GENDER GAP IN INNOVATION: A CONFUSED LINK? Sophia Belghiti-Mahut, Anne-Laurence Lafont et Ouidad Yousfi Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org) 2016/1 n°19 | pages 159 à 177 Article disponible en ligne à l'adresse : -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------https://www.cairn.inforevue-journal-of-innovation-economics-2016-1-page-159.htm -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Distribution électronique Cairn.info pour De Boeck Supérieur. © De Boeck Supérieur. Tous droits réservés pour tous pays. La reproduction ou représentation de cet article, notamment par photocopie, n'est autorisée que dans les limites des conditions générales d'utilisation du site ou, le cas échéant, des conditions générales de la licence souscrite par votre établissement. Toute autre reproduction ou représentation, en tout ou partie, sous quelque forme et de quelque manière que ce soit, est interdite sauf accord préalable et écrit de l'éditeur, en dehors des cas prévus par la législation en vigueur en France. Il est précisé que son stockage dans une base de données est également interdit. Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur De Boeck Supérieur | « Journal of Innovation Economics & Management » GENDER GAP IN INNOVATION: A CONFUSED LINK? Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT CORHIS-ORHA University Paul Valéry- Montpellier 3, France [email protected] Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur MRM, University of Montpellier, France [email protected] Ouidad YOUSFI MRM, University of Montpellier, France [email protected] The number of studies on innovation has significantly increased in the last few years, particularly after the financial subprime crisis. Innovation appears to be a key factor of success for companies to increase their competitiveness and their growth, and to create new employment opportunities. It improves competitiveness, especially for companies that are in the very early stages of their business cycle (creation, seed, and start-up stages), and that need to mature (development and growth stages) and to generate more cash-flows. However, the extensive literature on innovation studies neither the places where innovations took place nor the profile of the participants in the innovation processes (Fagerberg et al., 2005). This is surprising as entrepreneurship and innovation have been closely related while gender issues have gained a wider interest among researchers within management and entrepreneurship fields (Minitti, 2009). One explanation is that entrepreneurs are in prominent in entrepreneurship research while innovators are almost invisible in innovation research. Furthermore, the review of the literature on innovation shows a dichotomous approach. Papers have provided several binary definitions of innovation, such as for example product/process innovations, competitive/ social innovations and incremental/radical innovations (Feldman, 2000). However, when it comes to empirical evidence studies focus only on radical, competitive and product innovations (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Nählinder, 2010). In fact, most studies are mainly conducted on male innovations such n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 159 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Anne-Laurence LAFONT Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur as technological process and product innovations (Hacker, 1989; Fagerberg, 2005), while more attention should be placed on other types of innovations such as incremental and social innovations that very often appear at the grassroots level of organisations. In theory the innovation literature is supposed to be gender neutral, as individuals are invisible. In practice, it is a gender blind literature. When it comes to gender, there is an increasing interest in the role of women in the labor force and how they could change the economic world. In September 2015, the Mckinsey Global Institute argued that advancing women’s equality could add $28 trillion of additional annual GDP in 2025, that is equivalent to the combined US and China economies today.1 In the fields of management and economics, the number of studies on gender has significantly increased in the last few years. These studies have addressed only a few questions, such as, for example, how the presence of women on boards could influence a firm’s financial and social performance (Campbell, Minguez-Vera, 2008; Carter et al., 2010; Boulouta, 2013; Solakoglu, 2013), corporate governance (Carter et al., 2003; Francoeur et al., 2007; Adams, Ferreira, 2009), identifying resource dependency (Hillman et al., 2000), network ties (Westphal, Milton, 2000; Arfken et al., 2004; Hillman et al., 2007), innovation (Turner, 2009; Diaz-Garcia et al., 2013), etc. Some researchers argue that women would improve a firm’s performance. There are several theoretical reasons why increasing the share of women directors might be associated with better performance (see among others: Bantel, Jackson, 1989; Murray, 1989; Carter et al., 2003; BelghitiMahut, Lafont, 2010). In fact, markets themselves are gender-diversified; more diverse boards might lead to a better understanding of the marketplace by matching the diversity of potential customers and employees, which increases the firm’s ability to penetrate markets. As more skills and qualifications are available in gender-diverse boards, more ideas, investments and opportunities are evaluated. The extensive literature of innovation provides few papers on the link between gender and innovation. The lack of gender perspective in innovation studies, contrary to entrepreneurship studies, is explained to a large extent in relation to the blind vision of individuals. Communication around the profile and the role of innovator is poor (Brännback et al., 2012). When there is little consideration 1. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/growth/how_advancing_womens_equality_can_add_12_ trillion_to_global_growth 160 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur of individuals, the gender perspective is marginalized and remains an underconsidered issue. In general, studies on innovation are conducted on industries and activities that have been for a long time exclusively male-controlled industries. Women have become more involved in the labor force and many sectors have been led by women, a development which suddenly changed the innovation landscape and created new ways of innovation (World Bank, 20142; Vinnova, 20113). Women are marginalized and therefore considered as less (or none) innovative agents (Alsos et al., 2013). According to feminist theories, the predominant “patriarchal” model has led to a restrictive vision of male and female relations/roles when there is a clear domination relationship: it is largely argued that women are dominated by men (Bourdieu, 1998; Héritier, 2007). Therefore innovation displays this domination effect, and leads to a biased masculine viewpoint. Despite this, it is challenging to start exploring how gender could impact innovation while individuals are invisible; some studies have already started exploring gender differences in innovation. In economic geography, Blake and Hanson (2005) and Nählinder (2010) show that men and women have different approaches when they innovate: for instance, women conduct innovations that are largely inspired by local needs to achieve social ends. In a case study of three French listed companies, Turner (2009) shows that gender diversity increases the innovative performance of individuals and R&D teams. Based on data from an innovation survey in Spain, Diaz-Garcia et al. (2013) show evidence that the gender diversity within R&D teams is positively related to radical innovation. Accordingly we raise the following question: What could be learned from the existing literature on innovation when it is considered from a gendered angle? Based on a critical survey of management, economic and social studies on innovation, we show evidence of the ambiguous link between women and innovation. First, we focus on the literature relating to what leads to women’s marginalization and the lack of women in top decision-making positions. We present, for instance, the persistence of deep-seated stereotypes in women/ female roles. In fact, inequality reproduction mechanisms in decision-making 2. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.FE.ZS/countries 3. http://www.vinnova.se/upload/EPiStorePDF/vi-11-03.pdf n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 161 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur positions are the same and are persistent, even in the area of innovation. The paper argues that new kinds/areas/determinants of innovations are not yet, or only partially, explored (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Fageberg, 2005). This explains to a large extent why male norms are widely adopted as standard norms in innovation and why the gender issue was/is still not irrelevant. Second, innovators are supposed to have leading/dominating positions when they implement new products and processes in very competitive markets that are described as radical and incremental innovations (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Fageberg, 2005). These innovations are implemented in industries and sectors led by men, which bring a sort of power to male innovators (Blake, Hanson, 2005). The paper is organized as follows. First we set out the theoretical approaches. We discuss glass ceiling theory – particularly why the proportion of women on boards and in leadership positions is so low – to understand why they are marginalized when it comes to innovation. Second we show that empirical studies focus only on a set of innovations (radical, product, competitive and technological innovations) that are most often implemented by men. This literature does not take into account new and other types of innovation studied in emerging literatures, such as, for example, creative and imitative innovations implemented by women. In addition, the main measures of innovation are discussed in this section. The last section concludes the paper and emphasizes the need to rethink innovation to be able to rebuild an “expanded and revisited” innovation theory where innovators are prominent in innovation research. This also supposes that studies have to assess individual features of the innovator profile and bring new and more appropriate measures of innovation to capture marginalized forms of innovation, such as, for instance, female – innovators and – innovations. WHY DOES GENDER MATTER IN INNOVATION? Despite the fact that there is a large body of work on innovation, it seems to lack some analyses on several types of innovation such as, for example, incremental, social and environmental innovations, on new areas where innovations took place, and on the actors involved in the innovation process. The current section presents a critical survey of the literature on the gender issue in the fields of management and economics. It highlights the 162 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? gender-blind vision of innovation research and the urgent need to rethink innovation by taking into account the innovator’s profile. Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur In management literature, existing practices are male-implemented practices that favor male modes of being and of control. As in all business areas, this creates and sustains particular forms of masculinity in the area of innovation. Very few women are in leading positions, particularly in male-dominated companies. In October 2014, women accounted for just 20.2% of board members of the largest publicly-listed companies registered in EU countries (European Commission, 2015). The facts show that women are still prevented from moving up into management and leadership positions, and are facing significant barriers. These barriers are clearly discussed in the “glass ceiling” theory. The glass ceiling was identified in the 1980s by the International Labor Organization and Catalyst4. The glass ceiling theory is about “those artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organisational bias that prevents qualified individuals from advancing upward into management level positions” (ILO, 2001). There are three dominant theoretical approaches of the gender issue in the management field. They have been adopted to explain women’s difficulties in assuming top-level organizational positions. The first one is “person-centred” or “gender-centred” (Horner, 1972; Terborg, 1977; Riger, Galligan, 1980; Adler, Israeli, 1988). It has been used since the 1970s, when women gained access to graduate education and were able to get into organizations. According to this approach, women’s behavior and limited representation in upper level jobs is attributed to factors that are internal to women, e.g., their inappropriate traits, cognitions, attitudes and behaviors (Fagenson, 1990).The main assumption is that women are seen as the, in principle, equals of men, and therefore they have to compete with men to acquire skills and experiences in a man’s world. One way is to adopt masculine values and behave according to male norms to gain access to leadership and powerful positions (Shiebinger, 2000). Male values were commonly recognized as key factors for success. Consequently, successful women have to adopt male values (Laufer et al., 2003). 4. Catalyst, a leading non-profit organization with a mission to expand opportunities for women and business, was founded in 1962 in the USA. n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 163 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Management is a man’s world: male-implemented innovations in male-controlled sectors Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur The second perspective is called the “situation or organizational structure approach” (Kanter, 1988; Freeman, 1990). Individuals’ behaviour is closely related to their positions in organizational hierarchies. In other words, instead of women-related factors, there is evidence that organizational structures shape and define women’s behavior in their workplace as well as in their professional careers (Fagenson, 1990). However, this perspective suggests that the limited proportion of women in organizations is not only due to their gender and the structure of their organizations, but that both factors interact with the culture and influence women’s behavior at workplace. The third approach, the “Gender-Organization-System” (GOS), argues that women’s behavior and the difficulties women are facing in getting involved and recognized in their organizations cannot simply be attributed to the gender question because individuals differ from one another not only on the basis of gender (Fagenson, 1990, 1993), but also due to the organizational context and/or to the social and institutional system in which they are involved. This theory views the status of men and women in organizations as parallel to the socio-cultural context in which they live and interact. Accordingly, the GOS is a systemic approach, in the sense that it takes into account the interaction between individuals, organizations and societal spheres/scopes. Yet the situation of women, their advancement difficulties or attitudes to their careers are related and closely dependent on the sociocultural context and even the institutional context where they are supposed to interact. It is certainly an organizational issue that is closely connected to the dominant gender role representation and the discourses on “legitimizing” sex stereotyping and normative thinking. Therefore the GOS approach is more relevant when it comes to understanding women’s situation. Yet, there is a mirror effect between power-organizations/male vision and innovation/male vision (Belghiti-Mahut, 2004). Extensive literature but restrictive approaches Furthermore, recent feminist studies on innovation have highlighted that, while current definitions of innovation seem to be neutral, in practice the types, the measures and the sectors analyzed have a strong male connotation (Vinnova, 2011). Indeed, many definitions of innovation exist and seem to have a gender neutral approach, whereas it is not as neutral as it is supposed to be. Let us consider some widely known definitions of innovations dedicated to capturing only a few types of innovations. For instance, Innovation is “the design, invention, development and or/implementation of new or altered products, services, processes, systems, organizational structures, or business models for the 164 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur purpose of creating new value for customers and financial returns for the firm’’5. Here is another definition presented by the OECD6 in which innovation is “the implementation of a new or significantly improved product (good or service), or process, a new marketing method, or a new organisational method in business practices, workplace organisation or external relations’’. At the same time, studies present binary definitions of innovations that gradually shape the way innovations are thought of (Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). For instance, the innovation literature defines the following innovations: –– Product versus process innovations and radical versus incremental innovations (Feldman, 2000). –– The creative part and the imitative part in the innovation process (Drucker, 1985). –– The export-oriented approach of innovation versus a contextualised innovation (Blake, Hanson, 2005). To take into account new forms of innovation, such as, for example, social innovation, a recent body of work adds to the previous perspectives the purpose-related perspective of innovation by adding a social/environmental/local definition of innovation versus competitive innovation (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). According to Johansson and Lindberg (2011), this leads to a restrictive approach of innovation and benefits hierarchical purposes: one part is privileged at the expense of the other part (Rosenberg, 2002). However, when it comes to evidence innovations are exclusively/dichotomously defined as studies that focus only on product, radical, creative, and competitive innovations (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). Innovation is often closely associated with a technological dimension (Bunnell, Coe, 2001; Morand, Manceau, 2009). Empirical studies, statistics and public policy commonly rely on one-dimensional measures, i.e. R&D expenses and/or the number of patent applications to measure the level and intensity of innovation (see among others: Marvel, Lee, 2011; Ruef, 2002; Morgan et al., 2001; Morand, Manceau, 2009). Finally, studies on innovation are mainly implemented in the industrial and ICT sectors (World Bank, 2014)7. 5. American Secretary of Commerce Report (2008), The Advisory Committee on measuring innovation in the 21st century. Available at: http://fr.slideshare.net/InnovationTank/innovationmeasurement 6. In the Oslo manual available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/ OSLO/EN/OSLO-EN.PDF 7. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 165 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Surprisingly, the OECD underlines that only 50.98% of innovations in Europe8 have no technological dimension. In 2012 the service sector, consisting of wholesale and retail trade, transport, and government, financial, professional, and personal services such as education, health care, and real estate services – represented on average 72% of European GDP9. And surprisingly, in most of these areas, innovation is rarely analyzed. Moreover, patents capture a small part of innovation and are not a necessary condition to show the existence of innovation (Morand, Manceau, 2009). R&D and patents assess the inputs and outputs used to innovate rather than the intensity/kind/level of the innovation. In addition, they are not appropriate measures for intangible innovations such as, for example, incremental, managerial, social or process innovation. This therefore disregards new forms of innovation, especially recent ones which cannot be dichotomously defined and which are multidimensional (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Fagerberg, 2005)10. New realities to take into account Many official reports promote new ways to innovate and propose an extension of the existing innovation framework to capture more innovations: product, process, design and social innovations (Morand, Manceau, 2009). It is time to recognize that innovation cannot be locked into pre-set definitions, categorized as innovation and landscape; processes and actors have changed and are constantly progressing. There is an emerging literature on all these inconsistencies that highlights and focuses on the biased view inherent to female-implemented innovations (see among others: Blake, Hanson, 2005; Nählinder, 2010). These studies provide evidence that in theory current definitions seem gender neutral, in practice, the way they are operationalized and measured is strongly male-gendered. For instance, most public programs are set up to support actions and measures promoting technological innovations. Hacker (1989) argued that interpretation of the technology as a male field gives the innovation that male connotation. 8. OCDE (2008), Science, technologie et industrie : perspectives de l’OCDE. http://www.oecd. org/sti/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-outlook-19991428.htm 9. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator 10. According to Blake and Hanson (2005), the focus on technological and radical innovation is closely linked to the prevailing view of the export-based theory of innovation. To count as innovative a change must help improve the position of a firm or a position in the export market. The more radical an innovation is, the more likely it is that it will enable the penetration of large and distant markets and the realisation of large profits. 166 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Despite the fact that the labor force is progressively changing, statistics show that women were largely not present in the areas of science and technology that increasingly support this male connotation. Aware of the role of women’ and girls in these sectors, policymakers become involved in plans and strategies to increase women’s participation e.g. the Beijing Platform for Action (1995) and the Budapest Science Agenda and Framework for Action (1999) (Schiebinger, Schraudner, 2011). To promote gender equality in ICT, Schiebinger et al. (2010) distinguished three policy approaches. The first approach focuses on women-oriented plans to promote their role as key players in ICT. The second approach seeks to increase girl’s and women’s participation by reforming scientific and educational institutions. Finally, the last approach focuses on overcoming gender bias by mainstreaming gender analysis into the S&T science and technology field. This means that states start to care about women and S&T and, hopefully, about women and innovation. The traditional literature also underlines the fact that most studies and public plans are very often male-implemented innovations in the sense that they are set up and supported by men, in industrial and ICT sectors, i.e malecontrolled sectors, unlike other markets where women have become a large part of the labor force (for example the medical and health care sectors) (Hacker, 1989; Blake, Hanson, 2005; Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). It is therefore necessary to consider an extended framework of innovation to be able to observe a larger scope of innovation such as, for instance, the appreciation of non-technological innovations and innovations with local impact. In many female-controlled sectors, such as the health care and services sectors, innovations have been neglected while new types of innovation are implemented in these areas (Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). Simultaneously, this literature also focuses on more feminine innova­tions. For example, feminine innovations are very often local and can be affected by several contextual factors. They can locally enhance economic growth and create employment. Blake and Hanson (2005), Morand and Manceau (2009), Nählinder (2010) and Johansson and Lindberg (2011) highlight the fact that women have started to enter male-dominated sectors. Nowadays, as we have noted previously, some sectors are women-dominated and new forms of innovations have been introduced. Surprisingly they have been introduced by women, like some social, organizational and environmental innovations. Women innovators seem to have an effective impact on their local economies. Feminine innovations are based on a mixture of creativity and imitation: women adapt universal innovations to their local context n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 167 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur INNOVATIVE BEHAVIOR Despite the fact that studies on the link between entrepreneurship and innovation are still not conclusive, in practice they are very often positively associated (Morand, Manceau, 2009). This vision leads to a strong confusion between innovative and entrepreneur behaviors. The studies in this area focus on risk-taking and creativity (see among others: Kanter, 2000; Van de Ven, 1993; Mumford, Gustafson, 1988). From this angle, women could also appear less innovative in the sense that they seem more risk-averse and less creative then men. That is what we will discuss and challenge at the end of the following section. Women and risk-taking: women are more risk-averse than men Innovation is closely related to risk and uncertainty. One cannot innovate without taking risky decisions. Unlike financial and economic literature, there is a large body of work on risk aversion in social and psychological experimental studies, which analyze differences in terms of risk-taking between men and women. Women appear more risk-averse than men and therefore less innovative (see among others: Eckel, Grossman, 2008; Booth, Nolen, 2012). The state of the art of Croson and Gneezy (2009) confirms that women are very often labelled in social and psychological studies as more risk-averse than men, except when it comes to the professional population and managers: there are no gender differences in terms of risk perception. These findings are drawn from gambling and lottery games. Gender differences were noticed in terms of reactions and attitudes towards risky situations. In fact, men overestimate their skills and capabilities which lead them to underestimate risks. Men are supposed to like competition 168 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur which creates new opportunities that have an impact on local economic growth. This innovation process becomes creative imitation innovation (Johansson, Lindberg, 2011). Unlike male innovations, feminine innovations cannot be adapted to every local environment as they are closely related and affected by contextual factors. With regard to these studies, women-led innovations are marginalized as they do not belong to the traditional forms/scopes/spheres of innovations. This explains, to a significant extent, why women are invisible in innovation studies and are very often considered as non-effective actors on innovation. Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur and to perceive risky projects as challenging situations. Unlike men, women avoid and overcome risky situations to escape penalties that could be generated. Furthermore, women are more easily affected, and more affected, than men by contextual factors, for instance by the number of partners and their gender (Slovic et al., 2002; Loewenstein et al., 2001; Harshman, Paivio, 1987). However, all these results are not significant when samples consist of women that are involved in enterprise milieus (Schubert et al., 1999). It seems that professional experience diminishes women’s risk aversion and increases their willingness to trust and increases their confidence. To go further on this last idea, a new brand of studies on corporate governance and corporate risk analyzes the effect of women on boards and leadership positions. Studies started exploring the effect of women on boards as the most important decision mechanism in enterprises. Empirical evidence on whether women on boards increase the propensity to take risks or to display risk-avoidance behavior is increasing (see among others: Berger et al., 2012; Cosentino et al., 2012; Faccio et al., 2015, Loukil, Yousfi, 2015). The few results on risk taking are based on financial risk-taking assessed by liquidity measures (such as, for example, cash ratio11, leverage ratio12, etc.) and show risk avoidance behavior on both developing and developed markets. This behavior is displayed particularly in family businesses and when women are politically connected, or were state officers. When risk-taking is measured by other variables such as R&D expenses, the level of total risk, the annual growth rate and the ratio of the market to the book value of total assets, women sitting in boardrooms have no significant effect on strategic and managerial risk-taking. To conclude, while a substantial literature on social economics has shown that women are more risk-averse than men, we argue that this conclusion may be partially distorted and stereotyped and has to be reconsidered because, for instance, when it comes to the professional and managerial population, less significant differences were found between men and women (Bruce, Johnson, 1994; Johnson, Powell, 1994). Women and creativity: another link to explore Creativity and innovation are often used interchangeably in research studies (Scott, Bruce, 1994). However, it seems that there is some confusion 11. Cash ratio measures the level of asset liquidity. It is measured by the ratio of current assets (net of stock) and current liabilities. 12. Leverage ratio is given by the ratio of the book value of long term debt and the market value of equity. n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 169 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur on the link between creativity and innovation and very often they are confounded. In fact, creativity is a subjective concept: it is the capability of an individual to bring and to conceive new ideas (Mumford, Gustafson, 1988) while innovation is the ability to set up and introduce new changes in an organization using several resources. The combination of creativity and its implementation can lead to innovation under specific conditions that are not yet completely known and identified (Kanter, 1988). Sometimes the innovation comes from the recent and unexpected needs of the organization. Then the innovator needs to design a new and profitable solution based on creative resources and a creative way of combining these solutions. As shown in the previous section, the academic literature provides several rough measures of innovation that actually measure the input or the output of innovation, not the innovation itself (R&D expenditure and patents). These measures allow one to see what the success of a given innovation looks like. For instance, “R&D expenditure” is a common measure of innovation in economic studies and it is also a measure of risk-taking. Nevertheless, it definitely cannot capture the level of creativity in one innovation, while it is obvious that creativity is a key ingredient for the implementation of creative ideas and how to make them successful. In practice, creativity and innovation are concepts that are too close, in the sense that all innovations come from creative ideas that innovators have successfully transferred from the conceptual/intangible stages to enterprise reality, with concrete added value. Note that no academic papers analyze the link between them, as creativity belongs to the non-measurable sphere. In order to see whether women have that kind of creative thinking that is specific to innovators, we examine the entrepreneurship literature, particularly studies on entrepreneur profiles. This brand of the literature considers that entrepreneurs are innovators as they take risky decisions and create new businesses. As only a small proportion of companies are headed by women, they cannot have a positive impact on innovation. The proportion is almost 26% in France, the UK and Sweden (Sánchez Cañizares, Fuentes García, 2010). Second, women are less likely to set up companies than men: only 30% of new companies are created by women. While some studies show that women being less entrepreneurial than men is due to the lack of motivation and incentives (Eurobarometer, 2015). Casero Diaz et al. (2007) and Sánchez Cañizares and Fuentes García (2010) report a similar desire to create a company, but a greater importance of real or perceived barriers for women. 170 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur At the same time, pursuing profitable opportunities to increase economic growth intensifies competition and the need for challenging and creative thinking to do things better and in a more efficient way, using the existing resources of the firm. The literature has started to explore the role played by intrapreneurs in the firm: it argues that these actors play a major role as well as entrepreneurs in the sense that they can initiate changes and innovations. Indeed, intrapreneurs are defined as organizational members who go beyond their required duties to promote an innovative change, thinking like entrepreneurs and looking for challenging opportunities to make their organizations more profitable. They have to be imaginative and creative and can turn ideas or prototypes into profitable realities (Basso, Legrain, 2004). These qualities are key elements which contribute to innovation. This is despite the fact that many reports highlight the increasing impact of women in their organizations, enterprises and globally on their environment. According to the entrepreneurship literature, we are tempted to conclude that women are not effective innovative actors. However, this conclusion is biased in several ways. First, some feminist studies carry out an in-depth analysis of innovative behavior in organizations and highlight a biased vision due to stereotypes. Foss et al. (2013) show that women are as innovative as men in generating new ideas. However, women’s ideas are not supported as much as the ideas of their male colleagues: there is a lack of collegial support in implementing their ideas. Consequently, women’s’ ideas are less often implemented in the organization. According to Cooper (2012) and Alsos et al. (2013), women are not perceived as innovators (or not as much as men), their ideas are not put forward and therefore not implemented; these results show that women are not lacking innovation capabilities but stereotypes interfere. Alsos et al. (2013) suggest that the question that could be answered is not who is creative but rather who has the power in organizations and who is listened to? The authors notice that the question of power is seldom addressed in innovation literature. In this paper we deal with this link. Second, studies highlight that women’s behavior is underestimated because of methodological questions. While many high-tech firms considered as leaders in innovation activity are managed by teams that are gender diverse, including women and men (Diaz-Garcia et al., 2013), empirical studies often consider the role of one person who takes the decision to innovate; typically this person is the CEO who, surprisingly, is most often a man. In these studies, women are hidden and their role is invisible and non-significant, which does not mean that they are inactive or incapable of innovation. n° 19 – Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 171 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Gender gap in innovation: a confused link? Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Third, as entrepreneurship and innovation are closely related, the innovator in entrepreneurship studies is a particular case of an entrepreneur profile. In fact, entrepreneurship research displays a restrictive approach towards individuals and creativity, in the sense that the innovator is an outstanding entrepreneur: the one who will bring a brilliant idea to enhance economic activity. Accordingly, it focuses on radical, technological, exported innovations. As highlighted in the previous section, many types of innovation are not yet fully explored. Many factors that could influence innovations, in addition to risk-taking and creativity, are neglected such as, for instance, pedagogy, collaboration, empathy and reciprocity, which have key effects on managerial, social and environmental innovations. Taking these aspects into account will provide a more gender neutral vision of innovative behaviour. Then it is necessary to analyze in-depth the determinants of innovative behavior in a link with the type of innovation. CONCLUSION The present paper analyses why there is a lack of gender perspective in innovation literature. The existing body of work on innovation considers neither the places where innovation happened nor the participants to the innovation processes. In other words, individuals are invisible in empirical studies. Adding a gender perspective to the extensive literature on innovation will help to rethink the innovation framework, so that it is capable of observing a wider scope of innovations than those which are now marginalized such as, for instance, incremental, social and organisational innovations. In addition, gender is an individual characteristic which could better describe innovator profiles. Innovator profile is still a puzzling issue in innovation. First, we focused on the effects of normative thinking and stereotypes leading to a restrictive/exclusive approach of innovation, particularly on the way types/areas/determinants of innovations and innovator behaviour. Second, recent studies provide strong evidence that the gender blind vision is a significant barrier to developing more creative ideas and behaviors. Unfortunately, this is going beyond the assessment of many growth opportunities (Vinnova, 2011). “To include a gender perspective in analysis of an innovation milieu is not a matter of adding one more factor; it means highlighting one aspect of the system that is yielding effects, regardless of whether these effects are measured or not” (Schiebinger, 2008). 172 Journal of Innovation Economics & Management – 2016/1 – n° 19 Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Sophia BELGHITI-MAHUT, Anne-Laurence LAFONT, Ouidad YOUSFI Document téléchargé depuis www.cairn.info - Universidad de Chile - - 200.89.68.187 - 28/08/2019 23:32 - © De Boeck Supérieur Finally, we provided evidence that female-implemented innovations and female-controlled industries are neglected and marginalized in innovation studies. However, a recent and emergent literature, that is not yet extensive, highlights the fact that women are inclined to introduce innovations that are locally implemented, very often to achieve social and environmental goals. These innovations cannot be suitable for other environments. What could be learned from existing literature on innovation when it is considered from a gendered angle? It is definitely urgent to reconsider the definition of innovation and to rethink innovation by adding the gender dimension (Blake, Hanson, 2005; Johansson, Lindberg, 2011) to assess the individual characteristics and the environment of the innovator. This could definitely overcome gendered blind vision in the current innovation literature. In order to shed light on feminine innovations, it would be interesting to clearly assess differences and similarities between innovator and entrepreneur profiles. Innovations do not imply undertaking new businesses and vice versa being an entrepreneur is not necessarily an innovative behaviour. Furthermore, it is necessary to refocus on all forms of innovations, whatever their initiators and their impacts: this implies that policymakers need to take into account the multidimensionality of innovation and the necessity to support all innovator actors in all sectors to promote a more responsible innovation that may affect the economic sphere in indirect ways. In future research, it would be interesting to study innovation factors, the innovator’s profile and the determinants of innovation potential. Looking for individual characteristics and specificities is a challenging issue that will probably enhance our understanding of innovation and create more growth opportunities. The gender approach will offer an extended framework that goes beyond enterprise milieus and set up new areas of perspective. 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