Humour in Audiovisual Translation Theori (2)

Humour in Audiovisual
Translation
This book offers a comprehensive account of the audiovisual translation
(AVT) of humour, bringing together insights from translation studies
and humour studies to outline the key theories underpinning this growing area of study and their applications to case studies from television
and film. The volume outlines the ways in which the myriad linguistic
manifestations and functions of humour make it difficult for scholars
to provide a unified definition for it, an issue made more complex in the
transfer of humour to audiovisual works and their translations as well as
their ongoing changes in technology. Dore brings together relevant theories from both translation studies and humour studies towards advancing research in both disciplines. Each chapter explores a key dimension
of humour as it unfolds in AVT, offering brief theoretical discussions
of wordplay, culture-specific references and multilingualism in revoicing
and captioning in AVT as applied to case studies from Modern Family.
A dedicated chapter to audio description, which allows the visually impaired or blind to assess a film’s non-verbal content, using examples
from the 2017 film the Big Sick, outlines existing research to date on
this under-explored line of research and opens avenues for future study
within the AVT of humour. This book is key reading for students and
scholars in translation studies and humour studies.
Margherita Dore is Adjunct Lecturer in the Department of European,
American and Intercultural Studies at Sapienza University of Rome,
Italy.
Routledge Advances in Translation and Interpreting Studies
37 A Sociological Approach to Poetry Translation
Modern European Poet-Translators
Jacob S. D. Blakesley
38 Complexity Thinking in Translation Studies
Methodological Considerations
Edited by Kobus Marais and Reine Meylaerts
39 Translating and Interpreting in Korean Contexts
Engaging with Asian and Western Others
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40 Hybrid Englishes and the Challenges of/for Translation
Identity, Mobility and Language Change
Edited by Karen Bennett and Rita Queiroz de Barros
41 Translating the Visual
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Rachel Weissbrod and Ayelet Kohn
42 Using Computers in the Translation of Literary Style
Challenges and Opportunities
Roy Youdale
43 Concrete Poetry
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Edited by John Corbett and Ting Huang
44 Humour in Audiovisual Translation
Theories and Applications
Margherita Dore
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Humour in Audiovisual
Translation
Theories and Applications
Margherita Dore
First published 2020
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In loving memory of my Father and
To my Family.
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Acronyms
Acknowledgements
Introduction
The Scope of This Book and Its Structure 6
xi
xiii
xv
xvii
1
PART I
Theories
11
1
Humour Studies and Humour Translation
1.1 Introduction 13
1.2 Defining Humour and Its Markers 14
1.3 Theories of Humour 17
1.4 Script-Based Theories 21
1.4.1 SSTH and GTVH 21
1.4.2 The Application of the GTVH and
Some Criticism 27
1.5 Conversational Humour 30
1.5.1 Function(s) of Humour in Conversation 31
1.6 Humour in Comedy 33
1.7 On Humour (Un)Translatability 39
1.8 Summing Up 42
13
2
Audiovisual Translation and Humour
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 AVT – Reasons and Rationale 54
2.3 Some Theoretical Considerations Regarding AVT 60
53
viii
Contents
2.4 Modes of Audiovisual Translation 65
2.4.1 Revoicing 65
2.4.2 Captioning 74
2.5 AVT in Italy 81
2.6 The AVT of Humour 86
2.6.1 Priorities and Strategies in the
AVT of Humour 88
2.7 Summing Up 92
PART II
Applications
103
3
Humorous Puns in Translation
3.1 Introduction 105
3.2 Defining (Humorous) Puns 106
3.2.1 Puns Based on Fixed Expressions and Idioms 110
3.2.2 Puns Based on Verbal and Non-Verbal Text 113
3.3 Punning and Translation 114
3.3.1 A Taxonomy for the AVT of Humorous Puns 118
3.4 Data and Methodology 119
3.4.1 Modern Family 120
3.4.2 Methodology 122
3.5 Data Analysis 127
3.5.1 Punning in Dubbing 130
3.5.2 Punning in Captioning 138
3.5.3 FEI-Based Puns in Dubbing 144
3.5.4 FEI-Based Puns in Captioning 151
3.5.5 Puns Based on Verbal and Non-Verbal Text in
Dubbing and Captioning 157
3.6 Findings and Conclusions 164
105
4
Humorous Culture-Specific References
4.1 Introduction 174
4.2 Defining CSRs 175
4.3 Types and Sources of CSRs 177
4.4 Function(s) of Humorous CSRs 183
4.5 Translating (Humorous) CSRs 184
4.6 Data Analysis 191
4.6.1 Dubbing Humorous CSRs 194
4.6.2 Captioning Humorous CSRs 208
4.7 Findings and Conclusions 221
174
Contents
ix
5
Multilingual Humour in AVT
5.1 Introduction 227
5.2 Multilingualism in AVT 228
5.3 Translating Multilingual Humour 232
5.4 Data Analysis 234
5.4.1 Dubbing Multilingual Humour 236
5.4.2 Captioning Multilingual Humour 245
5.5 Findings and Conclusions 253
227
6
The Audio Description of Humour
6.1 Introduction 259
6.2 Audio Description 260
6.3 Humour in Audio Description 264
6.4 Data Analysis 267
6.5 Findings and Conclusions 276
259
Conclusions
281
Index
289
Figures
1.1 Attardo and Raskin’s (2017: 50) “Map” of humour theory
1.2 The hierarchical organisation of Knowledge Resources
(adapted from Attardo 1994: 227; Attardo 2017b: 128)
2.1 Number of films broadcast in the EU by region of origin
in 2015–2016 (Cabrera et al. 2018: 19)
2.2 Pay-TV and on-demand subscribers’ concentrations by
country in Europe (Fontaine and Kevin 2016: 15)
2.3 Titles and hours of TV production by SVOD services
and breakdown of produced TV fiction per service
(adapted from Fontaine 2017: 23–24)
2.4 All SVOD services – share of national films, November
to December 2017 (Cabrera et al. 2018: 23)
2.5 Audience market share in Italy (Wutz and Pérez
2014: 89)
3.1 Humorous punning in dubbing, Modern Family,
S01-S02
3.2 Humorous punning in subtitling, Modern Family,
S01-S02
3.3 Humorous punning in fansubbing, Modern Family,
S01-S02
4.1 Translation strategies for humorous CSRs in dubbing
and captioning, Modern Family, S01-S02
6.1 The AD production process as described on the
ADLAB’s website
19
25
56
57
58
59
83
165
166
166
223
261
Tables
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
4.1
4.2
4.3
Attardo’s (1994: 47) categorisation of theories of humour
Summary of Script Oppositions postulated in Raskin
(1985: 108–114, 127)
Typology of humour styles in sitcoms
Pérez-González’s (2014: 194) summary of Stöckl’s
(2004) core modes in audiovisual text
Modes of revoicing
Modes of captioning
Summary of Zabalbeascoa’s (1996: 251–255) types of
jokes in dubbing
Summary of Delabastita’s (1996: 134) typology for the
translation of puns
Summary of Veisbergs’s (1996: 164–171) suggested
translation strategies
Viewers of Modern Family in the USA
Modern Family’s S01-S02 episode titles in English
and Italian
Total number of detected puns in Modern Family,
S01-S02
Translation strategies for puns in dubbing, Modern
Family, S01-02
Translation strategies for puns in captioning, Modern
Family, S01-02
Translation strategies for FEI-based puns in dubbing,
Modern Family, S01-02
Translation strategies for FEI-based puns in captioning,
Modern Family, S01-S02
Translation strategies for Verbal and Non-Verbal Puns
in dubbing and captioning, Modern Family, S01-S02
Summary of Leppihalme’s (1997: 10–11) framework of
types of allusions
Davies-González and Scott-Tennent’s (2005) typology
and Dore’s (2008, 2010) adaptation
Summary of Leppihalme’s (1997: 106–128) taxonomy
for proper name and key-phrase CSRs
18
23
37
61
66
74
89
115
116
121
128
129
130
138
144
152
157
178
179
185
xiv Tables
4.4
Summary of the most recent taxonomies for the
translation of CSRs in AV
4.5 Sources of humorous CSRs in Modern Family, S01-S02
4.6 Translation strategies for CSRs in dubbing, Modern
Family, S01-S02
4.7 Translation strategies for CSRs in captioning, Modern
Family, S01-S02
5.1 List of translation solutions for L3
5.2 Language distribution in the Italian dubbing and
captioning of Modern Family, S01-S02
188
192
195
209
231
234
Acronyms
AD
AVT
BT
CSR
FEI
GTVH
IR
SL
SSTH
ST
TL
TT
VEH
Audio description
Audiovisual translation
Back translation
Culture-specific reference
Fixed expression and idiom
General theory of verbal humour
Incongruity resolution
Source language
Semantic script theory of humour
Source text
Target language
Target text
Verbally expressed humour
Acknowledgements
A number of people deserve to be mentioned as they were extremely
supportive while I was writing this book. First and foremost, I would
like to thank my family for their love and encouragement. Dedicating
this work to them will hopefully demonstrate my affection for them,
even when words fail me. Secondly, I would like to express my heartfelt
gratitude to Professor Elena Semino for being an excellent supervisor
while I was a PhD student at Lancaster University and later a friend I
can always look to for advice. Special thanks go to Michela Masci for
being an enthusiastic, hardworking colleague and great friend for a host
of reasons I cannot even start to list. My friends have a special place in
my heart and, even if I do not mention every single name here, I would
like to tell them how thankful I am for their support.
I would like to thank all my colleagues at the University of Rome
“La Sapienza” and “Tor Vergata”, and in particular Donatella Montini,
Marina Morbiducci, Irene Ranzato, Iolanda Plescia and Daniela Guardamagna. I would also like to acknowledge the tireless work of Darcy Di
Mona who proofread this book and often offered her non-expert opinion on issues I probably took for granted, thus helping me to properly
address and hopefully clarify them. I am also indebted to the anonymous
reviewers and other colleagues who read the first draft of this study for
their insightful comments and suggestions, which helped to shape this
book into its current form.
I am also indebted to the editorial team at Taylor & Francis, and particularly to Elysse Preposi for believing in this project from the very first
day I proposed it to her. Thanks to Helena Parkinson for her assistance
in all the administrative matters.
Finally, and indispensably, I would like to express my grateful appreciation to the copyright holders for granting permission to reproduce their
work in a number of figures and tables. It is understood that such use
constitutes fair use for scholarly purposes.
Introduction
Among the many cognitive abilities of human beings, creating humour
may be considered one of the most complex, due to its relative and idiosyncratic nature. Moreover, much of its fascination lies in the fact that
it can serve a wide range of purposes: in-group bonding (Archakis and
Tsakona 2005: 41), disparagement, correction of socially improper behaviour (e.g. Superiority Theory, Raskin 1985; Attardo 1994) and so
forth. Hence, theories of humour have been developed and discussed
across disciplines (Palmer 1994; Attardo 2001; Oring 2003; Martin
2007; etc.) in the attempt to explore and explain this linguistic, semiotic, cognitive and social phenomenon from different standpoints. This
academic interest has culminated in the creation of a research field in its
own right called Humour Studies, which has stimulated and produced
a good deal of interesting research. However, many scholars have struggled to provide a unified definition of humour and the debate is still ongoing. Since agreement on this point has proven to be difficult to reach,
they have focused on unveiling the mechanisms that this phenomenon
entails and its function(s) within the context and text it occurs.
If considering translation, it is generally defined as a process that
makes texts produced in one language accessible to people who do not
speak that language (cf. Holland 2009: 183 on the idea of “enabling” in
translation). Over the years, when considering the translation of humour,
Translation Studies scholars such as Delabastita (1993, 1994, 1997),
Zabalbeascoa (1996, 2005, 2012) and Chiaro (1992, 2000, 2007) have
produced a significant amount of literature on this practice. They have
debated it in general terms, but often concentrated on its transfer within
audiovisual works. By doing so, they have also contributed to arousing
interest in humour translation among “younger” scholars, including myself. Consequently, the literature on the Audiovisual Translation (AVT)
of humour has been steadily increasing over the last decade (e.g. Bucaria
2007, 2008, 2017; Dore 2009, 2010a, 2010b; De Rosa et al. 2014; Iaia
2015 and, in part, Ranzato 2016, just to name a few).
However, theoretical and applied perspectives on humour research
and AVT do not intersect as often as might be desirable. In other words,
scholars in Humour Studies sometimes have a limited grasp of the issues
2 Introduction
that AVT involves (e.g. condensation in subtitling and lip synchronisation in dubbing), as well as of those factors that influence the translator’s
decision-making process (e.g. time pressure and degree of expertise). By
the same token, AVT scholars sometimes are not entirely aware of the
specific theories developed within Humour Studies, thus having only a
partial understanding of the issues at hand.
In the light of the above, this volume seeks to bring together research
in Humour Studies and AVT for the advancement of both disciplines.
One of the main issues that this study seeks to tackle is the feasibility
of transferring humour across languages and cultures, which has often
been called into question. Scholars in Translation Studies hold opposing
view on the (un)translatability of humour (cf. Section 2.6 in Chapter 2
for an extensive discussion). Chiaro (2005) has summarised this point
as follows:
[H]umour discourse, which is naturally impeded by linguistic and
social barriers, actually succeeds in crossing geographical frontiers.
The translation of Verbally Expressed Humour (VEH) concerns one
of the most complex types of language to translate owing to the fact
that it needs to come to terms with the very tenets of translation theory, those of equivalence and (un)translatability (ibid. 135).
“Equivalence” is a controversial term in Translation Studies. A concise
but comprehensive overview of the issues revolving around this concept
can be found in Kenny (2008: 96), who generally defines equivalence
as: “the relationship between a source text (ST) and a target text (TT)
that allows the TT to be considered as a translation of the ST in the first
place”. Subsequently, Chiaro (2008) has also remarked that “recent debates on equivalence have been favouring TT oriented approaches which
are becoming ever more divorced from formal equivalence or faithfulness” (ibid. 577). In this light, she mentions Skopostheorie (Vermeer
1996) and explains how it has become a convenient approach to the
translation of Verbally Expressed Humour (ibid.). In other words, when
texts aiming at conveying humour are translated, interventionist actions
in the TT can be justified by the fact that they are intended to retain the
perlocutionary effect (Hickey 1998) of the ST so that the target audience
can experience “the same or a similar effect” (Vandaele 2002: 151) conveyed by the ST. Drawing on Nida and Taber’s (1969) idea of “dynamic
(or functional) equivalence”, this type of interventionist approach can be
described in terms of what I call functional manipulation (Chapters 1
and 2 in this book).
Tackling humour translation (and translation in general) in such a
fashion is motivated by the fact that this endeavour poses a range of “objective problems” (pragmatic, linguistic and textual) that can be further
complicated by “subjective difficulties” (e.g. the translator’s expertise,
Introduction
3
time pressures; Nord 1991, quoted in Popa 2005: 51). The objective problems that arise specifically in AVT are directly related to the multisemiotic nature of the mode used. The term “mode” in AVT is used to define
“all types of transfer of audiovisual texts between two languages and
cultures (interlingual) or within the same language and culture (intralingual)” (Chaume 2013: 106), which can be subsumed under two “macromodes” of AVT: revoicing and captioning (Zabalbeascoa et al. 2012: 18;
Chaume 2013: 106–107). Each of these two macro-modes comprises
other types or subtypes. This book will consider not only dubbing and
audio description (part of revoicing) but also professional subtitling and
the so-called “participatory audiovisual translation” (Pérez-González
2014: 233), i.e. amateur subtitling, or fansubbing (part of captioning).
The considerations regarding the theoretical debate on the AVT of
humour derive from both the theory and practice. The two can be considered equally useful because, as Ulrych (2000: 410) puts it, they are
“simply two sides of the same coin: theory informs practice, which in
turn contributes towards a theoretical framework”. This view falls into
the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies, which investigate
translations “as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience” (Holmes, 1988: 71). Translations are analysed according to the
socio-historical context within which they are embedded and the translation norms such a context has established (Toury 1995). As a consequence, researchers can offer insight into the translation process they
analyse and possibly detect procedural patterns. Venuti (1992, 1998,
2017 [1995]) and his famous distinction between source-oriented (a.k.a.
foreignisation) and target-oriented (a.k.a. domestication) approaches
come readily to mind. In the former case, translators attempt to retain
in the TT the linguistic and cultural differences the ST contains, thus
making it evident that the former is a translated version of the latter. In a
domesticating or target-culture approach, the TT is made fluent, “intelligible and even familiar to the target-language reader” (Venuti 1992: 5).
These concepts can be and are applied to the analysis of TV and film
comedy in this book, along with other considerations stemming from the
Polysystem Theory (Even-Zohar 2005) that can help us to understand
“the role translation plays in canon formation, and the establishment,
development and maintenance of an academic discipline” (Nornes 2007:
3–4). For instance, in the case of Italian AVT, which is the polysystem
under scrutiny here, Italy’s cinema and audiovisual tradition matches the
definition of “weak literature” as suggested by Even-Zohar (2012) when
talking about literary translation. He describes weak literature as being
on the margins of a larger literary hierarchy that prevents the former
from developing like other larger literatures, which may be therefore felt
to be indispensable (ibid. 164). This description fits the context because,
like “weak literature”, the audiovisual production of Italy is limited compared to that of the United States, the reason being that after the initial
4 Introduction
boom, between 1906 and 1913, the European film industry halted due
to the outbreak of World Wars I and II, and it was consequently outdone
by Hollywood. Despite its recovery, the European market is still overshadowed by US productions (Perego 2005: 17).
Like other European countries, Italy largely depends on the importation and translation of American series and movies. It is therefore unsurprising that a large amount of scholarly research in AVT often deals with
American audiovisual works and their translation into French, Spanish,
Italian, German and so on (cf. Chapter 2). And this study is indeed no
exception; in its attempt to offer an account of the treatment of humour
in Italian AVT, this work considers instances taken from comedy productions for the television and the cinema. In order to investigate revoicing and captioning, this book concentrates on the first two seasons of
the TV comedy program Modern Family (Christopher Lloyd and Steven
Levitan, 2009–) and its Italian dubbed and captioned (subtitled and funsubbed) versions. This family sitcom revolves around the lives of Jay
Pritchett and his family, all of whom live in suburban Los Angeles. Jay’s
family includes his Colombian second wife Gloria, their son Joe and
Manny, Gloria’s son and Jay’s stepson. Jay also has two adult children:
Mitchell, who is gay and in a long-term relationship with Cameron; and
Claire, who is married to Phil. Cameron and Mitchell have adopted a
Vietnamese baby girl (Lily), while Claire and Phil have three children:
Haley, Alexandra and Luke. Modern Family is a telling example of the
way comedy has been evolving to depict a multilingual and multicultural
society such as that of North America. Most of the series’ success and
humour derives from its characters’ playful use of language, cultural
references and the clash between the North and South American societies, languages and cultures. It is a fascinating and humorous sitcom that
poses several challenges and is therefore well worth exploring.
Hence, the contrastive analysis carried out in this volume seeks to shed
light on precisely those language- and culture-specific features that pose
significant problems in humour translation, meaning wordplay, culturespecific references and multilingualism. As mentioned above, this investigation aims to bring together insights from the scholarly research
on AVT and Humour Studies, most notably, Raskin’s (1985) Semantic
Script Theory of Humour (SSTH) and Attardo’s General Theory of Verbal Humour (GTVH; Attardo and Raskin 1991, 2017; Attardo 1994,
2001). However, the inner complexities of humour, its development and
translation within a multisemiotic system such as the audiovisual setting
call for an eclectic approach that extends beyond these fields. Therefore,
this study also integrates observations by scholars in Film Studies, Corpus Linguistics, Conversation Analysis and so on.
From a statistical point of view, the corpus under scrutiny is sufficiently large to allow for detecting patterns of translational behaviour
within different AVT modes. Each of the two original seasons comprises
Introduction
5
24 episodes with an average running time of approximately 22 minutes
per episode and an average of 3,300 words per episode. This means
that the ST corpus is roughly made of 160,000 words. The word count
for the dubbed text is approximately the same, whereas the subtitled
and funsubbed versions have an average of 3,100 words per episode,
which once again is not substantially different from the ST’s word count.
Therefore, the overall word count for Modern Family is approximately
600,000 words. In addition, the number of people involved in the transfer (meaning translation and/or adaptation) of these two seasons is quite
large. As explained in more detail in Section 3.4.2, the dubbed and fansubbed versions are the result of a collective effort by, respectively, a
group of professionals and some amateur subtitlers who were part of the
Italian fansubbing community called ItaSA. Unfortunately, no information regarding the official subtitler(s) could be retrieved, proof of their
chronic invisibility (Díaz-Cintas and Remael 2007: 40). By and large, it
is likely that the translation patterns detected here are in part the result
of personal choices but mostly the decision of a group of people working
together.
Finally, in order to give a more exhaustive picture of the issues connected with AVT, this volume also includes an investigation of humour in Audio Description (AD) in Chapter 6. This AVT mode allows
the visually impaired or the blind to assess the non-verbal content of a
film. The present analysis has concentrated on a recent romantic comedy titled The Big Sick (Michael Showalter, 2017). In a nutshell, this
feature film revolves around Kumail and Emily’s love story. Kumail is
an Uber driver in Chicago who is trying to become a famous stand-up
comedian by self-producing his one-man show about his Pakistani
background. Emily is a white graduate student in psychotherapy who
happens to attend one of Kumail’s performances. Despite Emily’s
health problems and Kumail’s immigrant parents’ attempts to marry
him off to a young Pakistani Muslim woman, the couple will finally
end up together.
As may be gathered, this romantic comedy has been chosen because it
shares some of the themes that Modern Family also deals with, i.e. the
attempt to show that the present society is continuously changing, incorporating people coming from many different cultural backgrounds.
Although the linguistic and cultural differences may result in a clash,
which is exploited here for humorous purposes, the ultimate underlying message is that accepting and embracing diversity is possible when
understanding prevails. Besides, humour is a very important part of
the film’s storyline, given that Kumail wants to become a professional
stand-up comedian. Finally, since the English and Italian ADs have been
carried out independently, it is interesting to compare them and understand how the visual humour in this film has been approached within
each of these cultural and linguistic contexts.
6 Introduction
Generally speaking, the results of the inductive research presented
here confirm that scholars need to take into account textual and contextual factors at play during AVT, if they really want to understand
the way professional practice works, the problems translation poses
and how they are tackled (Zabalbeascoa 2005: 206). This approach can
help determine procedural processes that need to be informed by a clear
methodology, which in turn helps to conceptualise a sound theory. As
Attardo and Raskin (2017: 52) nicely put it: “[a] theory should and often
does imply a methodology. An explicit theory always suggests and establishes it. The methodology results in what we call descriptions, and the
format and substance of those are what a real theory defines”.
The Scope of This Book and Its Structure
Performing arts, music and literature have been and are created to make
everyday life more enjoyble. However, having a good laugh can also be
as therapeutic as reading a novel, attending an exhibition or going to a
concert. Lay people may enjoy the performers’ skills in creating a pleasant experience. Conversely, a well-informed and expert eye tends to go
beyond this surface level of appreciation. As far as TV comedy is concerned, Humour Studies scholars, and linguists in general, are interested
in the way the production crew and the scriptwriters in particular are
able to convey humour via the language the characters use and the fictional world they inhabit. Scholars in AVT who are also interested in
humour not only look at the way this type of humour is conceived and
conveyed but also how it is transferred across languages and cultures.
Some may also explore the appreciation of humour in AVT (cf. Section
2.6). However, humour creation and translation in audiovisual content
are the main concerns of this study and will be extensively debated in
theoretical and practical terms.
This volume is purposefully divided into two main parts, which altogether comprise eight chapters, including this introduction. Part I contains two chapters that are entirely devoted to the theoretical discussion
of humour and audiovisual translation respectively. Chapter 1 offers an
overview of the most popular theories developed within Humour Studies
and an in-depth discussion of the ongoing debate on the (im)possibility
of translating humour. Chapter 2 contains an overview of the literature
produced on AVT in general and the AVT of humour in particular, thus
nicely connecting Part I to the following chapters. Those who are already familiar with these topics may wish to move directly to Part II, as
it focuses primarily on the application of such theories to the case studies
under scrutiny.
Part II is composed of three chapters (Chapters 3–5) that tackle specific language- and culture-bound issues that are exploited for humorous purposes: punning, culture-specific references and multilingualism
Introduction
7
respectively. As mentioned above, Chapter 6 is instead entirely devoted
to the AD of humour and the way it has been tackled in English and
Italian. Each of these chapters provides the reader with a theoretical
discussion of the issue at hand, a detailed analysis of some instances
taken from the corpus and a conclusion summing up the related findings.
Consequently, every chapter can also be read as a self-standing piece of
research.
The reader may easily notice that the chapters in Part II progressively
decrease in length. This is mainly due to the fact that each phenomenon
has been variously explored in the literature, depending on either its
long-established tradition or its novelty. However, a caveat is in order:
while multilingual humour is probably no more recent a phenomenon in
human communication than punning, it is a matter of fact that wordplay and its translation have attracted greater attention in the past and,
even today, many scholars in both Humour Studies and AVT continue
to investigate it. Conversely, multilingualism and, consequently, multilingual humour have recently become trend topics in research (cf. Dore
2019; Corrius et al. Forthcoming), and this is most probably the result
of its appeal to today’s globalised world and society. More and more
people move to other countries for work-related or study purposes. Migration flows have contributed to creating more multi-ethnic communities, which are clearly represented in audiovisual productions such as
Modern Family and The Big Sick.
By the same token, the development of new technologies and new sensibilities regarding accessibility has led to the creation of AD. Although
gaining momentum in AVT research, AD can be said to be in its infancy,
and the AD of humour almost non-existent. It is therefore hoped that
the discussion carried out in Chapter 6 will foster the (presently limited)
debate on this important aspect of AD.
Finally, Chapter 7 elaborates on the results of this study in more general terms, pinpointing their implications for both Humour Studies and
Translation Studies. It also addresses certain limitations of this work as
well as indicating possible avenues for further research.
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Notes
1 For example, cf. Schank and Abelson (1977) for an in-depth discussion on
the concept of ‘script’, Bartlett (1932) and Rumelhart (1980) for ‘schema’,
and Goffman (1974) and Minsky (1975) for ‘frame’.
2 Grice (1975: 41–48) proposes a bona-fide mode of communication requiring
the commitment of the speaker(s) to four maxims: quality, say only what you
believe to be true; quantity, give as much information as is needed; relation,
be relevant; manner, be succinct.
1 A wealth of examples can be found on YouTube, particularly when they are
used to mock politicians; however, one of the most entertaining examples
of fandubbing is the Italian fake translation of one of Mick Jagger’s interviews, which shows how refined lip-sync can be (cf. https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=CMKHQxvV7r8, accessed: 10/08/2019)
2 Cf. ItaSA, www.italiansubs.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=135&Itemid=87, accessed: 10/08/2019); all the content on the Subspedia website is no longer available, including the website’s disclaimer.
3 A documentary titled Sub Heroes was recently released to show how fansubbers at Italian Subs Addicted (ItaSA), the biggest fansubbing community, work; the trailer is available at: http://www.subsheroes.com (accessed:
20/08/2019). As may be gathered from the title, this documentary depicts
subbers as heroes. Although “barely legal” (as pointed out in the trailer),
subbers justify their work by remarking that they help to spread AVT content which might otherwise be unavailable in Italy.
4 A complete overview titled “EU gross box office topped EUR 7 billion in 2017
for third year running”, is available at: https://www.obs.coe.int/documents/
30909879/32890605/Cannes+press+release-Focus-table+1.png/88524f8828cd-d327-18fd-6771b91fd298?t=1524727852000 (accessed: 10/08/2019).
5 Cf. the Contratto Collettivo Nazionale di Lavoro del Settore Doppiaggio,
30/01 2008, p. 17: “Qualora all’Adattatore-dialoghista venga richiesta la
realizzazione della lista sottotitoli, gli verrà corrisposto un compenso minimo pari al 50 per cento di quello indicato nella fascia di appartenenza
dell’opera. Tale compenso sarà riconosciuto al 25 per cento se tale lista
viene elaborata da terzi dalla lista dialoghi fornita all’Impresa per le lavorazioni di doppiaggio”, https://www.aidac.it/images/pdf/ccnl.pdf (accessed:
10/07/2019).
1 Unfortunately, my attempts to contact Video Sound Service directly to
obtain direct information regarding the dubbing on Modern Family were
unsuccessful. However, all the information reported here can be retrieved
from Antonio Genna’s website on Italian dubbing, www.antoniogenna.net/
doppiaggio/telefilm/modernfamily.htm (accessed: 12/08/2019). Although it
is a personal website, the information contained therein is easily verifiable.
For instance, the personal websites of the adaptors and dubbing director
mentioned there confirm they worked on Modern Family.
2 These definitions can be found respectively in the Cambridge Dictionary
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/it/dizionario/inglese/cream-puff
and the Urban Dictionary at www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=cream+puff (last accessed: 12/08/2019). The former is clearly a reliable
source of information, while the latter is compiled by users and it is used
here as reference only.
3 Minimal pairs are two words of different meaning that differ due to just one
phoneme, as in dog/’d‫ܥ‬g/vs. doc/d‫ܥ‬k/.
4 Cf. the definition of “social piranha”’ on the Urban Dictionary, www.urban
dictionary.com/define.php?term=Social%20Piranha (accessed: 10/08/2019).
5 Cf. ‘wet blanket’ at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/it/dizionario/inglese/
wet-blanket (last accessed 12/08/2019).
1 Earlier versions of some sections of this chapter have appeared in Dore
(2019b).
1 Cf. the ADLAB website and the results of the project are accessible at www.
adlabproject.eu/Docs/adlab%20book/index.html (accessed: 15/08/2019).
Any further reference to the website can be retrieved by clicking on the link
and reading the guidelines provided by the ADLAB group.
2 The ‘Target Text Creation’ Section of the ADLAB guidelines are available at:
www.adlabproject.eu/Docs/adlab%20book/index.html?#index (accessed:
12/08/2019).
3 The catalogue of the non-profit Italian association Senza Barriere includes
adult movies; their catalogue is available at: www.cineaudioteca.it/catalogo_
lista.php (last accessed: 12/08/2019).
4 I would like to thank Valeria Cervetti at Terzarima and Manuela Marianetti and Laura Giordani at AIDAC for their input and feedback during my
search.
5 Cf. RAI’s website devoted to AD: www.rai.it/dl/RaiTV/programmi/page/Pageee4849bf-b7e3-49f6-ae2f-8ec31dc8dfa5.html?set=ContentSet-8761a2130ab7-4347-b725-b6e8ed846702&type=A (accessed: 12/08/2019).
6 The Blind Mice Mega Mall’s website is available at: www.blindmicemegamall.
com (accessed: 07/08/2019).
7 The mission of Senza Barriere and their catalogue are available at: www.
cineaudioteca.it (accessed 12/08/2019). I am extremely grateful to Eraldo
Busarello and his team for their help.