas que amenizaban las interminables horas
debajo “el sótano”.
Jean Van Den Driessche por los consejos y la ayuda prestada. Mercie VDD!
A tots els professors: Grigri, Teixi, Reche, Gumer, Esteve, Mercè, Paco, Mª Luisa, Pini i al David
perquè, voluntària o involuntàriament, m’heu ajudat a tirar endavant amb consells o,
simplement, fent-me riure al menjador y a les barbacoes/calçotades/garrinades que em fet.
Gràcies!
A les “secres” de geologia: Sara, Sílvia, Glòria i Tere, sense vosaltres encara no hagués fet ni la
matrícula del primer any! Gràcies per haver tingut tanta paciència amb mi i, sobretot, per
rebrem sempre amb un somriure.
À tous mes amis de Montpellier et, en particulier, à Yannick et GianLuca.
Je souhaite remercier Antoine et Fatna pour m'avoir hebergé et ouvert leurs portes comme si
j'étais un membre de leur famille. Je n'ai pas de mots pour vous remercier de votre hospitalité,
votre gentillesse et l'amitié que vous m'avez portée. Je n'oublierai jamais les bières, les
discussions et l"aventure" passées à vos côtés. J'espère que cette amitié ne se perdra jamais.
Merci beaucoup à vous deux, vous êtes super ("cojonudos").
Als “becarios precarios” Eudald, Víctor i Jordi. Als “masterandos”, Andreu Badia i Andreu
Vinyoles i als ja doctors, Alvar, Isi i Carlos.
Una abraçada al Salva, al “parcerinho” Camilo, Mireia, Lucia, Marta i Dídac. Sense vosaltres,
aquests anys no haguessin valgut la pena!
Amics i companys de la llicenciatura Salva, Raquel, Ori, Enric i, en especial, a tu Ciscu, amic,
germà, confident i company d’aventures, de birres, d’escalada, de muntanya, de platja, de
festa… Gràcies per tot!
Als meus amics de sempre: Maria, Emili, Alex, Lara, Alba i Adri. Encara que no sabéssiu ni
entenguéssiu res del que feia m’heu ajudat moltíssim!
A la meva família, aquesta tesi també és vostra, papa, mama i Roger.
A tu, Ester, que m’has ajudat, recolzat i animat en l’últim tram de la tesi. Gràcies carinyo!
Marc Viaplana Muzas
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Resumen
Esta tesis presenta un estudio de la interacción entre la tectónica y la red de drenaje y cómo
esta interacción controla los patrones y las tasas de sedimentación. Esta tesis está dividida en
dos partes, en la primera se presentan los resultados de una modelización experimental
(Capítulo 1 y Capítulo 2), y en la segunda, se realiza un estudio de un caso natural sobre un
sistema orógeno-cuenca ubicado en Irian Jaya (Indonesia), compuesto por la cordillera del
Central Range y la cuenca de Cendrawasih (Capítulo 3).
En el Capítulo 1 se investiga experimentalmente como la interacción entre la deformación y la
red de drenaje controla las variaciones del flujo sedimentario a lo largo de los modelos
experimentales, sometidos a acortamiento y erosión. Primero se muestra que el
comportamiento (geométrico y cinemático) de los canales experimentales bajo condiciones de
levantamiento es similar al de los ríos observados en la naturaleza. Se muestra también que
variar la proporción entre la tasa de lluvia y la tasa de acortamiento controla la organización de
la red de drenaje. Si esta proporción es alta, la red de drenaje está dominada por tramos
transversales, resultando en un sistema deposicional lineal a lo largo del frente de la estructura
activa. Por el contrario, si la proporción es baja, la red de drenaje está dominada por tramos
longitudinales, resultando en sistemas deposicionales puntuales. Finalmente se muestra que
este comportamiento está controlado por una relación no lineal entre el caudal de los canales
y la tasa de levantamiento.
En el Capítulo 2 se muestra experimentalmente que una red de drenaje dominada por canales
longitudinales se reorganiza a una red de drenaje dominada por canales transversales
mediante migraciones de divisorias de aguas y procesos de capturas. La reorganización de la
red de drenaje tiene como consecuencia la modificación del tamaño de las áreas de drenaje y,
por consiguiente, de las tasas de sedimentación en las partes externas de los modelos. Estas
tasas parecen no solo estar controladas por las fuerzas externas al sistema geomorfológico,
que son la Tectónica y el Clima, sino también por la dinámica intrínseca del sistema
geomorfológico. Además esta reorganización de la red de drenaje por capturas hacia un
estadio dominado por tramos transversales, más estables, modifica la distribución espacial de
los cuerpos sedimentarios en las partes externas de los modelos.
En el Capítulo 3 se realiza un estudio geomorfológico que sugiere que la red de drenaje del
Central Range se está reorganizando desde un estado inicial dominado por un drenaje
longitudinal, formado hace 12 Ma, a uno dominado por un drenaje transversal siguiendo el
mismo patrón que en los modelos experimentales. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido
realizar un balance de volúmenes erosionados y sedimentados por las principales cuencas del
Central Range que desembocan a la bahía de Cendrawasih y estimar la composición del relleno
sedimentario que muestra que la cuenca ha sido alimentada mayoritariamente por filitas
negras con materia orgánica. El balance de volúmenes se basa en un análisis de imágenes
sísmicas de la cuenca sedimentaria y en una síntesis en el área fuente de los datos de erosión
precedentes de la literatura. Este estudio muestra que el sistema orógeno-cuenca, Central
Range–Cuenca de Cendrawasih, es un sistema dinámico que está en un estado transitorio
probablemente desde la emersión de la cadena montañosa en el Mioceno Superior.
1
Abstract
This thesis studies the interaction between tectonics and the river network and how this
interaction controls the patters and rates of sedimentation. This work is composed of two
parts, the first one presents the results of the experimental modeling (Chapter 1 and Chapter
2), and the second one shows the study of a natural Source-To-Sink system located in Irian Jaya
(Indonesia), composed by the Central Range and Cendrawasih Basin (Chapter 3).
In Chapter 1 I investigate experimentally the interactions between tectonics and the drainage
network and its control on along-strike sediment fluxes in wedges submitted to shortening and
rainfall. We first show that the behavior (geometries and kinematics) of experimental channels
evolving under uplifting conditions are similar to what is observed in natural landscapes. We
show substantial differences in both the drainage organization and along-strike variations in
sediment accumulations by varying the ratio of rainfall rate over shortening rate. If this ratio is
high, transverse channels draining a wedge are not diverted and a line-source dispersal system
develops in front of the active structure. At low ratio, the merger of drainage basins in the
backlimb of frontal structures results in gridiron drainage patterns and in point-sourced
depositional systems separated by areas fed only by small channels developed in the external
limbs. We show that this behavior is controlled by a non-linear relation between the channel
discharge and the uplift rate.
In Chapter 2 experiments show that a longitudinal-dominated drainage network can be
reorganized to a transverse-dominated drainage network by divide migration and captures.
This reorganization of the drainage network implies variations in the size of drainage basins,
and consequently, in the rates of sedimentation at the external parts of the models. The rates
of sedimentation appear to be controlled not only by Tectonics and Climate, but also by the
intrinsic dynamics of the geomorphic system. In addition, the drainage-network reorganization
also modifies the spatial distribution of clastic bodies from point-sourced depositional systems
to line-source dispersal systems.
In Chapter 3 the Source-To-Sink system, made of the Central Range and the Cendrawasih
basin, is analyzed. The geomorphic study the Central Range suggests that the drainage
network is reorganizing following the same pattern as in the experimental modeling. A balance
between the eroded volumes in the main drainage basins of the Central Range and the
deposited volumes stored in the Cendrawasih basin allowed to estimate the infilling
composition and it shows the basin has been mainly fed by graphitic black phyllites. The
volume balance has been done using erosion rates extracted from the literature and the
seismic lines of the Cendrawasih basin. This study shows that the Source-To-Sink system of the
Central Range-Cendrawasih basin is a dynamic system that is in a transient state, probably
since the beginning of the Central Range building in Late Miocene.
2
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PARTE 1
9
10
Capı́tulo 1
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Accepted with moderate revision in Tectonophysics
Abstract
In fold and thrust belts drainage organization and patterns of sedimentation depend conceptually on the ability or
not for preexisting reaches to incise uplifting thrust sheets. In this study we investigate experimentally the dynamics
of drainage network in a wedge submitted to shortening and erosion. It allows us to reproduce and monitor the
interactions between tectonics, erosion and sedimentation during the development of up to five successive thrust
sheets. In the experiments channels adjust to uplift rate by both increasing their slope and narrowing their channels
as it is observed in nature. The series of experiments shows that the proportion of persistent preexisting transverse
channels increases with the ratio of rainfall over shortening rates. The experiments confirm the view that the
competition between discharge and tectonic uplift controls along-strike variations in sediment flux in sedimentary
basins by controlling drainage organization. If the transverse channels draining a wedge are not diverted, a linesource dispersal system develops in front of the active structure. If channels are diverted in the backlimb of the
frontal structure it results in point-sourced depositional systems separated by areas fed only by small channels
developing in the front of the wedge. Fans accumulated in front of the active structures reveal two stages of
sedimentation, one of progradation, while the frontal structure is active and a second one of valley backfilling and
sealing of the thrust during internal deformation of the wedge. The experiments also suggest that spatial variations
in rock uplift rate along a thrust front may be evidenced by minimum-discharge variations of persistent transverse
channels.
Keywords: experimental modeling, accretionary wedge, drainage network organization, river diversion,
sedimentation patterns, source-to-sink.
11
En el Capítulo 1 se investiga experimentalmente como la interacción entre la
deformación y la red de drenaje controla las variaciones del flujo sedimentario a lo largo de los
modelos experimentales, sometidos a acortamiento y erosión. Primero se muestra que el
comportamiento (geométrico y cinemático) de los canales experimentales bajo condiciones de
levantamiento es similar al de los ríos observados en la naturaleza. Se muestra también que
variar la proporción entre la tasa de lluvia y la tasa de acortamiento controla la organización
de la red de drenaje. Si esta proporción es alta, la red de drenaje está dominada por tramos
transversales, resultando en un sistema deposicional lineal a lo largo del frente de la estructura
activa. Por el contrario, si la proporción es baja, la red de drenaje está dominada por tramos
longitudinales, resultando en sistemas deposicionales puntuales. Finalmente se muestra que
este comportamiento está controlado por una relación no lineal entre el caudal de los canales
y la tasa de levantamiento.
12
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En preparación para la revista Basin Research
45
En el Capítulo 2 se muestra experimentalmente que una red de drenaje dominada por
canales longitudinales se reorganiza a una red de drenaje dominada por canales transversales
mediante migraciones de divisorias de aguas y procesos de capturas. La reorganización de la
red de drenaje tiene como consecuencia la modificación del tamaño de las áreas de drenaje y,
por consiguiente, de las tasas de sedimentación en las partes externas de los modelos. Estas
tasas parecen no solo estar controladas por las fuerzas externas al sistema geomorfológico,
que son la Tectónica y el Clima, sino también por la dinámica intrínseca del sistema
geomorfológico. Además esta reorganización de la red de drenaje por capturas hacia un
estadio dominado por tramos transversales, más estables, modifica la distribución espacial de
los cuerpos sedimentarios en las partes externas de los modelos.
46
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2. Metodología
2.1. Configuración experimental
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2.2. Cálculo de las velocidades de migración de las divisorias de aguas
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2.3. Cálculo de los volúmenes de erosión y las tasas de incisión, erosión y
levantamiento
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3. Resultados
3.1. Reorganización de la red de drenaje durante la construcción del prisma
experimental e influencia sobre la distribución de los flujos sedimentarios
3.1.1. Migraciones de divisorias de aguas y capturas
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En preparación para la revista Basin Research
73
En el Capítulo 3 se realiza un estudio geomorfológico que sugiere que la red de drenaje
del Central Range se está reorganizando desde un estado inicial dominado por un drenaje
longitudinal, formado hace 12 Ma, a uno dominado por un drenaje transversal siguiendo el
mismo patrón que en los modelos experimentales. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido
realizar un balance de volúmenes erosionados y sedimentados por las principales cuencas del
Central Range que desembocan a la bahía de Cendrawasih y estimar la composición del relleno
sedimentario que muestra que la cuenca ha sido alimentada mayoritariamente por filitas
negras con materia orgánica. El balance de volúmenes se basa en un análisis de imágenes
sísmicas de la cuenca sedimentaria y en una síntesis en el área fuente de los datos de erosión
precedentes de la literatura. Este estudio muestra que el sistema orógeno-cuenca, Central
Range–Cuenca de Cendrawasih, es un sistema dinámico que está en un estado transitorio
probablemente desde la emersión de la cadena montañosa en el Mioceno Superior.
74
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(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
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3
1
71000
140.50
100
1.41
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6.92
5.40
0.28
0.11
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2
37800
49.30
100
0.49
0.01
19.41
8.03
4.20
1.14
0.09
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3
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47.80
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0.48
0.01
15.78
5.58
4.10
0.42
0.14
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4
68064
78.60
100
0.79
0.01
19.16
8.54
4.85
1.06
0.10
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5
41432
71.90
100
0.72
0.01
16.77
5.17
4.65
0.21
0.12
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6
33176
103.00
100
1.03
0.01
18.94
5.34
4.60
0.14
0.09
3
7
45604
135.00
100
1.35
0.01
13.45
7.01
7.25
0.78
0.10
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1
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55.31
34
1.63
0.01
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1
211116
84.70
60
1.41
0.01
17.65
9.12
8.90
2.10
0.10
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2
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30.60
34
0.90
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10.02
3.37
4.90
0.99
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45.20
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13.12
5.20
4.45
0.64
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6.32
3.97
0.25
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31.30
30
1.04
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23.62
11.97
7.43
2.04
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44.14
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21.60
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6.80
6.73
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0.11
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51.31
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1.25
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15.14
7.86
4.60
0.42
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14.66
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0.64
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11.90
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56.80
31.00
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6.80836
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31.00
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23.80
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1.25263
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42.80
31.00
1.38
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5.30434
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1.41421
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90.80
25.00
3.632
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3.26712
6.05
1.06066
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65.11
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2.6044
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16.15
4.87985
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0.45826
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Shortening rate:
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CHANNEL
DISTANCE
2
Δt
KNICKPOINT
WAVE
CELERITY
(C)
(mm )
(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
51648
82.20
25.00
3.288
2
1
2
1
66052
-
-
3
1
109228
42.20
15.00
3
1
91384
3
2
24252
3
2
21080
-
-
3
2
22568
25.00
20.00
4
1
102424
50.00
12.00
4
1
105724
-
4
2
49752
4
2
56904
σ
NORMALIZED
STEEPNESS
INDEX (KSN)
σ
RELATIVE
UPLIFT
(mm/min)
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.20
-
-
9.31
3.60735
4.63333
0.83267
0.20
2.81333
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.21
23.28
5.15602
4
1.17898
0.21
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.20
-
-
14.52
2.29952
3.5
0.56569
0.20
1.25
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.20
4.16667
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.18
-
-
-
18.21
5.68605
4.66667
1.15036
0.18
53.30
12.00
4.44167
0.10
-
-
-
-
0.20
-
-
-
-
14.60
1.62678
3.56667
0.77675
0.20
38.40
15.00
2.6
WIDTH
(W)
(mm)
σ
$1(;26
Shortening rate:
20cm/h
Rainfall rate: 9mm/h
DRAINAGE
AREA
CHANNEL
DISTANCE
UNIT
2
(mm )
(mm)
Δt
KNICKPOINT
WAVE
CELERITY
(C)
(min)
(mm/min)
NORMALIZED
STEEPNESS INDEX
(KSN)
σ
WIDTH
(W)
σ
σ
(mm)
RELATIVE
UPLIFT
(mm/min)
2
1
57168
73.45
15.00
4.89667
0.10
21.82
5.69973
3.03333
0.40415
0.49
2
2
55084
88.80
15.00
5.92
0.10
16.55
9.84294
2.43333
0.41633
0.58
3
1
148756
77.60
10.00
7.76
0.10
4
1
63704
110.37
15.00
7.358
0.10
18.24
8.48999
3.9
0.56569
0.33
4
2
103724
125.68
15.00
8.37867
0.10
19.80
9.41119
4.16667
0.32146
0.33
5
1
244528
74.80
8.00
9.35
0.10
32.10
12.11843
4.6
0.28284
0.40
-
-
-
-
0.40
$1(;26
Shortening rate:
50cm/h
UNIT
Rainfall rate: 9mm/h
DRAINAGE
AREA
CHANNEL
DISTANCE
2
Δt
KNICKPOINT
WAVE
CELERITY
(C)
(mm )
(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
σ
NORMALIZED
STEEPNESS INDEX
(KSN)
σ
WIDTH
(W)
σ
(mm)
RELATIVE
UPLIFT
(mm/min)
2
1
90004
59.80
5.00
11.96
0.20
-
-
-
-
-
2
1
124804
-
-
-
-
15.51
8.42275
3.6
0.56569
0.98
3
1
95120
51.40
5.00
10.28
0.20
34.23
16.95308
2.73333
0.41633
1.24
4
1
133404
53.80
5.00
10.76
0.20
37.27
9.50224
3.16667
0.37859
1.06
5
1
163356
51.60
3.00
17.16667
0.20
-
-
-
-
1.25
5
1
122812
62.70
5.00
12.54
0.20
56.52
35.67788
2.83333
0.32146
1.25
σ
NORMALIZED
STEEPNESS INDEX
(KSN)
σ
WIDTH
(W)
σ
RELATIVE
UPLIFT
Shortening rate:
100cm/h
UNIT
Rainfall rate: 9mm/h
DRAINAGE
CHANNEL
DISTANCE
AREA
2
Δt
KNICKPOINT
WAVE
CELERITY (C)
(mm )
(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
(mm)
(mm/min)
3
1
112096
115.70
8
14.4625
0.20
19.09
7.91118
2.75
0.49497
1.50
5
1
138460
124.20
5.00
24.84
0.20
37.29
18.0204
2.4
0.28284
1.66
5
2
110244
77.20
5.00
15.44
0.20
45.25
16.83882
2.05
0.35355
2.60
$1(;26
Shortening rate: 8cm/h
UNIT
Rainfall rate: 18mm/h
CHANNEL
DISTANCE
Δt
KNICKPOINT WAVE
CELERITY (C)
(mm )
(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
DRAINAGE AREA
2
2
1
16644
42.00
15.00
2.8
0.10
2
1
68772
52.30
10.00
5.23
0.10
3
1
24856
35.80
10.00
3.6
0.10
3
1
36400
31.30
10.00
3.13
0.10
3
2
21996
32.07
10.00
3.2
0.10
3
2
12412
22.11
10.00
2.3
0.10
3
4
66568
55.80
10.00
5.58
0.10
4
2
63056
73.70
15.00
4.91333
0.10
σ
$1(;26
Shortening rate: 18cm/h
UNIT
Rainfall rate: 18mm/h
CHANNEL
DISTANCE
Δt
KNICKPOINT WAVE
CELERITY (C)
(mm )
(mm)
(min)
(mm/min)
DRAINAGE AREA
2
2
2
108356
111.50
15.00
7.43333
0.10
3
1
118664
90.40
15.00
6.02667
0.10
3
2
42084
83.00
15.00
5.53333
0.10
4
1
99880
63.00
9.00
7
0.10
4
1
99880
66.50
11.00
6.04545
0.10
4
2
217148
70.40
9.00
7.82222
0.10
4
2
217148
92.20
11.00
8.38182
0.10
σ
$11(;26
$11(;26
&$3Ë78/2
$1(;26
)LJXUDQRLQWHUSUHWDGDGHOFDStWXORPRGHOR$
7DVDGHDFRUWDPLHQWRFPK\WDVDGHOOXYLDPPK
$1(;26
)LJXUDQRLQWHUSUHWDGDGHOFDStWXORPRGHOR$
7DVDGHDFRUWDPLHQWRFPK\WDVDGHOOXYLDPPK
$1(;26
)LJXUDQRLQWHUSUHWDGDGHOFDStWXORPRGHOR%
7DVDGHDFRUWDPLHQWRFPK\WDVDGHOOXYLDPPK
$1(;26
&$3Ë78/2
$1(;26
Perfiles longitudinales de los ríos y regresiones de los índices de pendiente (ksn)
0DSDGHORVtQGLFHVGHSHQGLHQWHNVQGHORVSULQFLSDOHVUtRV GHFDGDFXHQFD(VWHtQGLFH
LQGLFD HO YDORU GH OD SHQGLHQWH HQ ORV SHUILOHV HOHYDFLyQȤ /RV YDORUHV URMRV LQGLFDQ PiV
SHQGLHQWH\ORVYDORUHVYHUGHVSHQGLHQWHVPiVVXDYHV
$1(;26
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQD
%DVLQ%
$1(;26
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
$1(;26
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
$1(;26
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
%DVLQ
$1(;26
Localización y nomenclatura de las cuencas utilizada en el cálculo del parámetro χ.
$1(;26
Graficas de elevación/χ de los ríos principales de cada cuenca y sus afluentes,
$1(;26
Test de colinearidad de cada cuenca,
Cuenca 425
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 15925
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 16112
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 16671
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 17614
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 18020
$1(;26
$1(;26
Cuenca 18750
$1(;26
$1(;26
Concavidad media de cada cuenca,
$1(;26
Concavidad mediana de todas las cuencas,
$1(;26
Líneas sísmicas
$1(;26
LÍNEAS DEEP, orientación NO-SE
$1(;26
$1(;26
Líneas strike, orientación SO-NE
$1(;26
192
