Christian Apologetics in the Early Church Thesis Christian apologetics has been criticized and downplayed by many theologians and evangelists throughout its history. A survey and analysis of Christian Apologetics in the early church and thereafter, will demonstrate that the apostles, church patriarchs and the early church believed in its role and importance in the development and growth of the faith. Outline Introduction I. What is Christian Apologetics? A. Mentions in the New Testament The word apologia as a noun or a verb appears nineteen times in the new testament. Most times, “The word is used either to denote an answer that is given to a charge, objection or accusation leveled against an individual or a vindication (implying a successful answer or defense).”1 1. Jesus commandment includes loving God with all your mind. When Jesus was asked by a Lawyer, what is the greatest commandment, He answered, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind, and your neighbor as yourself.”2 Notice that Jesus includes loving God with all one’s mind. 2. Peter mentions to believers to be prepared to give a defense. (1 Peter 3:15) The apostle Peter, in his first address to the church says, but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you.” 3 B. How was the term used before the new testament? Apologetics can be traced back to early Greek culture. Apologetics simply means to give a defense or to show an accusation to be false. The Greek term apologia was originally used as a legal term. 1. The Greek term “apologia.” 2. Apologetics before the New Testament 1 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 12). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 2 Luke 10:27 ESV 3 (1 Pet 3:15) Some examples of the term apologia used in the New Testament are found in, Acts 22:1, when Paul is defending himself against a mob and says, “Listen now to my defense.” Or in Acts 25:16, Paul again says “It is not the Roman custom to hand over any man before he has faced his accusers and has had an opportunity to defend himself against their charges.” In 1 Corinthians 9:3 and 2 Corinthians 7:11, Paul uses to defend himself against accusations from Judaizers, “This is my defense to those who sit in judgment on me,” and “…see what this godly sorrow has produced in you: what earnestness, what eagerness to clear yourselves.” This time, to the church at Philippi, Paul says in Philippians 1:7 “For whether I am in chains or defending and confirming the gospel, all of you share in God’s grace with me.” Again, in Philippians 1:16 he says, “Do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel.” When writing to his disciple, Paul says in 2 Timothy 4:16 “At my first defense, no one came to my support.”4 II. A history of Christian Apologetics A. The Early Church During what is known in Christian history as the Patristic era, as Christianity spread through the Roman empire, it faced constant and well-formed opposition from Judaism, Gnosticism, Greek and Roman philosophy, and paganism. Beilby describes three types of apologetics in the early church: Political, religious and apologetics within Christianity to defend theological differences.5 Groothie refers to this type of apologetics as internal.6 Initially, Rome considered Christianity an extension of Judaism. Being so, the empire could allow the new branch to develop and exercise its practices. However, rabbinic constant negative claims against Christianity forced Rome to persecute and exercise authority against the new rising religion. In an attempt to defend themselves politically, Christians in an attempt to attain civil toleration from Rome, practiced political apologetics.7 Christian did not only have to defend themselves against the political power of the empire, but also against the well-established religions and philosophies of their time. Christians who formerly practiced paganism, Judaism or were bought under Hellenistic schools of thought, converted to Christianism forcing them to develop an argument for their new belief and against their former practices.8 Some of these same thinkers, inevitably developed different understandings of what Christianity meant forcing apologetics to also be used for internal battles, that is to defend one’s theological understanding against another form of Christian thought. Among the most common debates in the early church was against Gnostocism, a belief in matter as evil and sprit as the enlightment 4 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 12). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 5 Ibid., 42 Goothrie 7 Beilby 40 8 Ibid., 41 6 process, thus claiming that Jesus did not come in bodily form, and Arianism, who denied Jesus’ divinity.9 1. The Apostles Apart from Jesus, the Apostles were the first Christian apologists. One could argue that the whole book of Galatians is a defense of the true gospel against false doctrine. Paul initiates by presenting himself as a true apostle who received his teachings from Jesus himself. He then presents what the true gospel is and goes on to claim that if anyone, even an angel would appear and speak otherwise, let him be accursed. To complete his case, he presents the example of Peter and Abraham to show that justification is by faith alone and not by the works of the law. 2. Second Century Apologists Second century Christian apologists needed to defend Christianity against the policy in Rome, against false doctrine, paganism and the Jews. Very little is known about Quadratus, the bishop of Athens, who addressed his apologia to Emperor Hadrian, the same as Aristides, who also addressed the same Emperor later.10 Justin Martyr (ca 100 -165) is the first Christian apologists from whom there is a vast record of his theology and doctrine. He was trained in Philosophy, opposed Marcion,11 developed the concept of logos spermaticos, and wrote arguments to Rome defending Christianity. In his First Apology, around 155 A.D., he presented Christianity as not a threat to the empire. Some years later in his Second Apology, Martyr claimed, “pagan philosophers, being enlightened by the divine logos, were in some sense Christians without knowing it.”12 He argued for the divinity and messiahship of Jesus. Martyr is criticized for going to far as when he claimed that all who follow the “logos” are in fact Christians.13 Justin’s pupil, Tatian, who ministered in Syria, Assyria, and Rome, produced the first harmony of the gospels, but unfortunately later fell into Gnosticism.14 Athenagoras, a well known Platonist, is known for writing on the resurrection of the dead while defending Christianity in Athens. At Antioch, Theophilus the bishop, argued against pagan philosophers. Melito, in Sardis, produced the first list of Christian Old Testament books and spoke of Jesus as both God and man.15 As a converted Jew, Hegesippus, gathered information on the early church 9 Ibid., 42 10 Robert C Walton (2018). (p. 14). Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, , Revised Edition. 11 Marcion proclaimed Jesus as a God of love who opposed the evil deity presented in the Old Testament. 12 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 43). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 13 Ibid., 43 14 Robert C Walton (2018). (p. 14). Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, , Revised Edition. 15 [Walter A. Elwell (2017). (p. 241). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] to prove its pure and apostolic character.16 Finally, the Epistle of Diognetus, which author is unknown, presents Christianity as superior to paganism and defends it against claims of Christianity being a newly formed religion. B. Third Century Apologists During the third century, two apologists stand out the most, Clement of Alexandria and Origen. By this time, all twenty-seven books of the canonical New Testament were being used. Beilby shares that, “He (Origen) does not merely argue that Christianity should be politically or intellectually tolerated. Instead he launches a well-developed counteroffensive against a range of Jewish and pagan arguments against Christianity.17 Clement of Alexandria and Origen are also remembered for, among the Alexandrian fathers, to propose Trichonomism, that is the idea that people are made of body, soul and spirit.18 Origen wrote Contra Celsum circa 248 A.D. in which he defends Christinity against Celsum’s claim of Christinity dnegatively affecting Hellenistic views, Origen deals with what is meant by scripture, the problem of evil and the deity of Jesus Christ. By the fourth century Aurelius Agustine, appears as the, “unquestioned apologetic giant of the patristic period.”19 He took Christian apologetics to the next level by not resting after winning a battle or argument but created a holistic and theological framework even to the point of introducing the balance between faith and reason. By the time of Augustine, it was well known that Constantine was converting himself and the empire to Christianity, thus one can say that Augustine experienced the transition between the early church and the middle ages. Augustine wrote the well-known book The City of God. This book dealt with the idea of Rome sacking because of the pagan gods unfavored status towards the city, a historic theology from creation to eschaton, and the relationship between faith and reason. Augustine today is revered by Protestants and Catholics.20 Many common sayings are accredited to Augustine, sayings such as, “Love the sinner but hate the sin,” or “Seek not to understand that you may believe, but believe that you may understand,” or also known as the fides quaerens intellectum which was later used by Saint Anselm in which one starts by believing in God and then applying reason to further understand doctrine. C. Fourth and Fifth Century Apologist 1. Augustine 16 Robert C Walton (2018). (p. 14). Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, , Revised Edition. 17 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 44). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 18 [Millard J. Erickson (2015). (p. 477). Christian Theology. Baker Academic. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 19 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 45). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 20 Ibid., 45 D. Apologists during the Holy Roman Empire A precursor to Augustine was Anselm of Cantenbury. If Augustine had one foot in the early church and one in medieval times, Anselm was a product of the Holy Roman Empire. He is considered one of the greatest theologians of Medieval ages. His most influential work, Why God became Man, where Anselm, “…attempted to produce necessary reasons for the coming of a God-man and his atoning sacrifice. The injury dealt to God's honor by humankind's fall into sin required the human race itself to render satisfaction to an upright God; yet only God himself could adequately make amends.21 In the thirteenth century, the world was rapidly changing, trade, commerce and the expansion of Islam, created a multicultural world. Aquinas entered the arena to unite all by introducing Aristotelian methods to the study of Christianity. Aquinas, “…contended that he could prove certain beliefs by pure reason: the existence of God, the immortality of the human soul, and the supernatural origin of the Catholic Church. More specific elements of doctrine, such as the triune nature of God, could not be known by unaided reason, but must be accepted on authority. These are truths of revelation, not truths of reason. (Of course, if one of the natural truths established by reason is the divine origin of the Catholic Church, then by inference one has established its authority and, consequently, the truth of the higher or revealed matters on which it speaks.) Reason rules the lower level, while the truths on the upper level are matters of faith.”22 Aquinas also introduced what is known as the “Five Ways.” These are: (1) The argument from change, (2) The argument from causality, (3) the argument from contingency, (4) the argument from perfection, and (5) the argument of purpose. Apologists in the Reformation If Aquinas was, “…the unquestionable titan of the medieval theological landscape,”23 Martin Luther is the patriarch and titan of the reformation or Protestant movement. In contrast to Aquinas, Luther believed that reason would not lead one to faith. In fact, one’s sinful nature could only be reveled by Sola gratia, grace alone. To a certain degree, Luther was not interested in apologetics and never developed a apologetic system. Luther said, ““We must take care not to deface the Gospel, to defend it so well that it collapses. Let us not be anxious: the Gospel needs not our help; it is sufficiently strong of itself. God alone commends it, whose it is.”24 While Aquinas introduced Aristotle and philosophy, Luther encouraged the church to deviate from such blending and allow grace alone through faith alone to take its course. 1. John Calvin 21 [Walter A. Elwell (2017). (p. 67). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 22 [Millard J. Erickson (2015). (p. 130). Christian Theology. Baker Academic. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 23 Bielby 51 24 [James K Beilby (2017). (p. 55). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] Soon after, John Calvin, the father of Reformed and Presbyterian doctrine,25 developed an argument based on the understanding that because of one’s admiration and revelation through nature, all creation can come to a knowledge of God’s existence, power and goodness.26 Nevertheless, just as Luther claimed grace alone, Calvin too argued that humans, if let alone, would create an idolatrous self-serving God thus, through election and grace alone, one can come to an understanding of God. E. Apologists during Modern times In modern times, Blaise Pascal stands as one of the greatest intellectual figures of the Western culture. He is known for many advances in mathematics and engineering, but after his first and later second conversion or mystical experience, Pascal is known for the development of apologetic arguments such as, “the wager.” In it, Pascal argues that a reasonable person must live as if God exists and if upon death finds that He does not exist, then the person suffers a finite loss, on the contrary, if a reasonable person lives as if God does not exist and upon death finds that He does, the consequence if eternal. 1. Blaise Pascal In early eighteenth century, Joseph Butler, who was born a Presbyterian but chose to study and practice religion under the Church of England, is known for his apologetic arguments against deism. His time is known as the, “golden age of deism,” in England. He published Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature in 1736, in which he, “…took the position that the order in nature is paralleled by the order in revelation, intimating that God was author of both. He argued that the order and beauty of nature reveal a creating intelligence with some conscious design in view.27 2. Joseph Butler F. Skepticism and the respond from Apologists Arguing against deism and orthodox Chritianity, David Hume, presented a strong case against ontological, teleological, and cosmological proofs of the existence of God. Furthermore, Hume, “suggests that all religious sentiments grow out of two human emotions, hope and fear— especially fear. He believed in studying religion scientifically, because there was nothing unique about religious experience.”28 Immanuel Kant, a philosopher from Prussia, and probably the most influential one in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, proposed that the “enlightenment” was man coming to maturity. Kant rejected all metaphysical knowledge in the basis that our minds are conditioned to interpret reality. Kant, when considering a definition to 25 [Walter A. Elwell (2017). (p. 201). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 26 Beilby 56 27 [Walter A. Elwell (2017). (p. 197). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] 28 [Walter A. Elwell (2017). (p. 581). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.lifeway.com] what Enlightenment is, “…man learning to think for himself without relying on the authority of the church, the Bible, or the state to tell him what to do.29 1. David Hume 2. Immanuel Kant 3. William Paley 4. Thomas Reid 5. Charles Hodge 6. B. B. Warfield G. Apologists in modern times 7. Soren Kierkegaard 8. James Orr 9. Cornelius Van Til 10. C.S. Lewis 11. Karl Barth 12. Alvin Plantiga 13. William Lain Craig III. Apologetic arguments from the Early Church A. Two types of apologetics 1. Political Apologetics 2. Religious Apologetics B. Two different audiences 1. Internal Apologetics 2. External Apologetics C. The Best Apologetic arguments from the Early Church 1. Apology, Second Apology and Dialogue with Trypho the Jew by Justin Martyr. 2. Contra Celsum by Origen 3. Fides Quarens Intellectum and the Cosmological argument by Augustine. 4. Credo ut intelligam and the Ontological argument by Anselm. 5. Aquina’s Five Ways. Conclusion The book of acts has one of the most beautiful pictures of apologetics in action. Paul addresses the Athenians and says, “For as I passed along, and observed the objects of your worship, I found also an altar with this inscription, to an unknown god. What therefore ye 29 worship in ignorance, this I set forth unto you. (Acts 17:23) As a result, some accepted the message and became followers of Christ, some rejected it, while others asked to continue meeting in a future time and date. Paul’s address using a preconceived idea, a common practice, and exercising their own understanding enabled some to connect with the truth. Considering that apologetics is a defense about a specific worldview or belief, and Christian apologetics is to present a defense about Christian beliefs, one must expect Christian apologetics to be at the forefront of the battle. The New Testament shows Jesus and the apostles calling followers to apply apologetics. The early church, primarily with the rise of political and religious apologetics, defended the Christian faith against abusive power, the state, skepticism, false doctrine, and false practices. Even today, most Christian pastors and evangelists engage in internal and external apologetics. Apologetics may lead the way to evangelism or may deconstruct an objection a person may have against biblical truth, but apologetics will not lead a person to believe in Christ. Because one is surrounded with non-believers, that is people who object biblical teachings, based on logical and reasonable objections constructed against Christianity, one ought to use logic and reason to deconstruct such misconceptions. Paul’s example by engaging in private or public apologetics, taking under consideration one’s audience and context, so that with logic, reason and most importantly love, one may engage with others in conversations about biblical truth. Bibliography Baghos, Chris. “The Apologetics and the Literary Value of the Acts of Justin.” Phronema 34, no. 1 (2019): 25-54. Beilby, James K. (2017). (p. 92). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It. Retrieved Elwell, Walter A. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Baker Book House. (2009). Erickson, Millard J. "Christian Theology". Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 2013. Groothius, Douglas. "A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith." Word Search Bible. 2018. Noll, Mark A. “Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, 3rd Edition. Baker Academic, 2012, 60. Walton, Robert C. “Chronological and Background Charts of Church History,” Zondervan, 2018, 28.
