4 GRAMMAR 13 AL 18

GRAMMAR 1
UNIT 13: THE EXPRESSION OF QUANTITY .............................................. 2
TOPIC 14. EXPRESSION OF QUALITY. COMPARISON AND DEGREE. .. 6
TOPIC 15 EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS AND INSTRUMENT. .... 10
TOPIC 16. EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION ............................................ 13
UNIT 17. EXPRESSION OF PLACE, DIRECTION AND DISTANCE ......... 17
TOPIC 18. TIME REFERENCE: TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIP AND FREQUENCY.
......................................................................................................................... 21
UNIT 13: THE EXPRESSION OF QUANTITY
1. Introduction
2. Expression of quantity
2.1 Nouns
2.2 Numerals
2.3 Pronouns
2.4 Determiners
3. Partitive constructions
4. Conclusion
5. Bibliography
1. Introduction
This unit is aimed at providing an insightful analysis of the expression of quantity,
word that refers to amount. The English language has different ways of expression
quantity, by means of number, through the use of quantifiers, indefinites and partitive
constructions.
2. Expression of quantity
The notion of quantity refers to the “number” or “the amount of items” we are
dealing with and it is the answer to the questions such as “how much” and “how
many”. English language has different means of expressing quantity: by means of
nouns, pronouns, determiners and partitive constructions.
2.1 Nouns
a)
Singular/ plural
By the category of number a noun can be singular which denotes the quantity
‘one’, plural denoting the quantity ‘two or more’. Some plural nouns are dual such as
‘both’, ‘either’ and ‘neither’.
Regarding singular nouns some of them can be variable and take the plural form
following a regular pattern, just adding – (e) s suffix to the noun. Regular plural forms
have 3 different pronunciations: /s/ after voiceless sounds e.g. maps, talks; /z/ after
voiced sounds and vowels e.g. potatoes, doors, pools and finally /iz/ after sibilants e.g.
buses, horses, noises, bridges, churches. ([s] [z] [ʃ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [ʒ].
However, English language has several ways of forming irregular plurals such
as by means of mutation of vowels, ‘foot-feet’, adding –en, child-children by voicing,
wife, wives or by adding some foreign plurals such as –i, a, ae, ‘stimulus - stimuli’,
‘curriculum – curricula’ or ‘formula – formulae’. It is worth mentioning the case of
collective zero plural of nouns haven the same form in singular and plural e.g. ‘fish’
and ‘sheep’.
There is a group of nouns that are always singular (invariable), therefore they
always take a verb in the singular form, especially non-count nouns: cheese, milk,
music, love; some nouns ending in –s: news, Physics, dominoes, measles, abstract
adjectival heads: the unbelievable.
In contrast there are some other nouns that cannot be singular: entities
comprising to parts: jeans, shorts, trousers, scissors; pluralia tantum in –s: comprise an
indefinite number of parts (outskirts); some plural proper names: the Kennedys or
unmarked plural nouns (people).
b)
Countable / uncountable
Another aspect regarding the expression of quantity is the notion of countability
and uncountability. Countable nouns are used for separate and individual things, they
can be singular or plural (carrot, carrots). Most countable nouns are concrete (apple,
apples) although some are abastract (idea, ideas). Conversely, uncountable nouns
cannot be divided into separate units. They are always singular, followed by a verb in
the singular form and are not used with indefinite articles (an, an). Uncountable nouns
are often preceded by quantifiers such as some, any, no, or a little. Some of them are
abstract (advice, experience, fear, relief) and other concrete (butter, rice, water). There
is a group of uncountable nouns like baggage, furniture, damage that are countable in
other language.
2.2 Numerals
Another key aspect to take into consideration is the use of numerals, which are
subdivided into: cardinal and ordinal. Cardinal numbers: one, two, three, are used
after a noun instead of a ordinal number. e.g. act three vs. the third act. Ordinal
numbers (first, second, third…) are preceded by an article when working as a pronoun
(Today is the eleventh). They are used when talking about fractions and decimals (2/6 =
two sixths), or when expressing order or priority (He was the first one to cross).
The figure ‘0’ is usually called ‘nought’ in British English and ‘zero’ in American
English and when talking about temperature. ‘nil’ is used in sports and games except
in tennis which is called ‘love’
2.3 Pronouns
We must make a distinction between universal and partitive indefinites.
a) Universal: they are ‘every’ and its combinations, ‘each’, ‘all’ and ‘both’.
‘Every’ and its combinations refer to more than two and have collective reference,
‘Everybody loves you’ ‘Everyone’ and ‘everybody’ are used for personal count nouns in
singular whereas ‘everything’ is used for non-personal count nouns. ‘Each’ refers to
two or more but takes the numbers one by one. ‘All’ has a plural reference and ‘both’
means two persons or thing. As determiners, ‘every’ and ‘each’ precede personal and
non-personal singular nouns (every student went there, I saw each single table in the
shop) whereas ‘all’ and ‘both’ precede count plural nouns and non-count nouns. ‘All the
students went there’, ‘All the sugar was on the floor’ ‘Both girls were waiting for their
parents’
b) Partitive pronouns are subdivided into three main categories and can be
added to –one or –body, for people; -thing: for objects and -where for places
Firstly, we find assertive pronouns: somebody, someone, something,
somewhere and some. Some is used for plural count and non-count nouns, both
personal and non-personal, ‘You need some lawyers/water’. Some may have two
functions. It can be used substantively meaning ‘a number of people’ such as in
‘Some say yes, some no’. It may be followed by an adjunct with a non-countable or
abstract noun, a plural count noun, denoting people or things, ‘Some of the passenger
were there’
Secondly, non- assertive are: anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere and any.
Any and its compounds are used in negative and interrogative sentences,
‘I didn’t
see anybody’, ‘Did you see anyone?’
Finally, regarding negative pronouns we find: nobody, no one, nothing,
nowhere, none and neither.‘ Neither’ and ‘none’ may stand by themselves
(Neither/none failed the exam), may refer to a noun or a pronoun mentioned before
(You have two children and I have none/neither) or may be followed by an of-adjunct
(Neither/none of us spoke)
The compounds with –body and –one denote simple person and can take a
genitive case, ‘It’s somebody’s car’
c) Quantifiers.
Quantifiers can be defined as words that increase or decrease an indefinite
amount. We distinguish two main categories. Firstly, cardinal numbers that give the
exact quantity of something. All of them can only happen with plural count nouns,
except for ‘one’ (two tables). They can also function as pronouns (I bought ten).
Secondly, by means of words such as: many, much, (a) few, (a) little, fewer, lesser,
plenty of, etc.
2.4 Determiners
As DETERMINERS, we classify them in three groups: assertive: a/an and some;
non-assertive: either and any and finally, negative: none, no and neither.
a) Assertive: a/an are indefinite articles, they have the same meaning but we use
‘a’ before a consonant or a semivowel and ‘an’ before a vowel or a silent ‘h’. E.g.: a
chair, an honest man. Some has two meanings: a particular but unknown or unspecified
person or thing (Some student hasn’t done the exam) and a certain quantity of
something (Some coffee).
b) Non-assertive: Either in negative and interrogative contexts means ‘one or
other of two’ (She couldn’t see either friend). In affirmative sentences, it means ‘no
matter which’ (Either of you can go). Any is used in negative, interrogative and
conditional sentences. When used in affirmative sentences has negative meaning,
usually with never, hardly, seldom, little, few, only, without. I seldom got any sleep.
c) Negative: neither is used in the same way as either. It denies an alternative (He
is neither ignorant nor stupid) or has the sense of ‘any more than the other’. It is
equivalent to ‘not....either’ and having a front position and appearing with subjectoperator inversion. (She couldn’t play rugby. Neither could I). None is used before a
comparative and before ‘so’ and ‘to’ (I’m none so of cooking). No can be seen as a
contraction of ‘not any’ (There were no letters. There weren’t any letters)
2.5 Partitive constructions
They denote a part of the whole and provide a means of imposing countability.
There are three types of these constructions. Firstly, those used with uncountable
nouns such as ‘a bit of’, ‘ a piece of’, ‘a item of’ e.g. ‘a piece of furniture’, ‘a bit of advice’,
‘ a slice of cake’, ‘ a loaf of bread’. Secondly, partitive expressions used with plural
count nouns with relate to specific sets of nouns or collections: ‘a company of actors’
or ‘a bunch of flowers’. Finally, constructions used with singular count nouns, formed
by a cardinal number plus a count noun of partitive meaning plus ‘of’, ‘two pages of a
book’, ‘a pair of scissors’, a page of a book, a piece of a leather belt
3. Conclusion
Along this unit, we have dealt with different ways of conveying the expression of
quantity. In terms of English as a Second language it is important to take into account
some elements that may cause problems to the students such as the correct use of
indefinites and the distinction between countable and non-countable nouns.
4. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961
TOPIC 14. EXPRESSION OF QUALITY. COMPARISON AND DEGREE.
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Expression of quality.
3. Adjectives. Typology of adjectives
3.1 Morphology classification
3.2 Syntactic classification
3.3 Semantic classification
4. Expression of comparison and degree.
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
1. Introduction
2. Expression of quality.
The expression of quality is normally the answer to the question What is it like?
Thus, the answer to the question What is the book like? is not only conveyed
by adjectives (thick), but also by nouns (a leather cover), past participles (far-fetched),
present
participles
(boring),
adverbs
(He
read
it
fast),
idiomatic
expressions (the longer the better).
According to Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English
Language. Longman, 1990. the adjective phrase is the structure in charge of
expressing quality in English. Quality is used to give information about something or
someone to provide a detailed description of the item in terms of colour, shape,
material, age, etc.
The adjective phrase can function as: as attribute of the subject: I’m happy to be
with you again; attribute of the object: Your message made me very happy or as
premodifier of a noun phrase head: He proved to be an excellent teacher.
The adjective phrase can be premodified and postmodified. The adverb is the only
element which can premodify the adjective phase ‘A perfectly round table’. On the
contrary, there are several structures that can postmodify an adjective phrase: a
prepositional phrase (I was afraid of him); a finite clause (I was afraid that he might be
tired of me); a to-infinitive clause (I was afraid to leave him alone) or the adverb ‘enough’
(I was afraid enough)
The head of the adjective phrase is the adjective. In English language we find 2
main types of adjectives. On the one hand we find determinatives, subdivided into:
demonstrative (this, these), distributive (each, every; either, neither), quantitative (some,
any; little, much; one, twenty), interrogative (which, what, whose), possessive (my, your,
his, her, and so on). On the other hand, qualitative adjectives (clever, golden,
good).these qualitative adjectives are in charge of saying what somebody or
something is like, among which the most outstanding are those relating to size, shape,
colour, age, evaluation (i.e. good, bad, nice, etc). They answer questions such as
how...? And what .......like?
3. Adjectives and typology of adjectives
a) Morphological classification: regarding their form adjectives are sub-classified
into those formed by affixation: derivational ‘-able, -al, -ful, -less’ (comfortable,
playful) or inflectional: -er, est (bigger, biggest) and those formed by compounding
(blue-eyed, tax-free, hard-working)
b) Syntactic classification: adjective can appear attributively, that is to say premodifying a noun head (round table) or predicatively, following a copulative verb (the
table is round).
Among the attributive adjectives we find relationship adjectives all of them
ending in ‘-er’ such as former, later, elder, etc (The elder boy); intensifying adjectives
such as very, mere, utter (The mere mention of his father........); limiting adjectives such
as only, main, chief (the main reason was); noun-related adjectives such as chemical,
nuclear, solar, maritime, etc. (a chemical formula); alternative past participles such as
drunken or sunken (a drunken sailor) and miscellaneous adjectives such as indoor,
outdoor, inside, outside, etc. (an outdoor picture), they can appear in predicative
position but as adverb (I like to be outdoors)
Predicative adjectives appear after linking verbs are divided into three groups.
Firstly, we find the ‘a-series’, such as afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware ( I was
alone, an alone man), health adjectives: fine, ill, faint, sick, etc, which are used to talk
about a permanent condition of health (I’m sick), in AmE or when we want to talk about
a permanent condition we can use them attributively (He is a sick man); finally, we find
those adjectives followed by a complement such as content, opposed, bound (He is
content to be here)
Some adjective can occur attributively or predicatively, they are called central
adjectives (the hungry man, the man was hungry). Those adjectives that can function
only attributively or predicatively are called peripheral (the main raison, he was awake).
More than one adjective can be place in pronominal position at the same time,
following a predefined order (opinion + size + shape + age + colour + origin + material +
purpose + noun as adjective)
c) Regarding the semantic classification of adjectives, they can be classified
as qualitative or descriptive as they denote general qualities of a noun (red hair).
Conversely classifying or limiting adjectives denote the qualities of a noun in order
to frame it into a certain category (nuclear, industrial)
According to Quirk and Greenbaum these two types of adjectives are embedded
into three semantic contrastive pairs. Stative or dynamic: adjectives are usually stative
as they describe a permanent inherent quality. However, sometimes they can be seen
as dynamic mainly those susceptible to subjective measurement: they are brave, calm,
foolish, friendly, funny, generous, etc. He is tall  He is being tall (stative), He is funny
He is being funny (dynamic). Dynamic adjectives refer to transitory conditions of
behaviour or activity (careful)
Adjectives can also be gradable or non gradable. Gradable adjectives can be
used in comparisons or be modified by intensifiers. (tall, taller, very tall). Most dynamic
and stative adjectives are gradable except for stative noun-related adjectives (nuclear,
chemical, maritime more nuclear, very nuclear.
Adjectives can be inherent or non-inherent: Most adjectives are inherent; they
express an intrinsic quality of the noun ‘a wooden cross’, the cross is made from wood.
However, if we say ‘a wooden actor’, meaning an inexpressive actor, we express a
non-inherent quality of the noun; the actor is not made from wood. ‘Gold ring’ vs. ‘gold
heart’
4. Correspondence between adjectives and adverbs
Usually, open-class adverbs derive from adjectives by suffixation, for instance the
adverb ‘sharply’ comes from the adjective ‘sharp’. Sometimes an adverb can be
substituted by a preposition followed by an adjective and a noun. ‘He spoke to Peter
sharply’  ’He spoke to Peter in a sharp manner’. Some adverbs can be changed for
adjectives without little or none semantic difference: His visits are frequent = He visits us
frequently. Other examples of adjective-adverb correspondence are: a heavy sleeper =
somebody who sleeps heavily, the main reason = it was mainly the reason, a faithful friend = a
friend who acts faithfully or his legible writing = writes legibly.
5. Expression of comparison and degree.
According to Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra, 1987, English
language can express degree by means of intensification and by comparison.
Adjectives can be modified by intensifiers or those adverbs which indicate the
degree of intensity of the quality denoted by the adjective. The commonest intensifiers
are those which increase the quality or amplifiers: ‘very’, ‘extremely’ (a complete
failure, a great deception) and those which decrease it or downtoners: hardly, rather, in
the least. (a little effort, a tiny piece of bread)
On the other hand, degree can be also expressed by means of comparison. In
order two compare a quality between two entities or group of entities, we use the
comparative and to compare a quality among more than two entities or group of
entities, we use the superlative.
There are two ways of comparatives and superlatives, depending on the length of
the adjective. With one syllable adjectives we use inflectional construction by
adding ‘-er’ for comparatives and ‘-est’ for superlatives (low-lower-lowest). With
adjectives of three or more syllables, we use the periphrastic construction adding
‘more’ before the adjective in for comparatives and ‘the most’ for superlatives
(interesting-more interesting-the most interesting). Some two-syllable adjectives have
both forms (clever common likely pleasant polite quiet simple stupid subtle sure),
those ending in –full adopt the periphrastic form (useful, harmful, careful)
Adjectives of two syllables can use both forms (easier-more easy, easiest-the easiest).
A small group of adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. They
are good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, little-lesser-least, old-older/elder-oldest/eldest and
far-farther/further-farthest/furthest.
When construction comparison and superlative forms some verbs suffer some
changes in spelling. Adjectives ending in ‘e/ee’, add ‘-r’ or ‘-st’ ( brave-braver-bravest,
free-freer-freest); adjectives ending in a single short vowel followed by a single
consonant letter, double the consonant (hot-hotter-hottest), except in the case of ‘w’
(new-newer-newest); finally, adjectives ending in consonant plus ‘y’, this ‘y’ is change to
‘i’ (happy-happier-happiest), if they end in vowel plus ‘y’, this ‘y’ does not change (greygreyer-greyest)
There are three degrees of comparison. Higher degree is expressed by the
inflectional ‘-er’, ‘est’ and the periphrastic ‘more’, ‘most’ (Sam is the cleverest). Same
degree is expressed by ‘as...as’ and ‘so...as’ (Sam is as clever as Annie). Finally, lower
degree is expressed by means of ‘less’ and ‘least’ (Annie is less quick than Sam).
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961
TOPIC 15 EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS AND INSTRUMENT.
OUTLINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction
Expression of manner
Expression of means
Expression of instrument
Conclusion
Bibliography
1. Introduction
When we talk about an event, we sometimes want to add more information and we
do so by using an optional element known as adverbial. Under this heading we are
going to study the different ways of expressing manner, means and instrument in
English language. The structures conveying the meaning of manner, means and
instrument are used to specify how an action is performed, how an event takes place
and with the help of which instrument the action is performed.
2. Expression of manner
In English language there are three main ways of expressing manner, namely by
means of adverb phrase, prepositional phrases and noun phrases and clauses.
The most common way of expressing manner in English is by means of adverb
phrases. the head of this adverb phrase is usually an open class adverb formed by
adding the suffix –ly to an adjective. E.g. soft – softly, bad – badly, careful – carefully,
etc.
Other suffixes constructions used are: -wise, -style and -fashion. E.g. snake-wise,
cowboy-style and peasant fashion.
All these adverbs can be paraphrased by ‘in an plus adjective plus manner/way’
such as in ‘a bad way/maner’ or by ‘in the manner/style/fashion of plus a noun’ such
as in ‘In the style of a cowboy’.
The use of adverbs is usually preferred over a correspondin prepositional pharse
being mor usual ‘She writers carelessly’ than ‘She writes in a careless way’.
The second way of expressing manner in English is by means of prepositional phrases
such as: ‘He was received with happiness’, ‘The robber spoke like a lawyer’. It is
important to underline the difference bwtween ‘like’ and ‘as’. ‘Like’ is used to express
‘in the manner of’ whereas ‘as’ refers to the actual role. In the sentence ‘He spoke like
a lawyer’ the word ‘like’ means in the manner of, while in the sentence ‘He spoke as a
lawyer’ means that he is a lawyer.
Finally, mammer can be expressed by means of noun phrases and clauses with ‘way’,
‘manner’ and ‘style’ commonly preceded by the definite article. ‘My mother cooks in
the way I like’ in informal English ‘in’ can be omitted, ‘My mother cooks the way I like’.
These clauses of manner can be premodified by ‘exactly as’, ‘just as’ or ‘as’. ‘Please,
do it exactly as I told you?
A manner phrase introduced by ‘like’ and ‘as’ can be used to express comparison.
‘She sings like a professional’ meaning ‘as well as a professional’ ‘ She cooks like my
mother’ meaning ‘in the same way’
‘as if’ and ‘as though’ are also ues to express comparion buy with unreal situations.
‘She treats me as if/though I were a stranger’
3. Expression of means
This kind of sentences answers to the question ‘How?’. Means is commonly
expressed with a prepositional phrase usually introduced by the preposition ‘by’. ‘I
usually go to work by bus’. In phrases denoting communication such as ‘by car, by
train, by letter, by radio’ the definite article ‘the’ is omitted. Sometimes, the ‘by
phrase’ can be replaced by a prepositional phrase of place. ‘ He came in by/through
the window’.
It is also possible to use an adverb phrase with an adverb ending in –ly to denote
by what means teh event referred to by the predicator takes place. E.g. ‘They
communicate telepathically’
4. Expression of instrument
The most common way of expressing instrument is by a phrase introduced by ‘with’.
I.e. ‘He caught the ball with his left hand’.’She was killed with an arrow’. These kind of
sentences usually require a human subject an a direct object. Another characteristic of
the utterances expressing instrument is the possibility of transforming the instrument
into the subject of the sentence. ‘His left hand caught the ball’. ‘An arrow killed her’
There is a correspondence between theses sentences and those containing the verb
‘use’ such as in ‘He uses his left hand to catch the ball’.
In order to express the negative meaning we use ‘without’. I.e. ‘I drew it without a
ruler’.
It is also possible to express instrument
5. Conclusion
At classroom level the contents of this essay are connected with the third content
block, Linguistic Knowledge, of the curricular content, specifically is connected to
Linguistic Functions and Grammar. This content block is one of the key elements of
our current educational system (LOMCE 8/2013) and of GCSE Act 220/2015and
Bachillerato Act 221/2015). There are a great amount of possible activities to exploit
this topic at classroom level…………….
6. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961
TOPIC 16. EXPRESSION OF POSSESSION
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. The genitive or possessive case.
3. Of-construction
4. Other ways of expressing possession:
4.1 Adjectives and pronouns
4.2 ‘To have’
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
1. Introduction
Throughout this unit we shall address the different means of expressing
possession in the English language namely the different ways to indicate that
something belongs to somebody or is associated with someone. In English language
we find two main ways of expressing possession, by means of the genitive
construction and by ‘of-genitive’. Possessive adjectives and pronouns, and verbs like
have got, own or possess can also convey the meaning of possession.
2. The genitive or possessive case.
The genitive or possessive case is the only vestige of the Old English inflectional
endings. Syntactically pre-modifies the head of a noun phrase (my husband’s boss)
Genitive constructions are the same as the plural ones: 's’ is added to singular
nouns and plural nouns not ending in ‘s’ (girl’s institution), an apostrophe (zero
genitive) is added to plural and classical nouns ending in ‘s’ (girls’ institution,
Archimedes’ theorem) and an ‘s’ or only the apostrophe to other names ending in ‘s’
(Carlos’s mother, Chris’ phone). Its pronunciation is also the same as the plural one:
/z/ after vowels and voiced non-sibilant consonants (boy’s, man’s), /s/ after voiceless
non-sibilants (smith’s, cat’s, duke’s) and /iz/ after sibilants (Carlos’s, horse’s)
In the genitive case we can distinguish two parts: the genitive or the word with the
inflection (Carlos’s) and the headword (mother). The genitive can appear with or
without its headword. The first case is known as ATTRIBUTIVE GENITIVE which can
be specifying when the genitive specifies the owner of the headword (Susan’s car) or
classifying when specifies to which class belongs the headword (a child’s play).
Specifying genitive can be substituted by ‘have’ (Susan has a car), it has two strong
stresses ( ‘Susan’s ‘car), and its headword can be easily changed (Susan’s van). On
the other hand, classifying genitive cannot be substituted by have (a child has a play),
it has only one strong stress (a ‘child’s play) and it is more closely connected with its
headword. The second case is known as INDEPENDENT GENITIVE which can be
semi-independent or elliptic, when the headword is omitted because it appears in the
context (I parked my car next to Sam’s); local genitive appearing without the headword
and used with residences: ...at my uncle's, institutions: St Paul's (cathedral), business:
the barber's, the butcher's; post-genitve or double genitive, when the genitive follows
the ‘of-construction’ (a poem of Larkin’s). Finally, we should take into consideration
another construction, the group genitive. When the noun phrase is post-modified, the
genitive is added to the last part of the post-modification (his brother-in law’s new car).
However, if the noun phrase is post-modified by a clause, this construction is not
possible (Someone has stolen a man I know’s car)
Genitive case is used mainly to express possession (my husband’s lorry), quality
(a child’s play), the agent of the action (my husband’s approval), the object or receiver
of the action (Karen’s assault) and origin (Karen’s letter).
Genitive case appears with personal names and nouns (Karen’s lover, my
sister’s car), ‘higher animals’ (dog’s food), collective nouns (public’s opinion, The
United Nation’s president), temporal nouns (an hour’s work), geographical and
institutional names: continents, countries, states, cities, universities, (Great London’s
Fire), nouns related to human activities (My heart’s development) or to give more
prominence to a noun (Larkin’s poems)
3. Of-construction
Of-construction is of French origin and syntactically is a prepositional phrase which
post-modifies the head of a noun phrase. (The Lord of the Rings) According to
Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990, the choice between the ‘of-construction’ and the genitive depends on
the animate or personal quality of the headword. The ‘of-construction’ is used with
nouns denoting things (the cover of the book), lower animals (the wings of the fly),
partitives or parts of an object: piece, bit, slice, back, front, top (a bit of chocolate),
container and its content (a glass of water), adjectives working as nouns (the welfare
of the poor), characteristics of a human being (a woman of great courage), when the
possessive noun is followed by a noun or phrase (the instruction of the man in
charge).
However, in other cases it is possible to use both constructions, mainly with
personal nouns and names, collectives and values and measures. (the government’s
policy, the policy of the government).
4. Other ways of expressing possession:
4.1 Adjectives and pronouns
Whose
Adjectives and pronouns combine genitive and pronominal functions. When
they appear alone, the noun they are replacing may be in the context. John cut his
finger because there was a broken glass on his desk (John’s desk).
Possessives adjectives are: my, you, his, her, its, our, theirs. We use ‘it, ‘his’,
‘her’ for animals when we know it sex. (the cat licks his leg). They refer to the
possessor according in gender and number with it (‘his book’, ‘his wife’ for male
possessor, ‘her book’, ‘her husband’ for female possessor; ‘their husbands’ for plural
possessor) . However in Spanish there is concordance with the person or thing
possessed in terms of singular and plural (mi casa, mis casas), but not in gender (su
casa both for male and female)
We use possessive adjectives with clothes and parts of the body (I broke my
arm), on the contrary in Spanish we use an article (me rompí el / un brazo).
However in some idiomatic phrases and passive constructions we use the definite
article to indicate position not possession (a pain in the neck).
We can add ‘own’ to add emphasis ‘my own book’
Third person adjectives have situational and contextual reference, we can talk
about someone absent in the moment of speaking. For instance, we can say ‘my
father is here, look at his new sunglasses’ (my father is present at the moment of
speaking’ or ‘I visited my father yesterday, he showed me his new sunglasses’ (my
father is not present at the moment of speaking). On the contrary, first and second
person adjectives only have a situational reference.
Possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. They
substitute an adjective possessive and a noun. ‘He put his hand on mine (my hand)’.
They never have the definite article before them as it occurs in Spanish ‘the mine’.
They are used in the same way as the ‘of-construction’ (a friend of mine)
4.2 VERBS (have got, own, possess)
The basic meaning of the verb ‘to have’ is possess  I have a new computer. It
has four forms: have, has, had and having) and it has two constructions to form
negative and interrogative. On the one hand, by adding ‘not’ after ‘have’ to construct
negations ( I haven’t any problem) and by changing the subject-verb order to
construct interrogations ( Do you have any problem?). On the other hand we use the
construction with the ‘dummy do’ for habitual actions by adding ‘not’ for negative
constructions (We don’t have earthquakes in our country) and changing the subjectverb order to construct interrogations (Do you have earthquakes your country?).
American English prefers the ‘do’ construction  I don’t have a car
Informal British English adds ‘got’ following the verb ‘to have’  I’ve got a
problem. In this construction, ‘have’ usually appears contracted
5. Conclusion
In this essay we have seen the different ways of expressing possession in English
language. As we have seen it can be expressed by means of genitive case, ‘ofconstruction’, the possessive adjectives and pronouns and finally the verb ‘to have’.
Genitive case, known as ‘genitivo sajon’ by the Spanish students, is one of the most
difficult grammatical points to study due to the lack of a similar structure in the Spanish
grammar. Thus, bearing in mind this fact, we should bear in mind the importance of
the study of this topic which will help our student to communicate fluently in English.
At classroom level the contents of this essay are connected with the third content
block, Linguistic Knowledge, of the curricular content, specifically is connected to
Linguistic Functions and Grammar. This content block is one of the key elements of
our current educational system (LOMCE 8/2013) and of GCSE Act 220/2015and
Bachillerato Act 221/2015). There are a great amount of possible activities to exploit
this topic at classroom level…………….
6. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961
UNIT 17. EXPRESSION OF PLACE, DIRECTION AND DISTANCE
OUTLINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduction
Spatial reference
Position
Direction or movement
Distance
Conclusion
Bibliography
1. Introduction
At classroom level the contents of this essay are connected with the third content
block, Linguistic Knowledge, of the curricular content, specifically is connected to
Linguistic Functions and Grammar. This content block is one of the key elements of
our current educational system (LOMCE 8/2013) and of GCSE Act 220/2015and
Bachillerato Act 221/2015). There are a great amount of possible activities to exploit
this topic at classroom level…………….
2. Spatial reference
Spatial reference can be defined as the reference aimed at adding information about
‘where’ a situation has happened, by giving details about ‘place’, ‘direction’ and
‘distance’ in order to fully describe the action. According to Greenbaum S. and R.
Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Longman, 1990, by selecting
the appropriate prepositions me can refer to a point in space (i.e. in, on, at, etc), a line
of passage (i.e. across, over, along, etc ), a surface (i.e. on, through, onto, etc), an
area (i.e. inside, outside, in, out, etc), and a volume (i.e. through, under, behind, etc).
Other grammatical categories used to convey spatial reference are adverbs or
adverbial phrases (i.e. over here, over there), noun phrases (i.e. three kilometres
away) and idiomatic expressions (i.e. so far, as far as I am concerned, in my view,
etc).
3. Place
In English language there are different devices to express the location of an item in
space. This can achieved mainly through the use of adverbs such as ‘here’ or ‘there’
and prepositions such as ‘on’, ‘at’ and ‘in’. There are other structures expressing
position: noun phrases followed by adverbs (two miles away) or adverbial clauses
(where I found it) that can also be used to indicate the location of an item. The most
important elements for indicating place are prepositions. The choice of the preposition
is often governed by the way we see an object, whether we see it as a point in space,
as a line, as a surface, as an area or as a volume.
3.1 Simple position
At-type prepositions: at, to, away from, from: These prepositions are used
when we see the element we are referring to as located in a POINT in space. When
we talk about a building if we are interested in the activity which happens there and we
see it as a place of work, study or entertainment we use the preposition ‘at’ (I worked
at the hotel). If we think about the building in physical terms we use the preposition ‘in’
(There are 200 rooms that hotel). For large areas such as cities, states, continents,
etc, having a ‘close up’ view of them, we use the preposition ‘in’. If we see these areas
as a point in a map, we use ‘at’. ‘At’ is also used instead of ‘to’ when the following non
is treated as a target of an attack of some sort, it has negative connotations: shoot at,
shout at, laugh at (Jack threw the ball at me, to hit me).
On-type prepositions: on(to), on, off, across, over, along. They are used
when we see the element we are referring to as placed in a LINE, except when this
element actually form part of the line, in that case we use the preposition IN (The girl in
the row). These prepositions are used when the element we are referring to, is seen
as a SURFACE, with the exception of along which is substituted by through. On is
used for public transport, with the surface of the body and with the meaning ‘attached
to’ (an apple on a tree).
In-type prepositions: in(to), in, out of, through. They are used when the
place is seen as an AREA, usually enclosed by boundaries (in the street, city, country)
or as a VOLUME (house, room). Inside and outside are sometimes used instead of
in(to) and out of. Within is a formal variant of IN (Within the walls). Some common
transitive verbs (put, place, lay) are followed by on and in rather than onto and into.
The verb ‘to arrive’ is used with the prepositions at, in and on, never with to.
3.2 Relative position
Swan, M: Basic English usage.OUP. 1984, between vs. among, amid.
Between is used when the element we are talking about is related to two objects
(Peter is between John and Paul). Among and amid (more formal) are used when that
element is related to more than two objects (Peter is among the trees). (A)round vs
about. Around refers to a surrounding position or motion (The children play around the
sofa). About having the meaning of ‘in the area of’, ‘in various positions’ (The children
were playing About/around the room). Around is the converse of between and among
(The friends were around the table, the table was among the friends) By, beside,
with, close to and near (to) express nearness although the last two prepositions
exclude actual contact. Opposite and facing express reciprocal relativity (Let’s sit
opposite (to) / facing each other
Some prepositions forms antonymic pairs such as above and beneath meaning
‘higher than’ vs. below and underneath meaning ‘lower than’. They are related to
over meaning ‘directly above’ versus under meaning ‘directly below’. Other pairs are
behind and in front of indicating physical position and before and after indicating
relative precedence.
Some prepositions can be placed at the end of the sentence usually with whclauses (Where are you living at?), relative clauses (It’s the shop I was working at),
passive voice (I hate being looked at) and infinitive clauses (Madrid is an awful city to
live in).
There are other means to express location. By means of adverbs (here, there,
somewhere, anywhere); adverbial clauses introduced by where and wherever (Put
your bag where/wherever you want); prepositional adverbs, that is to say prepositions
without complement (Gene stayed in (the police station) and finally, by means of a
noun phrase (in the street, away from me).
4. Direction or movement
We can convey the meaning of direction by using the same devices used in the
expression of position: at-type, on-type and in-type categories and by means of other
prepositions: up, down, across, etc. Other categories expressing direction or
movement are noun phrases (this way, that way); adverbs (abroad, left, right,
north(wards), south(wards), etc.; prepositions which omit their complement and
function as adverbs (come round, a man walked past); adverbial clauses introduced by
where or wherever (I will go wherever I want). Many verbs have an implicit directional
meaning which correspond to prepositions or adverbs of direction. Examples of these
verbs are: jump, climb, ski, flee, pass and other verbs which imply different
orientation depending on the point of view of the speaker: come and bring imply ‘to
here’ and go and take imply ‘to there’.
Obviously, the grammatical categories expressing movement are only used with
verbs of motion or with other dynamic verbs. However, some of these categories can
be used with the verb ‘to be’ having a resultative meaning, indicating the state of
having reached the destination (The fugitives are over the prison’s wall = they have
jumped over the wall).
According to Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987, we can
express movement by indicating a locational specification (The bird flew towards its
cage) or without a locational specification (The birds flew westwards). The prepositions
up, down, along and across/over, express movement with reference to an imaginary
axis. Up and down express vertical movement with reference to a vertical axis (Jane
run up/down the hill). Along and across/over express horizontal movement (Jane
walked along/across the street).
Some prepositions are used in a static sense of orientation. For instance,
beyond, over and past are used with reference to the speaker’s point of orientation,
that is to say from where the speaker is placed. They imply ‘to the other side of’. (I can
see the tree beyond the bus stop) (from where I am speaking).
Other prepositions convey the meaning of passage which combines the notions
of position and movement without expressing destination (I like walking through the
woods). ‘By, over, under, across, through and past’ are used to convey the
meaning of passage related to a horizontal level. For instance the pair ‘on the grass’
(position) vs. ‘across the grass’ (passage) see the grass as a surface, and therefore
suggest short grass. On the other hand, the pair ‘in the grass’ (position) vs. ‘through
the grass’ see the grass as a volume, and therefore suggest that it is long.
5. Distance
According to Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987, the
notion of distance answer to the question ‘How far...?’ instead of ‘Where...?’ and it is
closely connected to the notion of ‘measure’ because specify the amount of yards,
miles, kilometres, etc to other expressions such as ‘a long way away’ or ‘after two
kilometres’. Distance is expressed by means of noun phrases of measure such as: a
foot, a few yards, ten miles, a long way, etc. Theses phrases can modify a verb of
motion (I run several miles every day). They can also precede and modify an adverbial
of place or direction (I run 2 miles to the East). We can also express distance by
means of prepositions (I run for 2 miles, My house is straight on after 300 metres).
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961
TOPIC 18. TIME REFERENCE: TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIP AND FREQUENCY.
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. The expression of time reference
2.1 Time position and boundary of time
2.2 Time duration
2.3 Frequency.
2.4 Time relationship
3 Conclusion
4 Bibliography
1. Introduction
At classroom level the contents of this essay are connected with the third content
block, Linguistic Knowledge, of the curricular content, specifically is connected to
Linguistic Functions and Grammar. This content block is one of the key elements of
our current educational system (LOMCE 8/2013) and of GCSE Act 220/2015and
Bachillerato Act 221/2015). There are a great amount of possible activities to exploit
this topic at classroom level…………….
2. The expression of time reference
Time reference adds information indicate when has happened the action denoted by
the verb (position), how long lasts this situation (duration), how often (frequency)
occurs or the relationship between one time and another.
Time reference is expressed by means of: 1) verbs through inflectional morphemes
and auxiliaries ex. played (past), will play (future); 2) nouns: Mondays, week, morning;
3) adjectives: the previous day, the following year; 4) adverbs: now, yesterday, finally,
meanwhile; 5) prepositions: in, at, on, from, during, 6) conjunctions: first of all, finally,
later and finally by means of 7) specific clause structures such as wh-clauses (I was
waiting for the students when he came), idiomatic expressions (i.e. once upon a time,
for ages, for a while, etc and non-finite clauses such as subjectless –ing clauses (since
leaving university).
2.1 Time position
The expression of time position answers to the questions When...? (When did
he go? At 12.30 / some hours ago). Time position may be narrow or more specific,
seen as a point of time (He was born in 1992) or broad or without specification and
seen as a boundary of time (He lived in a period of great musical creativity)
Time position as a point of time is usually expressed by means of prepositions,
adverbs, nouns and specific phrases.
Time position prepositions are : a) at is used for points of time, chiefly clock time
and for holiday periods (at 9 o’clock, at Easter, at the weekend), b) on is used for
referring to days and parts of the day (on Thursday, on Saturday night, on Christmas
Day) and c) in and d) during are used for periods longer or shorter than a day. (in
March, during Christmas). By appears in the idioms by day and by night instead of
during with some activities such as travelling (I don’t like driving by night).
Time position adverbs can be divided into two groups. Those denoting a period of
time before: yesterday, then, etc. and those denoting a period of time after: next, soon,
afterwards, later, etc. Others are: again, just (that occurs in middle position as in He
just watch me) late, now, nowadays, presently, and today. Most time position
adverbials appear at the end of the sentence, but can be fronted to give emphasis to
the adverbial (I got up at 3 p.m., at 3 p.m., I got up). We can also find two adverbs
combined such as: today and tomorrow, now or later, in 2001 and (in) 2003.
Nouns phrases as prepositions are absent before last, next, this, that, some and
every (I saw Martin last Friday).
Specific type of clauses which are usually found in initial position: finite adverbial
clause introduced by after, before, since, until and when (when I say him last time he
looked shorter); -ing clause, introduced by after, before, since, until, whenever and
while (when in difficulty call 112); subjectless –ing clauses (nearing his father, he
started to run) and –ed clause introduced by once, as often as, as soon as, whenever
and while (Once he confessed, he was released).
Time position as a boundary of time is mainly expressed by means of 1)
prepositions, adverbs and wh-clauses. Prepositions are usually followed by a noun
phrase (before next week, after the party) and by a ‘-ing’ without subject (since leaving
school). 2) Adverbs and adverbial phrases can refer to a boundary of time before to
the given time reference (before, early), simultaneous (at this point, simultaneously) or
after (after, later, next). Examples of verbal phrases are: before then, by then, in the
meantime, after this, etc. 3) Wh-clauses establish a boundary by setting a given point
in time (When the match finishes, I will order some Chinese food)
2.2 Time duration
The temporal dimension of duration answers the question How long...? and more
specifically, Till when...? and Since when...?. Duration is mainly expressed by means
of adverbials. They may express duration of specific length (for ten minutes), or
indefinite length (for a while).
When the duration expressed by the adverbial refers to the past is called
backwards span. The adverbials marking the beginning of the action are associated
with since and the perfective aspect. (I’ve been at home since 12 o’clock). Backward
span adverbials answer the question How long have...? or since when? The most
usual backward span adverbials are: ‘for’, used for a period of time in which the
starting point is not specified (for two hours) and since, used to specify the starting
point (since 12 o’clock). ‘Since’ is also used to introduce a subordinated clause (He’s ill
since he left his work). Other adverbials indicating backwards span are: up to,
till/until, from....to, etc. (I worked in Madrid up to /till/until 1985, He worked in Madrid
from 1981 to 2001).
On the other hand, when the duration expressed by the adverbial refers to the future
is called forward span. Forward span is particularly associated with ‘until’ and ‘till’.
The beginning of the time span is fixed in relation to the point of view of the speaker.
On the contrary, the end is only indicated in the case of affirmative clauses (I waited
until she returned). When the clause is negative, we don’t know the end of the action (I
didn’t wait until she returned). Other forward span adverbials are: up to, over, by, by
the time, etc. (I will be there up to midday; I have to leave by midday). It can be
noticed that there are several items used for both forward and backwards span. There
are other adverbials used to express measure of time which do not refer to future nor
past: indefinitely, temporally, during, only, for, permanently, etc. (I takes me only ten
minutes, He works far into the night, I have some time off during the week).
Other ways of expression duration is by means of noun phrases (all summer, four
hours, a long time, etc); other prepositions such as over and throughout (He slept
throughout the night) and by the verbs ‘last’ and ‘take’ (The film last two hours, It took
me three hours to get to Valencia)
2.3 Time frequency
Expression of frequency answers the questions ‘How many times? and How often?.
It expressed mainly by means of adverbs and noun phrases indicating either definite
or indefinite frequency. Definite frequency is exactly measured: hourly, daily, monthly,
yearly, once a day, every day, every morning, etc (I take three pills twice a day, Bob
phoned twice today, You stood me up twice, I go to the swimming-pool three days a
week). Indefinite frequency is marked by the adverbials: normally, generally, always,
often, seldom, rarely, never, etc. (He normally leaves at seven, They are always in
debt, I’ve never been there). When adverbs of frequency are negative or have a
negative meaning they are placed at the beginning of the sentence, in that case the
subject-operator inversion is compulsory (Rarely have I seen such a boring film).
Frequency can also be expressed by means of subordinate clauses (I go to the
swimming-pool whenever I can).
2.4 Time relationship
It expresses the relationship between two time positions. There are three types of
time-position adverbials. Firstly, those denoting a temporal sequence: afterwards,
before, first, later, next, then, etc. (At the end of the party I was finally introduced).
Secondly, those denoting a concessive relationship: (even) by that time, (even) before
that time, (even) up to that time, even now (Even now, I don’t know where I’m going to
live). Finally, contrasting one time with another: again, once more, and afresh (I feel
better again).
3. Conclusion
4. Bibliography
 Legislation
- Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education, LOMCE 8/ 2013
- Organic Law of Education 2/2006.
- Decree 220/2015, 2nd September, by which the secondary education curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
- Decree 221/2015, 2nd September, by which the Bachillerato curriculum is
regulated in Murcia.
 Reference books
- Bryson B. Mother Tongue. Harper Collins. 2001
- Greenbaum S. and R. Quirk: A Student’s Grammar of the English Language.
Longman, 1990.
- Sanchez Benedito, F: Gramática inglesa, Alhambra,1987
- Swan, M: Basic English usage. Oxford. 1984
- Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V.: A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press 1961