GRAMMAR BOOK

GRAMMAR BOOK
1) Tenses
a) Present Simple
b) Be
c) Present Progressive
d) Past Simple
e) Be-Past
f) Past Progressive
g) The Future
h) More Future
i) Present Perfect
j) Past Perfect
2) Parts Of Speech 1
a) Nouns
b) Nouns and Quantifiers
c) Comparison Of Adjectives
d) Pronouns
e) Reflexive Pronouns
f) Adverbs
g) Participles
3) Parts Of Speech 2
a) Modals
b) Past Form Of Modals
c) Will Vs Would
d) Infinitives
e) More Infinitives
f) Gerunds
g) Phrasal Verbs
4) Clauses
a) Clauses
b) Relative Clauses
c) More Relative Clauses
d) Clauses Of Result
e) Conditionals
f) More Conditionals
g) Subjunctive Mood
5)
More Grammar Points
a) Reported Speech
b) Passive Voice
c) Causatives or Permissives
d) Conjunctions
e) Logical Connectors
f) Negation
g) Impersonal Statements
h) Common Errors
i) More Common Errors
TENSES
USE:
To talk about actions, states or
events which happen at any time, repeatedly, or all the time.
STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Verbs take an -s ending in third person singular.
[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]
I/You/We/They
He/She/It
work
has
in a bank.
brown eyes.
SPELLING
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -es in third person
singular:
kisses, matches, goes, watches
For verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the y and add -ies:
carry/carries, try/tries, copy/copies
NOTE: The Present Simple is often used with adverbs and adverb phrases that indicate
frequency: Always, Never, Often, Sometimes, Usually, Every day/week, On Sundays, Twice a month,
year, etc.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DO NOT/DON'T + VERB + REST]
I/You/We/They
He/She/It
don't
doesn't
drive in the city.
have brown eyes.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DO + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Do
I/you/we/they
know
them?
[DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Does
he/she/it
like
milk?
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WH-WORD + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Who
lives
here?
Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]
Where
When
does
do
he
you
live?
go home?
ANSWERS
FORM:
[YES,
Yes,
Yes,
[NO,
No,
No,
SUBJECT +
I
he
SUBJECT +
we
she
DO/DOES]
do.
does.
DON'T/DOESN'T]
don't
doesn't.
TAG QUESTIONS
If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]
You drive,
Carl paints,
don't
doesn't
you?
he?
If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]
You don't smoke,
Mary doesn't drive,
do
does
you?
she?
vs. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
The Present Simple is used to talk about general time, states, and repeated actions. The Present
Progressive is used to talk about more temporary situations and actions which are going on around the
present moment.
EXAMPLES:
Present Simple: "Pat plays tennis every Friday."
Present Progressive: "She is playing tennis now."
Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."
Present Progressive: "Now he is speaking English to that tourist."
"BE" PRESENT
USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Are you the manager?"
"No, I'm not. She's the manager."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT
+ BE+ REST OF SENTENCE]
I
You
He/She/It
am
are
is
at home.
pretty.
here.
We/You/They
are
at school.
EXAMPLE:
"I am tired."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT
+ BE + NOT+ REST OF SENTENCE]
I
You
She/He/It
am not
are not
is not
tired.
nice.
here.
We/You/They
are not
at work.
EXAMPLE:
"We are not hungry."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm here.
You're here.
He's/She's/It's here.
We're/You're/They're
here.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not here.
You're not here.
He's not here.
She's not here.
It's not here.
You arn't here.
He isn't here.
She isn't here.
It isn't here.
We're not here.
You're not here.
They're not here.
We aren't here.
You aren't here.
They aren't here.
EXAMPLE:
Frank isn't at home today.
Frank's not at work today.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The subject and the verb "BE" change places.
Statement:
He is at home.
Yes/No Question: Is heat home?
Statement:
They are at work now.
Yes/No Question: Are they at work now?
EXAMPLE:
"Are you in the living room?"
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a positive answer to a yes/no question (never used with contractions).
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE]
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a negative answer to a yes/no question (often used with contractions).
FORM:
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + N'T]
No, I'm not
No, you're not.
No, he's not.
No, it's not.
No, you aren't.
No, he isn't.
No, it isn't.
No, we're not.
No, you're not.
No, they're not.
No, we aren't.
No, you aren't.
No, they aren't.
EXAMPLE:
"Are you tired
"No, I'm not."
today?"
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]
NOTE: The subject and verb change places.
They are at work now.
Are they at work now?
Where are they now? (WH-Question)
EXAMPLE: "What is his name?"
TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected. Add a short, two-word question-tag to the
end of the statement.
FORM:
If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + BE + N'T + SUBJECT]
If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + BE + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"You are tired, aren't you?"
"Yes, I am."
"He isn't at work, is he?"
"No, he isn't."
USE:
To describe actions that are happening now or in the future.
EXAMPLES:
"That man is following us, isn't he?"
"Yes, he is."
"You aren't leaving, are you?"
"No, I'm not."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT
+ BE + VERB+ing+ REST]
I
You
He/She/It
am waiting
are eating
is sleeping
for Sam.
my cake.
now.
We/You/They
are going
tomorrow.
EXAMPLE:
"I am trying to study."
SPELLING CHANGES
USE:
The spelling of some verbs changes when "ing" is added. For most verbs that end in consonant-vowelconsonant, double the last letter:
stop, stopping
For verbs that end in "e", drop the "e" before adding "ing":
have, having
give, giving
live, living
EXAMPLE:
"I'm having fun in Paris."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT
+ BE + NOT+ VERB+ing(+ REST)]
I
You
He/She/It
am not
are not
is not
driving.
listening.
working.
We/You/They
are not
studying.
EXAMPLE:
"It is not raining anymore."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm going.
You're going.
He's/She's/It's going.
We're/You're/They're going.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not working.
You're not working.
He's not working.
She's not working.
It's not working.
You aren't working.
He isn't working.
She isn't working.
It isn't working.
We're not working.
You're not working.
They're not working.
You aren't working.
You aren't working.
They aren't working.
EXAMPLES:
"Frank isn't driving to work today."
"Frank's not driving to work today."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The subject and the form of the verb "BE"
change places."
Statement: He is sleeping.
Yes/No Question: Is he sleeping?
Statement: They are working now.
Yes/No Question: Are they working now?
EXAMPLE:
"Are you listening to me?"
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "yes" answer (never used with contractions).
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT
Yes,
Yes,
Yes,
Yes,
I
you
he/she/it
we/you/they
+ BE]
am.
are.
is.
are.
EXAMPLE:
"Are you listening to me?"
"Yes I am."
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "no" answer (often used with contractions).
FORM:
[NO+ SUBJECT + BE+ NOT
No, I'm not.
No, you're not.
No, you aren't.
No, he's not.
No, he isn't.
No, it's not.
No, it isn't.
No, we're not.
No, you're not.
No, they're not.
No, we aren't.
No, you aren't.
No, they aren't.
EXAMPLE:
"Marie, are you enjoying the party?"
"No, I'm not."
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with the following question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + VERBing + REST]
NOTE: The subject and the form of the verb "BE" change places.
They are working at home now.
Are they working at home now?
Where are they working now?(Wh-Question)
EXAMPLE:
"What are you doing now?"
TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected. Add a short, two-word question-tag
to the end of the statement.
FORM: If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + BE + N'T + SUBJECT]
If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + BE + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"He's leaving, isn't he?" "Yes, he is."
"You aren't going, are you?" "No, I'm not."
PRESENTE PERFECTO PROGRESIVO
USO:
Se utiliza para hablar sobre una acción continua o repetida que comenzó en el pasado y continúa hasta el
presente, o que concluyó hace muy poco tiempo y aún tiene un efecto. Normalmente no utilizamos el presente
perfecto progresivo con verbos de estado (TO HAVE RED HAIR TO BE APPY/ILL/TIRED, TO KNOW
THE ANSWER, etc.).
EJEMPLOS:
"Betty and Joe have been working all night: they're exhausted!"
"Ted, I've been telling you to make your bed for two hours!"
FORMA:
AFIRMATIVO
[SUJETO + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERBO+ing ]
EJEMPLOS:
"I've been sitting here for an hour."
"She's been hiding in the garage."
NEGATIVO
[SUJETO + HAS/HAVE + NOT + BEEN + VERBO+ing...]
HASN'T/HAVEN'T
EXAMPLES:
"You have not (haven't) been working all week."
"He has not (hasn't) been living here very long."
NOTA: las expresiones FOR y SINCE se utilizan con el presente perfecto progresivo igual que con el presente
perfecto simple.
EJEMPLOS:
"They have been studying French for three years."
"She has been living here since 1987."
PASADO SIMPLE: PREGUNTAS
PREGUNTAS SI/NO
USO:
Realizar preguntas acerca de acciones/hechos del pasado cuya respuesta es "sí" o "no".
FORMA:
Put DID / DIDN'T delante del sujeto.
[DID / DIDN'T + SUJETO + VERBO + RESTO]
Did
Didn't
you
they
walk
buy
yesterday?
the book last week?
PREGUNTAS - WH
USO:
Realizar preguntas acerca del pasado que comienzancon estos interrogativos: WHAT, WHEN, WHERE,
WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORMA:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERBO + RESTO]
Who
told
him?
What
made
that noise?
Preguntas acerca del RESTO DE LA SENTENCIA:
[PALABRA-WH + DID + VERBO...]
When
did you
leave school?
Where
did they
buy that?
EJEMPLOS:
John: "Did you ask the boss about money?"
Rose: "Yes, I did."
John: "Well, what did she say?"
Rose: "She said no."
STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Regular verbs in the Past Simple end in -ed.
[SUBJECT + VERB+ed + REST OF SENTENCE]
Joe
We
walked
played
home last night.
tennis yesterday
SPELLING
Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live / lived.
With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to i:
carry / carriedtry / tried
NOTE: Past Simple is often used with adverbs: Yesterday, Last week/month/year, A... ago
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT / DIDN'T + VERB + REST]
They
Ruth
did not
didn't
call
study
me yesterday.
before the test.
IRREGULAR FORMS
Here is a list of some of the most frequent irregular verbs:
come - came
do - did
drink - drank
eat - ate
find - found
get - got
drive - drove
go - went
have - had
hear - heard
know -knew
leave - left
make - made
meet - met
put put
read read
say said
sell sold
sit sat
sleep slept
speak spoke
take took
tell told
think thought
understand -understood
wear wore
write wrote
QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DID/DIDN'T + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Did
Didn't
you walk
theybuy
yesterday?
the book last week?
SHORT ANSWERS
FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DID]
Yes,
they
did.
[NO, SUBJECT + DID + NOT / DIDN'T]
No,
they
didn't..
WH-QUESTIONS
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERB+REST]
FORM:
Who
What
told
made
him?
that noise?
Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:
[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
When
Where
did
did
you
they
leave
buy
school?
that?
USE:
Utilizamos el pretérito progresivo para hablarde una acción o hecho continuos queestaba sucediendo en un
momento en particularen el pasado
EXAMPLES:
"Weren't you studying with Linda last night?"
"No, I wasn't. I was shopping for Joe's birthday present."
"What were you doing when he phoned?"
"I was sleeping."
STATEMENTS
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
I was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
NEGATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + VERB + ing...]
She was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.
They were not (weren't) waiting for the bus.
YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
FORM:
[WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB+ing...?]
Was she waiting for the train?
Were you waiting for the train?
[YES/NO + SUBJECT + BE (NOT)]
Yes, I was.
No, it wasn't.
Yes, they were.
No, you weren't.
PAST PROGRESSIVE vs. PAST SIMPLE
USE:
Utilizamos el pretérito simple para hablar sobre una acción que se completó en el pasado. Utilizamos
el pretérito progresivo para hablar de una acción que continuó durante un tiempo en el pasado.
También podemos utilizar el pretérito simple y el pretérito progresivo juntos en la misma oración, mostrar que
una acción o hecho corto ocurrido durante una acción o hecho más largo. Si mencionamos la acción más corta
primero, por lo general unimos las dos partes de la oración con WHILE.
EXAMPLES:
"The phone rang while she was taking a shower."
"The car broke down while Bill was driving home."Si mencionamos la acción más larga primero,unimos las dos
partes de la oración con "WHEN".
EXAMPLES:
"She was taking a shower when the
phone rang."
"Bill was driving home when the car broke down."
USE:
Utilizamos el futuro para hablar de accionesy estados futuros. Podemos utilizar diversas formas verbales para
hablar del futuro.
EXAMPLES:
"What time are
you leaving for the station?"
"Well, my train leaves at ten, so I'll leave here at about nine. That will give me time. But you're going to give me a
ride, aren't you?"
Cuatro de las formas verbales de futuro más importantesson:
WILL
EXAMPLE:
"I will go home
at six o'clock."
GOING TO
EXAMPLE:
"It's going to
rain soon."
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
EXAMPLE:
"We're spending Christmas with my parents."
SIMPLE PRESENT
EXAMPLE:
The next train for Oxford leaves at 2:45.
Cada forma tiene un significado ligeramente diferente, pero las diferencias son a menudo muy pequeñas.
MAS TIEMPOS FUTUROS
USO:
Estos tiempos verbales se utilizan para referirse a acciones que ocurrirán en un momento específico o durante
un período específico en el futuro (FUTURO PROGRESIVO) y a acciones y hechos que concluirán en un
cierto momento del futuro (FUTURO PERFECTO).
EJEMPLOS:
"Could I borrow the car tomorrow, Dad?"
"Well, I'll be using it all day tomorrow;when do you want to borrow it?"
"In the evening, after dinner."
"That's okay; I'll have finished with it by then."
USE:
Hablar sobre acciones o estados que comenzaron en el pasado y de alguna forma se conectan con el presente.
El presente perfecto a
menudo se utiliza con expresiones que comienzan con FOR o SINCE para hablar de acciones o estados que
comenzaron en el pasado y siguen vigentes en el momento actual. También se utiliza con los adverbios JUST,
ALREADY y YET para hablar de acciones o hechos que sucedieron en un momento indefinido del pasado. El
presente perfecto se utiliza además para hablar sobre acciones o hechos recientes ("noticias").
EXAMPLES:
"Hi, Karla! I haven't seen you lately. Where have you been?"
"I've been really busy. I've been playing with a band called "Wild
Thing." Have you heard of us?"
"No, I haven't."
"Well, come and see us on Saturday night!"
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] + (FOR/SINCE...)]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + BEEN + VERB + ing + (FOR/SINCE...)]
EXAMPLES:
"They've lived here for two years."
"She's been here since 4 p.m."
"I've already swept the floor."
"They've been working all night."
NEGATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + BEEN + VERB + ing...]
EXAMPLES:
"We haven't met her yet."
"He hasn't made a sound."
"You haven't been doing your
homework."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
Simple:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...?]
Progressive:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB + ing...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Have you finished your work yet?"
"Has Peter come home yet?"
"Have they been living here long?"
WH-QUESTIONS
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERB + ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Who's eaten all the candy?"
"Who's been sleeping in my bed?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB + ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"Why have you done that?"
"What have you been doing?"
TIME EXPRESSIONS
FOR o SINCE se utilizan al inicio de una expresión de tiempo. Para decir cuánto duró la acción o el estado,
utilizamos FOR:"...for ten minutes." "...for twenty years." "...for two centuries." "...for a very long time." etc.
Para decir cuándo comenzó la acción o el estado, utilizamos SINCE,:
"...since 2 o'clock." "...since last Monday." "...since 1975." "...since the end of the War."
HOW LONG se utiliza para comenzar una pregunta sobre duración.
EXAMPLES:
" How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."
"How long have you been living here?"
"For two years."EVER
se utiliza antes del verbo para preguntar si algo
aconteció, pero no cuándo.
EXAMPLE:
" Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."
JUST, ALREADY y YET se utilizan para hablar sobre acciones o hechos sucedidos en un momento
indefinido del pasado, o acciones o hechos recientes ("noticias"). JUST (=hace poco tiempo) y ALREADY
(=antes de ahora) por lo general van inmediatamente antes del participio pasado [V3] y YET (antes/hasta
ahora) a menudo se utiliza al final de una oración o pregunta negativa.
EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that
movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"
USO:
Se utiliza para enfatizar la diferencia temporal entre dos estados, acciones o hechos en el pasado que se
mencionan en la misma oración. Por lo general empleamos el pretérito perfecto si queremos enfatizar
que un hecho o estado aconteció antes que otro.
EJEMPLO:
"I was really surprised when I met Fred at Jill's party last week. I hadn't seen him for five years, and he
looked really different. I asked him what he'd been doing since we left school, but he didn't tell me. Then
somebody told me he'd been in prison..."
PASADO PERFECTO SIMPLE
USO:
Se utiliza para enfatizar que un hecho aconteció antes que otro (conectado mediante conjunciones como
WHEN y BEFORE) o en el modo indirecto, cuando el "verbo informante" está en pasado y la afirmación o
idea "original" estaba en pretérito, presente perfecto o pretérito perfecto.
FORMA:
AFIRMATIVO
[SUJETO + HAD (+Adverbio) + Past Participle[V3]...]
HAD NOT/HADN'T
EJEMPLOS:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time they arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
VOZ REPORTADA
[TIEMPO PASADO + (THAT) + PASADO PERFECTO]
EJEMPLOS:
"I thought (that) you'd already seen this."
"She said (that) she'd never met me before."
PASADO PERFECTO PROGRESIVO
USO:
Se utiliza para hablar de acciones o estados continuos que continuan hasta un momento dado del pasado.
FORMA:
[SUJETO + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB + ING...](HADN'T)
EJEMPLOS:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."
"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."
USE:
Los sustantivos son nombres propios, de lugares y cosas.
EXAMPLE:
"These men buy their watches
in New York."
men (persona)
watches (cosa)
New York (lugar)
SINGULAR/PLURAL
USE:
Para formar el plural de un sustantivo.
FORM:
Añadir una "s" al sustantivo.
 a dollar
 two dollars
Muchos sustantivos cambian su ortografía al formar el plural.
Cuando un sustantivo termina en "s", "ss", "x", "sh"
o "ch", añadir "es". a watch/watches
Cuando un sustantivo acaba en consonante + "y",cambiar la "y" por "i" y añadir "es": a baby/babies
Cuando un sustantivo termina en "o",
a veces añadir "es"
a potato/potatoes
BUT:
la "f" a "v" y añadir "es" o "s":a shelf/shelves
Sometimes the noun plural looks completely different.
foot / feet
a woman / women
a man / men
a mouse / mice
a person / people
a child / children
POSSESSIVE
USO: Para mostrar a quién o a qué pertenece
una cosa o la relación entre personas.
FORMA: añadir " 's " al nombre de la persona o cosa
a la que pertenece el sustantivo.
En el caso de sustantivos en plural colocar
el " ' " después de la "s".
EXAMPLE:
"The boy's pizza. The boys' pizza."
"The boy's pizza. The boys' pizza."
USE:
Count and non-count nouns have special articles and quantifiers.
COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of objects, people, ideas, etc. which we can count. Count nouns have a singular and
plural form:
a dog - dogs
the man - men
With count nouns, we can use a/an, the, and numbers.
a dog - two dogs
the boy - the boys
NON-COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of materials, liquids, or other things which we do not see as separate,countable
objects: health, love, nature, water, light, music, cheese, money
Non-count nouns only have a singular form:
The water is cold.
With Non-count nouns, we cannot use a/an or numbers. We can use the and other quantifiers:
"The music is too loud."
"We have some cheese."
"How much money do you have?"
USE:
To compare two persons or things.
EQUALITY
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE: [AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Bob is as tall as Marty.
NEGATIVE: [NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Her hair is not as long as mine.
COMPARATIVES
FORM:
[COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE + THAN]
John is older than Bart.
Betty is more beautiful than Barbara.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -er:
long/longer, old/older, tall/taller
Adjectives ending in -e take -r:
nice/nicer, late/later
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:
fat/fatter, big/bigger, hot/hotter
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -ier:
happy/happier, easy/easier
With most two-syllable adjectives and longer adjectives the comparative is formed with more:
intelligent - more intelligent
beautiful - more beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular comparative form:
good - better
bad - worse
SUPERLATIVES
FORM:
[SUPERLATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE]
John is the tallest boy in the class.
They are the most beautiful shoes in the store.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -est:
long/longest, old/oldest
Adjectives ending in -e take -st:
nice/nicest, late/latest
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:
fat/fattest, big/biggest, hot/hottest
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -iest:
happy/happiest, easy/easiest
Long adjectives form the superlative with most:
intelligent - most intelligent
beautiful - most beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular superlative form:
good - best
bad – worst
USE:
Hacer referencia a sustantivos específicos o generales sin utilizar nombres propios.
EXAMPLES:
"Is this your bag?"
"Yes, it's mine."
"Give it to me please."
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
USE:
Hacer referencia al sujeto de una oración en lugar de utilizar nombres propios.
Para referirse a personas:I, you, he, she, we, they
Para referirse a cosas: it, they
EXAMPLE:
"I am Mack. She
is Matilda."
OBJECT PRONOUNS
USE
Hacer referencia al objeto (directo e indirecto) de una oración en lugar de utilizar nombres propios.
Para referirse a personas: me, you, him, her, us, them
Para referirse a cosas: it, them
EXAMPLE:
"Do you know him?"
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
Indicar la pertenencia sin utilizar los nombres de los propietarios.
ADJECTIVE
Seguido siempre por el sustantivo al cual describe:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
NOUN
Sin el sustantivo al cual describe:
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
EXAMPLE:
"Is it your turn?"
"No, it's his."
USE:
(a) Para hablar sobre acciones en donde el sujeto y el objeto del verbo son la misma persona.
(b) Para indicar "esa persona/cosa y nadie/nada más"
FORM:
Singular Plural
 MYSELF
 OURSELVES
 YOURSELF
 YOURSELVES
 HIMSELF
 THEMSELVES
 HERSELF
 ITSELF
 ONESELF
EXAMPLES:
"How did you hurt yourself?"
"I decided to teach myself to ski."
"The manager spoke to me himself!"NOTA:
Normalmente no utilizamos pronombres reflexivos con WASH, DRESS, HAVE, FEEL o después de
preposiciones cuando es evidente sobre quién estamos hablando.
"I don't feel very well." (NOT "feel myself")
Observa la importante diferencia existente entre los pronombres reflexivos y las expresiones EACH
OTHER/ONE ANOTHER.
"Mary looked at Tom and Tom looked at Mary."
= "Mary and Tom looked at each other/one another."
Compare to: "Mary and Tom stood in front of the mirror and looked at themselves."
La expresión BY + pronombre reflexivo (BY MYSELF, BY HIMSELF etc.) significa "solo" o "sin ayuda".
"Fred loves company; he hates being by himself."
"The baby climbed the stairs by herself."
EXAMPLES:
"Be careful with that razor: you'll cut yourself!"
"I myself checked the figures; I'm sure they're right."
"Sharon looked at herself in the mirror."
"Nobody helped me; I wrote the book by myself."
USE:
An adverb often contains the answer to the question: "How does the subject perform the verb?".
EXAMPLES:
"He plays the trumpet beautifully, but he plays baseball very badly."
"John walked towards me very slowly. Then he spoke quietly."
Some adverbs (e.g. EXTREMELY, TERRIBLY, REMARKABLY, UNUSUALLY, ESPECIALLY, and
several others) are also used to strengthen adjectives or other adverbs.
EXAMPLES:
"Fred was extremely angry when you said that."
"That's a lovely hat, but it's terribly expensive!"
FORMATION
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an
adjective: clear/clearly, wonderful/wonderfully, clever/cleverly, stupid/stupidly, interesting/interestingly, close/closely, dangerou
s/dangerously, bad/badly.
If an adjective already ends in -ly (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it cannot be made into an adverb. In this case
we have to make an adverbial phrase.
EXAMPLES:
"She spoke to me in a friendly way."
"He sat there looking lonely." In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding adjective:
EARLY, LATE, FAST, HARD, LEFT, RIGHT, WRONG, HIGH, LONG.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm afraid the train will leave late."
"He runs very fast."
"Why do you work so hard?"
"Turn right at the next corner!"
The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL.
"Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."
ADVERBS and ADJECTIVES: TOO and ENOUGH
USE:
Used to talk about adjectives or adverbs in terms of excess (TOO), adequacy (ENOUGH), or inadequacy
(NOT... ENOUGH).
FORM + MEANING:
[TOO + Adjective or Adverb] (=EXCESS)
EXAMPLES:
"This restaurant is too expensive. I'm not coming here again!"
"I'm too fat; I must lose weight!"
FORM + MEANING:
[Adjective or Adverb + ENOUGH] (=ADEQUACY)
EXAMPLE:
"Can you lift that case?"
"Sure, I'm strong enough."
FORM + MEANING:
[NOT (-N'T) + Adjective/Adverb + ENOUGH](=INADEQUACY)
EXAMPLES:
"Don't go skating there. The ice isn't thick enough!"
"We lost the match because we didn't play well
enough."
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
USE:
Used to compare two subjects performing the same action.
COMPARATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + MORE + Adverb + THAN + SUBJECT 2 (+DOES/CAN etc)...]
EXAMPLE:
"I can sing more beautifully than you (can)."
SUPERLATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + THE MOST + Adverb (OF ALL)]
EXAMPLE:
"Of all the students in her class, Sarah does her homework the most carefully."
ADVERBS WITH THE SAME BASE FORM AS ADJECTIVES
FORM:
Comparison: Add -er
EXAMPLE:
"Fred can run faster than Martin
can, but Sharon runs the fastest."
FORM:
Superlative: Add -est
EXAMPLE:
"My wife got up earlier than I did this morning, but our daughter got up the earliest."
Base form
WELL
BADLY
LITTLE
MUCH
Comparative
BETTER
WORSE
LESS
MORE
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE FORMS
Superlative
THE BEST
THE WORST
THE LEAST
THE MOST
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most important adverbs of frequency are
ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER,
OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[ADVERB + VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"I always drink
champagne with my supper."
FORM:
[BE + ADVERB]
EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes
late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[NOT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
QUESTIONS
FORM:
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have
for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
USE:
A PARTICIPLE is a verb form which can be used like an adjective in a sentence. All verbs, except Modals
such as MUST, MAY, CAN, WILL, SHALL, and SHOULD, have participial forms.
FORM:
The Present Participle is formed by adding "-ING" to the base form. It is used to express an active meaning: it
describes what the noun "is doing/does." The Past Participle is formed by adding "-ED" to the verb in regular
verbs. The irregular verbs have special forms.
The Past Participle expresses a passive meaning: it describes the effect something has on the person or thing,
or what the person feels.
EXAMPLES:
Present Participle
confusing
exciting
pleasing
worrying
Past Participle
confused
excited
pleased
worried
"Jean is such an annoying person. She never has anything nice to say about anyone. I get annoyed every time she
opens her mouth!"
USE:
Modals and Semi-modals are words that are used with verbs and add a special meaning. Most modals have
more than one meaning.
FORM:
Modals go before the verb and have only one form.
MODALS
AFFIRMATIVE
[MODAL + VERB]
John can swim quickly.
Bill and Mary may visit us later.
NEGATIVE
[MODAL + NOT + VERB]
Diane can't swim.
Beth cannot meet us tonight.
SEMI-MODALS
Semi-modals also go before the verb, but have the same form as regular verbs.
AFFIRMATIVE
[SEMI-MODAL + VERB]
He has to leave early.
They have to do their homework.
NEGATIVE
[(DO/DOES NOT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB]
The boys don't have to work today. Three of the most common Modals/Semi-modals are:
CAN (MODAL):
Joe can speak French. (ABILITY)
You can leave early. (PERMISSION)
It can be hot here. (POSSIBILITY)
MAY (MODAL):
You may leave early. (PERMISSION)
They may visit later. (POSSIBILITY)
HAVE TO (SEMI-MODAL):
He has to leave early. (OBLIGATION)
QUESTIONS
FORM:
MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Can you help me?
May I leave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MODAL... VERB...]
When can you help me?
SEMI-MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS
[DO/DOES(NOT) + SUBJECT + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]
Do I have to leave now?
Doesn't she have to study for her test?
Answers:
Yes, I do.
No, she doesn't.
SEMI-MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + (DO/DOES+SUBJECT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]
Who has to leave?
When do you have to call
your parents?
MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS)
USE:
Los modales y semimodales son palabras que se utilizan con verbos y añaden un significado especial. La
mayoría de los modales tienen más
de un significado.
MUST
Modal que indica fuerte necesidad, obligación o responsabilidad para hacer algo. Existe una diferencia muy
ligera entre MUST y HAVE TO. Sin embargo, en el inglés formal, MUST se emplea en los anuncios públicos
acerca de reglas y reglamentos oficiales. MUST también puede emplearse para expresar seguridad acerca de
una situación debido a hechos o circunstancias existentes.
Modal utilizado para hablar acerca de una obligación o responsabilidad (más débil que MUST o
HAVE TO) o para aconsejar a alguien.HAD TO Semimodal utilizado para hablar de una necesidad, obligación
o responsabilidad en el pasado. Es el pasado tanto de HAVE TO como de MUST.
SHOULD
BE ABLE TO
Semimodal utilizado para hablar sobre una habilidad en el presente, futuro y pasado. Su significado es similar
a CAN y COULD.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
MUST, SHOULD
Observa que las terceras personas del singular de las formas modales no utilizan la terminación -s.
[SUBJECT + MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"We should invite Paul to the party."
"Bob must be home by now. Let's call
"You must have a license to drive."
him."
BE ABLE TO, HAD TO
[SUBJECT + SEMI MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Paul isn't able to come to the party."
"Barbara has/had to babysit tonight."
WITH ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Observa que los adverbios de frecuencia (never, often, sometimes etc.)
pueden colocarse inmediatamente después del modal en frases afirmativas.
EXAMPLE:
"You must always remember
your boss's birthday."
Los adverbios de frecuencia se colocan inmediatamente antes de HAD TO en oraciones afirmativas.
EXAMPLE:
"Bob always had to work after
school."
Con BE ABLE TO, los adverbios de frecuencia se colocan después de BE.
EXAMPLE:
"She is never able to understand
the homework."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MODAL + NOT + VERB...]
NOTA: NOT suele abreviarse como "-n't" y se pronuncia juento con el modal (con la excepción de might).
EXAMPLES:
"We must not (mustn't) be late."
"You should not (shouldn't) open that
box!"
[SUBJECT + DO/DOES/DID + NOT + HAVE TO+ VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"They didn't have to clean the
yard yesterday."
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...]
"Peter isn't able to come to our party."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Must we invite Paul?"
"Should we ask someone to
help us?"
[DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Did he have to leave
so early?"
[BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Is he able to fix the
TV?"
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
ABOUT THE SUBJECT
[WH-WORD + MODAL/SEMI-MODAL + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who must we speak to?"
"Who had to help her yesterday?"
"Who is able to understand that question?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE
[Wh-Word + MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Why must we invite
Paul?"
"When could you type that letter for me?"
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"What did Bradley have to do
yesterday?"
[WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"How is Sarah able to buy such an expensive sweater?"
USO:
Las formas modales COULD, MAY y MIGHT se utilizan con HAVE y el participio pasado [V3] de los
verbos para especular o formar opiniones acerca de posibles acontecimientos del pasado. MUST HAVE se
utiliza del mismo modo para expresar deducciones lógicas sobre el pasado. SHOULD HAVE se utiliza para
hablar sobre expectativas, supuestos y obligaciones en el pasado.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'm worried. Jack should have been on that train, but he wasn't."
"I'm sure it's OK; he must have taken a later train."
"I don't know. He may have decided to come by car. He might have had an accident; you know how
badly he drives."
USO:
Utilizamos WILL y/o WOULD para referirnos a la voluntad o capacidad de un sujeto para realizar una acción,
describir costumbres y realizar peticiones u ofertas. También podemos utilizar WILL y/o WOULD para hablar
de acciones, estados y hechos tanto futuros como hipotéticos.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of gasoline."
"Cats will often play with mice for hours before killing them."
"Jack, would you please stop making that noise!"
"Don't worry; I'll explain the contract if you don't understand it."
"The President's helicopter will land at 2:15."
"I wouldn't open that box if I were you."
FORMA:
AFIRMATIVA y NEGATIVA
[SUJETO + WILL/WOULD (+NOT) + VERBO [Base Form]...]
WILL + NOT suele abreviarse como WON'T y WOULD + NOT suele abreviarse como WOULDN'T
PREGUNTAS
[(Palabra -Wh +) WILL/WOULD + SUJETO + VERBO...]
WILL/WOULD - WILLINGNESS
USO:
WILL a menudo se emplea para hacer una oferta o para preguntarle a alguien si está dispuesto a hacer algo.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"Will you lend me a thousand dollars so that I can go on vacation?"
WOULD se utiliza como forma pretérita de WILL y para pedirle muy cortésmente a alguien si está dispuesto
a hacer algo.
EJEMPLOS:
"He told me that he would give me some money."
"Excuse me, would you stop smoking, please?"
WON'T y WOULDN'T a menudo se utilizan para describir una negación.
EJEMPLOS:
"Mary won't clean her room even when I ask her politely."
"James wouldn't lend me his pen, although I asked him several times if I could."
WILL/WOULD - CAPACITY
USO:
WILL se utiliza en sus formas afirmativa, negativa e interrogativa para hablar sobre la habilidad o capacidad
de un sujeto para hacer algo.
En este caso, generalmente hablamos sobre una máquina u otros objetos.
EJEMPLOS::
"This tank will hold
500 liters of water."
"My car has broken down; it won't start."
"Will this camera work under water?"
Empleamos WOULD de la misma forma para referirnos al pasado.
EJEMPLOS:
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of gasoline."
"When I tried to open the door, my key wouldn't fit the lock."
WILL/WOULD - HABIT
USO:
Utilizamos WILL en su forma afirmativa y negativa para referirnos a hábitos presentes.
EJEMPLO:
"John will often put something down, and then immediately forget where he put it."
Cuando el sujeto del verbo es una persona, el uso de WILL a menudo sugiere que el hablante está levemente
molesto por la acción.
EJEMPLO:
"He's a clever boy, but he will frequently interrupt my lessons with annoying questions."
Utilizamos WOULD en su forma negativa y afirmativa para hablar acerca de hábitos y costumbres pasados.
EJEMPLOS:
"When I was a child, I would beg my father to tell me stories."
"The ancient Britons would paint themselves blue before battle."
WILL/WOULD - PETICIONES
Las formas interrogativas de WILL y WOULD se utilizan para realizar peticiones.
EJEMPLOS:
"Will you open the window, please?"
"Jack, will you be quiet!"
"Excuse me, would you tell me the time, please?"
Observa que WOULD es mucho más cortés que WILL y normalmente se emplea al hablar con desconocidos.
WOULD YOU MIND + VERBO-ing es una forma más cortés aún de solicitar a alguien que haga algo.
EJEMPLO:
"Excuse me, would you mind opening the window?"
WOULD YOU MIND IF + SUJETO + VERBO [forma pasada].. ? es una forma muy cortés de pedir permiso
para hacer algo.
EJEMPLO:
"Excuse me, would you mind if I borrowed your newspaper?"
WILL/WOULD - ACCIONES FUTURAS y ESTADOS
USO:
WILL y WON'T se utilizan para hablar acerca de estados o hechos que ocurrirán en algún momento del
futuro.
EJEMPLOS:
"How will you open the door without a key?"
"John won't be in the office next week."
"I will never forget you."
En el inglés oral, WILL y WON'T a menudo se utilizan en una oración subordinada cuando la oración
principal describe la actitud o pensamiento del sujeto en relación con el estado o hecho futuro.
EJEMPLOS:
"He hopes (that) you won't be angry with him."
"I'm sure she'll get here soon."
WOULD y WOULDN'T se utilizan en el estilo indirecto cuando repetimos algo que se dijo sobre el futuro.
EJEMPLOS:
"Mary kissed me and told me (that) she would never forget me."
"Did he tell you what time he would arrive?"
"Last week she told me that she wouldn't be at yesterday's meeting."
WILL/WOULD - CONDICIONALES
WILL y WON'T se utilizan en oraciones subordinadas para referirse a los resultados de condiciones presentes
o futuras posibles que se describen en la oración principal. La oración principal normalmente comienza
con IF o UNLESS y contiene un verbo que asume una forma presente, incluso si se refiere al futuro.
EJEMPLOS:
"If I win the lottery next month, I'll buy you a diamond ring."
"We won't hurt the hostages unless the police attack us."
"What will you do if you lose the next match?"
"I'll give up tennis and play chess instead."
WOULD y WOULDN'T se utilizan para describir los resultados de condiciones imposibles, irreales o muy
improbables, presentes o futuras, que se describen en la oración principal. El verbo de la oración principal
normalmente asume una forma pretérita, aunque se refiera al presente o futuro.
EJEMPLO:
"I hate you! I wouldn't marry you if you were the last man on earth!"
USE:
Se utiliza para referirse a una condición o acción. El infinitivo es la forma en la que el verbo aparece en el
diccionario, normalmente precedida por TO.
EXAMPLES:
"Sheila! I'm so happy to see you! I don't know what to say!"
"I know you didn't expect me to come. I didn't have to work so I came to help you."
"Great! The party is going to be fantastic!"
AFTER ADJECTIVES
USE:
Se utiliza para decir lo que una persona siente o piensa sobre una acción o hecho.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
Cuando el sujeto de una oración va seguido de dos verbos, el segundo verbo suele ir en infinitivo.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]
EXAMPLE
"Tina decided to study Russian."
AFTER VERB + OBJECT
Cuando hay dos verbos con distintos sujetos en la misma oración, a veces el segundo es un infinitivo.
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]
EXAMPLE:
"I told Maggie to write
that letter last week."
INSTEAD OF NOUN CLAUSES
USE:
Se utiliza en lugar de una oración de sustantivo y comienza con cualquiera de las siguientes palabras: WHO,
WHAT, WHICH, WHEN, WHERE, WHOSE, HOW, HOW MUCH, HOW MANY, o WHETHER.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE + WHO, WHAT, etc. + Infinitive]
USE:
Se usan en lugar de una cláusula sustantiva que
empieza con una de las conjunciones
WHO, WHAT, WHICH, WHEN, WHERE, WHOSE,
HOW, HOW MUCH, HOW MANY, o WHETHER.
MAS INFINITIVOS
USE:
Los INFINITIVOS asumen varias formas relacionadas con el tiempo verbal y con la voz, incluyendo perfecto
y pasivo. El inifinitivo perfecto se utiliza para referirse a una acción o estado pasados.
A menudo se utiliza después de la forma pasiva de verbos tales como KNOW, THINK, SAY, REPORT y
BELIEVE. También se utiliza después
de los verbos SEEM y APPEAR para especular sobre acciones y estados en el pasado. Los infinitivos pasivos
a menudo se utilizan después de adjetivos y verbos, de igual forma que los infinitivos activos, para referirse a
una acción en la que el objeto (o agente pasivo) de la acción es más importante que el sujeto (o agente activo).
EJEMPLOS:
"Nobody knows for sure where the escaped criminal is now, but he is thought to have left the San Francisco area."
"May I ask you a few questions?"
"Sure! I'd be happy to be interviewed... and I'd love to be photographed, too."
"Mary seems to be angry, but I don't know why."
MORE INFINITIVES
USE:
Los infinitivos pueden utilizarse en diversas formas (consulta el Índice Lingüístico 7) para reemplazar frases
más largas dentro de una oración.
EXAMPLES:
"He is generally thought to be a genius."
( = Most people think that he is a genius.)
"John went home early to watch the match on TV."
( = John went home early because he wanted to watch the match on TV.)
"Agnes opened her bag, only to find that she had forgotten the key."
( = Agnes opened her bag, and was disappointed when she found that she had forgotten the key.)
USE:
Cuando una frase contiene un verbo que tiene una función que normalmente realiza un sustantivo
(ej. como el sujeto u objeto), ese verbo por lo general es un GERUNDIO. Un GERUNDIO también puede
aparecer después de BE.
EXAMPLES:
"Harry loves eating ice cream."
"Smoking is very bad for you."
"I traveled around the world after leaving school."
"My hobby is collecting stamps."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
Los gerundios se utilizan como el objeto de la mayoría de los verbos transitivos, en lugar de un sustantivo o
pronombre. En algunos casos un verbo objeto toma la forma de infinitivo, pero normalmente es un
GERUNDIO. Un gerundio también puede seguir a "BE".
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]
EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but deniedkilling the security guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
AS SUBJECTS
USE:
Un GERUNDIO puede actuar como el sujeto de cualquier verbo en lugar de un sustantivo o pronombre. Con
frecuencia empleamos el gerundio de esta forma para crear generalizaciones. El GERUNDIO puede ir solo,
seguido de un complemento (ej. un objeto o un adverbio) o una oración adverbial.
FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...
EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me
sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is
inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause)
"Eating cheese before you go to bed can give you indigestion." (with Adverbial Clause)
AFTER PREPOSITIONS
USE:
Una preposición normalmente va seguida por un sustantivo o un pronombre. Si va seguida de un verbo, este
está en GERUNDIO.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary left without saying goodbye."
"James had an accident after drinking too much."
GERUNDS OR INFINITIVES AFTER VERBS
USE:
Ciertos verbos pueden ir seguidos por GERUNDIOS o infinitivos. En algunos casos, como REMEMBER,
FORGET, STOP y USE, esto cambia totalmente el significado de la oración.
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]
EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the
Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."FORM + MEANING
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - acciones en el futuro
EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give
him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUNDIO - para terminar o abandonar
una acción.]
EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVO - para empezar una nueva acción.]
EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie
my shoelace."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUNDIO - para experimentar, realizar una acción para ver cuál será el resultado.]
EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water before putting in the tea."
FORM + MEANING
[TRY + INFINITIVO - intentar algo; averiguar si algo es posible]
EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke
the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her."FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - para disfrutar de algo que se está haciendo]
EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."
FORM + MEANING
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - para pensar que algo es sensato, correcto o entretenido]
EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth
after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately."Fíjate en la diferencia entre USED TO + INFINITIVO y BE/GET
USED TO + GERUNDIO:
FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (pasado) + INFINITIVO - se refiere a un hábito o condición del pasado que ha dejado de existir o
ha cambiado.]
EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke
50 cigarettes a day before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington. Now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."
FORM + MEANING
[BE o GET USED TO + GERUNDIO - considerar algo normal o acostumbrarse a algo]]
EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on
the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very strange!"
"I can't get used to being a grandmother. I feel so old!"
"Don't worry. You'll get used to having grandchildren."
Con algunos verbos (ej.START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), hay muy poca diferencia si van seguidos por un
GERUNDIO o un INFINITIVO, aunque una forma puede ser ligeramente más común que la otra. En los
ejemplos siguientes, la forma más común se presenta primero.
EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel
at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."
Muchos verbos ingleses, como TAKE o GET, pueden tener una gran cantidad de significados distintos.
Algunos de ellos pueden ir seguidos de una palabra corta (una preposición como TO o FOR o un adverbio
como AWAY o OUT) que da al verbo un significado relativamente preciso. La combinación de VERBO +
PREPOSICIÓN/ADVERBIO se llama FRASE VERBAL
EJEMPLO:
"I'm always putting clothes on and taking them off again."
Algunas FRASES VERBALES carecen de un equivalente en común:
PUT ON or TAKE OFF clothes
LOOK UP words in a dictionary
Otras se utilizan en el inglés hablado informal en lugar de expresiones más largas y formales:
GO ON
CALL OFF
BLOW UP
TAKE IN
continue
cancele
destruya con explosiveo
engañar
FORMA:
La mayoría de las frases verbales son transitivas, es decir, normalmente toman un objeto directo. En muchos
casos, el objeto va entre el verbo y la preposición o adverbio. Tales verbos reciben el nombre de FRASES
VERBALES SEPARABLES. Tome nota de las dos posibles construcciones siguientes:
[SUJETO + PREP/ADVERB + OBJETO...]
"The soldiers blew up the bridge yesterday."
[SUJETO + VERBO + OBJETO + PREP/ADVERB...]
"The soldiers blew the bridge up yesterday."
"Observe que si el objeto es un sustantivo, puede situarse antes o después de la preposición/adverbio.
Sin embargo, si el objeto es un pronombre, debe situarse antes de la preposición/adverbio::
"The soldiers blew it up yesterday."
La siguiente lista incluye frases verbales separables comunes que obedecen a esta regla, seguidas por
ejemplos de cómo utilizarlas.
BACK UP (give support to)
"He always backs up his employees. (...backs them up)."
BLOW OUT (extinguir)
"The wind blew out the candle (...la apagó)."
BLOW UP (destruir con explosivos)
"The soldiers blew up the bridge (...volaron)."
BREAK UP (desmantelar, destruir)
"They're going to break up the company structure (...dvidirla)."
BREAK OFF (snap or interrupt)
"They decided to break off the negotiations (...romperlos)."
BRING UP (cuidar y educar a los niños)
"They brought up the boy (...le llevaron) very strictly."
CALL IN (invitar a alguien a que nos visite)
"We called in an engineer (...called him in) as soon as we discovered the fault."
CARRY OUT (realizar)
"I carried out his instructions (...hice) immediately."
CLEAR UP (eliminar el desorden, hacer orden)
"We cleared up the office (...limpiamos) after the Christmas party."
CUT OFF (remover parte de algo)
"He cut off the corner of the book (...la cortó."
FILL OUT (completar una forma impresa)
"Please fill out this form (...llénelo) in ink."
FILL UP (llenar)
"She filled up my cup (...filled it up) with coffee."
FIND OUT (descubrir)
"He found out the cause of the fault (...found it out) by examining the wiring."
FIX UP (organizar, arreglar, reparar)
They fixed up a venue (...fixed it up) in time for the conference."
GET BACK (obtener a cambio)
"Mr. Holden never got back the stolen disks (...got them back)."
GIVE BACK (devolver)
"When are you going to give back the pen I lent you (...devolverña)?"
GIVE UP (detener, abandonar)
"I gave up smoking (...dejé) five years ago."
HAND IN (dar)
"They handed in their questionnaires (...las dí) at the end of the session."
HOLD UP (retrasar)
"The strike held up the project (...retrasela) for six months."
KEEP UP (continue, mantener)
"The audience kept up their applause (...mantuvo) for ten minutes."
KNOCK OUT (hacer inconsciente)
"The machinery knocked out the operator (...noqueala) when it malfunctioned."
LET DOWN (decepcionar)
"She forgot about the appointment and let down the client (...le decepcionó)."
LET OUT (permitir salir)
"Don't forget to let out the cat (...lepermitó salir) after dinner."
LOOK UP (encontrar en el diccionario, directorio telefonico, etc.)
"You must look up those words (...buscarlas) in the dictionary."
PAY BACK (repagar una deuda)
"They promised to pay back the money (...repagar) within three months."
PICK UP (levantar)
"I saw you pick up your glasses (...recogerlos) in the canteen."
PUT DOWN (sustituir en una superficie)
"Put down the computer (...put it down) here."
PUT OFF (posponer)
"We'll have to put off the meeting (...posponerlo) until next week."
PUT ON (vestirse)
"I pu on my coveralls (...me puse) this morning."
SET UP (comienzo, establecido)
"They set up the company (...la establecieron) in 1978."
SWITCH ON/OFF (comenzar/parar un aparato)
"Please switch off the radio (...apaguéla); it's distracting me."
TAKE OFF (desvestirse, etc.)
"He took off his shoes (...se sacó) before going into the Japanese restaurant."
TAKE OVER (tomar el control de)
"The bank took over my farm (...se hizo cargo) in 1980."
TALK OVER (discutir)
"I want to talk over your proposal (...discutir) with my manager before we decide."
THINK OVER (piénselo)
"I thought over the plan (..lo pensé) for several hours."
TRY OUT (prueba)
"We're going to try out the product (...lo probaremos) before we market it."
TURN ON/OFF (abrir/cerrar un suministroy de agua, gas, etc.)
"I forgot to turn off the machine (...apagar); the supervisor will be furious!"
WIPE OUT (destruir, aniquilar)
"This disastrous project has wiped out our profits for this quarter (...has wiped them out)."
USO:
Cuando una frase contiene más de un verbo conjugado (es decir, verbo con su propio sujeto) ésta se divide en
oraciones. Cada ORACIÓN contiene un sujeto y un verbo. La primera ORACIÓN de la frase, por lo general,
es la ORACIÓN PRINCIPAL, las demás son ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS. Dos tipos comunes de
ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS son las SUSTANTIVAS y ADVERBIALES.
EJEMPLOS:
"I think that your new dress is beautiful."
"Why don't you call when you're late?"
"I have to go home after I finish work."
ORACIONES SUSTANTIVAS
USO:
Una ORACIÓN SUSTANTIVA por lo general ofrece o solicita información acerca de una persona o un
objeto que ha sido introducido por la oración principal.
EJEMLOS:
"I think that your sister is lovely!"
"I don't know who she is."
Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form.
ORACIONES ADVERBIALES
USO:
Una ORACIÓN ADVERBIAL por lo general contiene información acerca del verbo de la oración principal.
Con frecuencia explica la oración principal o indica cuándo ocurre.
EJEMPLOS:
"He drank water because he was thirsty."
"She spoke slowly so that I could understand."
"I always worry when my kids come home late."
USE:
Dar información que ayuda a identificar uno de los sustantivos de la oración. La oración de relativo sigue
inmediatamente al sustantivo que describe.
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who's wearing a black hat."
"The dress which you wore yesterday was beautiful."
"The apples that you brought are wonderful."
SUBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
Cuando el sujeto del verbo de la oración de relativo es el mismo que el el sustantivo del cual hablamos.
FORM:
Estas oraciones de relativo comienzan con pronombres relativos:
WHO (para personas),
WHICH (para animales u objetos),
THAT (para personas, animales u objetos;
para la palabra EVERYTHING, NOTHING,
SOMETHING o ANYTHING)
WHOSE (para posesivos).
[...NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who/that wrote this book."
"Let's see the movie which/that won the prize."
"I've forgotten everything that happened."
"Bill's the man who called me last night."
"Where is the factory that makes those chairs?"
No olvide que la oración de relativo siempre contiene un verbo.
OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
Cuando el sujeto del verbo de la oración de relativo no es el mismo que el sustantivo del cual hablamos.
FORM:
Estas oraciones de relativo comienzan con los pronombres relativos:
WHO (para personas)/ WHOM (en inglés muy formal)
WHICH (para animales o cosas),
THAT (para personas, animales o cosas y para las palabras EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, o
ANYTHING)
Tenemos la opción de omitir el pronombre relativo si este no es el sujeto del verbo de la oración de relativo,
excepto cuando la oración de relativo comienza con una preposición (en inglés formal), o si sigue una coma.
[...NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN) + SENTENCE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with."
"Here's the book (which/that) you lent me."
"Tell me everything (that) you remember."
Si hay una preposición al inicio de la oración de relativo, debemos utilizar los pronombres relativos WHOM o
WHICH a menos que desplacemos la preposición al final de la oración.
EXAMPLES:
"The lady with whom
you were dancing is my wife."
OR
"The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife."
"The company for which you work is responsible for your pension"
OR
"The company (that) you work for is responsible for your pension."También podemos sustituir IN WHICH,
AT WHICH y ON WHICH por WHERE o WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"That's the house where Shakespeare lived."
"1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic."
MAS ORACIONES DE RELATIVO
USO:
Algunas oraciones de relativo se utilizan para proporcionar información acerca de alguno de los sustantivos de
una oración (consulta el Indice Lingüístico 4 sobre las ORACIONES DE RELATIVO).
Cuando la oración de relativo contiene información sobre posesión y lugar, se utilizan los pronombres
relativos WHOSE y WHERE.
Cuando el SUSTANTIVO es EVERYTHING THAT, EVERYBODY THAT o ANYTHING THAT, podemos
sustituirlos por WHATEVER o WHOEVER
EJEMPLOS:
"Here comes Mr. Chang. He's the teacher whose car was stolen from the school parking lot."
"Look, kids! There's the house where your father grew up."
"Whatever you decide, I will support you."
"Please tell whoever it is you are speaking to that you will call back later."
Las ORACIONES DE RELATIVO NO RESTRICTIVAS contienen información que no se necesita para
identificar el sustantivo. Aparecen separadas del resto de la oración por comas o entre una coma y el período y
el fin de la oración.
EJEMPLO:
"My brother, who is a writer, hates using computers."
Las ORACIONES DE RELATIVO NO RESTRICTIVAS con WHICH pueden contener información adicional
sobre un sustantivo de la oración, o hacer referencia a toda la idea que se expresa en la oración.
EJEMPLOS:
"The company, which was formed three years ago, develops computer programs."
"John believes that computers will replace books, which
I think is impossible."
USO:
Se utilizan para referirse a los motivos o resultados de una acción o un hecho.
FORMA:
Utilizamos SO y SUCH en la oración principal para explicar un resultado de la oración subordinada que
comienza con THAT. Utilizamos SINCE, AS, AS LONG AS y NOW THAT para introducir una oración
subordinada que explica al verbo de la oración principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good grades ."
"Dora is such a good teacher that everybody admires her."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't know the road very well."
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
SUCH... THAT y SO... THAT
USO:
Se utilizan en la oración principal para explicar el motivo de una acción o hecho. Utilizamos SO...THAT con
adjetivos o adverbios y SUCH...THAT con adjetivos y sustantivos.
FORMA:
CON ADJETIVOS:
[SUJETO + BE + SO + ADJETIVO + THAT + ORACIÓN SUBORDINADA]
EJEMPLOS:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good grades."
"I am so tired that I can't stay awake."
CON ADVERBIOS
[SUJETO + VERBO (+ OBJETO) + SO + ADVERBIO + THAT + ORACIÓN SUBORDINADA]
EJEMPLOS:
"He walked so slowly that he missed the bus."
"John tells jokes so well that everybody likes him."
CON ADJETIVO + SUSTANTIVO
[SUBJECT + BE + SUCH (+ A) + ADJETIVO + SUSTANTIVO + THAT + ORACIÓN SUBORDINADA]
No olvides que el artículo indefinido A(N) se utiliza antes del adjetivo con sustantivos contables en
singular.
EJEMPLOS:
"Dora is such a good teacher that everybody admires her."
"This is such good wine that I'm going to buy ten cases."
"Pat and Jo are such good friends that they do everything together."
SINCE/NOW THAT/AS LONG AS
Todas estas expresiones se utilizan como conjunciones al comienzo de oraciones subordinadas. Por lo general,
ambas oraciones van separadas por una coma (,).
[CONJUNCION + ORACIÓN SUBORDINADA + ORACIÓNPRINCIPAL]
o
[ORACIÓN PRINCIPAL + CONJUNCION + ORACIÓN SUBORDINADA]
SINCE introduce un motivo para la acción, estado o hecho descrito en la oración principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"Since you speak perfect English, I want you to translate for me."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't know the road very well."
NOW THAT introduce una condición nueva o reciente que explica la acción, estado o hecho descrito en la
oración principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"Now that she is sixty years old, she may decide to stop working."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
AS LONG AS introduce una condición necesaria para la acción, estado o hecho descritos en la oración
principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"You can drink the water, as long as you boil it first."
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time," possible events in the future, unreal/impossible situations and
results in the present or future.
FORM:
Statements and questions of this type often have two parts: a "condition" (the hypothesis), usually a
subordinate clause beginning with IF, and a "result," described in the main clause of a sentence.
We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.
[IF (Condition) Clause, + RESULT CLAUSE] or
[RESULT CLAUSE + IF (Condition) Clause]
EXAMPLES:
"What would you do if you won a million dollars?"
"If I won that much money, I'd stop working tomorrow."
REAL CONDITIONALS
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but possible events in the future.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS). The verb is in the Present.
The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk about possibilities in "general time") or Future
Tense verbs and Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or SHOULD (to talk about uncertain events in the
future).
You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.
POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME
(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)
EXAMPLES:
CONDITION CLAUSE
"If it's two in New York
"If it isn't cold enough
RESULT CLAUSE
it's nine o'clock in Paris."
it doesn't snow."
RESULT CLAUSE
"It's time to eat
"Talk to your plants
CONDITION CLAUSE
unless you are not hungry."
if you want them to grow."
UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE
(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)
EXAMPLES:
CONDITION CLAUSE
"If you say that again,
"If she doesn't study,
RESULT CLAUSE
I'm going to hit you!"
she may fail the exam."
RESULT CLAUSE
"They will come to the party
"I'm going to buy a dress
CONDITION CLAUSE
if they find a baby-sitter."
if I get paid today."
UNREAL CONDITIONALS
USE:
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the present and future.
The CONDITION CLAUSE begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).
The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive (to talk about a hypothetical fact), or the
Modal COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).
NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past progressive form, we use WERE instead of
WAS.The verb in the result clause always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D (to express a certainty), MIGHT
(to express a possibility), or COULD (to express ability).
CONDITION CLAUSE
"If I had a new car,
"If he weren't so tired,
RESULT CLAUSE
I'd be very happy."
he'd go to the party."
RESULT CLAUSE
"I might pass English
"They'd tell me
CONDITION CLAUSE
if I studied more."
if they knew."
MAS CONDICIONALES
USO:
Hay tiempos condicionales que hacen referencia a condiciones que existían o podían haber existido en el
pasado. Estos son los pretéritos condicionales y los condicionales de tiempo combinado. Los pretéritos
condicionales se utilizan para describir situaciones que nunca se cumplirán porque el tiempo en el cual
hubieran ocurrido ha concluido. Los condicionales de tiempo combinado se utilizan para hablar sobre el
resultado actual de condiciones del pasado.
FORMA:
La oración condicional comienza con IF/IF...NOT (o, a veces, UNLESS). El verbo de la oración condicional
está en pretérito perfecto o en pretérito perfecto progresivo.
[IF + SUJETO + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERBO + ING)...]
El verbo de la oración de resultado (principal) está en pretérito condicional.
[SUJETO + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERBO + ING)...]
EJEMPLOS:
"If I had known you were sick, I would have made you some soup."
"If Laura had been taller, she could have been a model."
"If I hadn't broken my leg last week, I would be dancing in the competition tonight."
"If she had dressed warmly lastnight, she wouldn't be sick today."
USO:
El MODO SUBJUNTIVO se utiliza, entre otros, para los siguientes fines:
hablar acerca de deseos, esperanzas, dudas, aspiraciones o acciones que queremos que sucedan;
expresar preferencia o enfatizar la importancia de algo.
DESPUES DE VERBOS
USO:
Se utiliza cuando el verbo principal de la oración indica la opinión, deseo o intención del sujeto en relación
con la acción de un segundo sujeto, o de un hecho descrito en la oración subordinada.
FORMA:
El SUBJUNTIVO acompaña, por lo general, un cambio de sujeto en la oración subordinada. El verbo de la
oración subordinada no se conjuga.
EJEMPLOS:
"We insist that he stay for dinner."
"The doctor advised that she lose weight."
DESPUES DE ADJETIVOS
USO:
Se utiliza cuando un adjetivo de la oración principal indica la reacción del hablante (o la de otro sujeto) con
respecto al verbo de la oración subordinada.
FORMA:
Se utiliza el SUBJUNTIVO después de ciertas frases adjetivadas, cuando estas frases van seguidas por una
oración nueva. El verbo de la oración subordinada no se conjuga.
EJEMPLOS:
"It is essential that she have the operation."
"It is important that we be there on time."
DESPUES DE OTRAS EXPRESIONES
USO:
Se puede utilizar el SUBJUNTIVO después de otras expresiones tales como IF, UNLESS, I'D RATHER, IT'S
TIME, I WISH, IF ONLY, para describir estados o hechos imposibles o hipotéticos y, por lo tanto, irreales.
FORMA:
Utilizamos la forma de pretérito simple, afirmativo y negativo (consulta el Índice Lingüístico 2) para formar el
pretérito de subjuntivo. Cuando el verbo es BE, WAS se sustituye por WERE, especialmente al utilizar inglés
escrito y formal.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'd rather you didn't go out tonight."
"I wish she were here."
"It's time we went home."
"If she weren't so sensitive, I would tell her the truth."
"If only he were here with us now."
NOTA: también se puede formar el subjuntivo con SHOULD + VERBO SIN CONJUGAR. Esta forma es
menos común pero más formal.
EJEMPLOS:
"He insists that we should leave immediately." (instead of "He insists that we leave...")
"She recommended that I should take an extra blanket." (instead of "She recommended that I take...")
USO:
Se utiliza para informar de lo que alguien dice o piensa sin emplear sus palabras exactas.
FORMA:
La oración principal contiene el "verbo informante o interrogativo":
REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.
VERBOS INTERROGATIVOS O INFORMATIVOS : ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW
La oración sustantiva contiene la afirmación o pregunta de la cual se informa.
EJEMPLOS:
"I asked Smith why he'd robbed that bank."
"He told me that he needed money."
"He said he'd never had any luck."
"He wanted to know if I would help him."
FRASES Y PREGUNTAS
Para afirmaciones, empleamos la conjunción THAT, que se omite en el inglés informal.
[ORACION PRINCIPAL + (THAT) + ORACION SUSTANTIVA]
EJEMPLOS:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."
En las preguntas utilizamos IF (Yes/No Questions) o WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW,
HOW HOW MUCH o HOW MANY (Wh-Questions). Observa que el verbo de la oración sustantiva toma la
forma negativa o afirmativa normal y no la forma interrogativa.
We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite request for information.
"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"
[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
TIME ASPECTS
When the reporting verb (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or
question may be modified.
VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE
When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense,the verb in the noun clause is usually
also in the Past Tense, even when theoriginal statement or idea was in the Present Tense.
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
Be Present
Present Simple
Present Progressive
Past Simple
Present/Past Perfect
Modals
Be Past
Past Simple
Past Progressive
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Modals
EXAMPLES:
Mary: "I want to go alone."
Mary said she wanted to go alone.
Tony: "I'll pay you when I see you."
Tony said he'd pay me when he saw me.
PRONOUNS:
Pronouns must also be changed to fit the reported statement.
EXAMPLES:
Tom:"I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfrienda pin for her birthday.
Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"
Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
TIME ADVERBIALS
When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, "time adverbials" may also change.
Here are some possible changes:
DIRECT
Now
Today
Tomorrow
Next week, etc.
Yesterday
Last week, etc.
This
These
Here
INDIRECT/REPORTED
Then/At that time
That day/The same day
The next/following day
The next/following week, etc.
The day before
The week before
That
Those
There
USE:
Se utiliza para hablar sobre acciones o hechos en las que el agente, o el "agente activo" de la acción, es
evidente, desconocido o carece de importancia o cuando queremos poner énfasis en la acción, los resultados
de esta o su receptor. La forma pasiva también se utiliza para acentuar un proceso o hecho.
FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]
NOTA: el verbo "BE" varía según el tiempo de la oración.EXAMPLES:
"The house was built in 1925."
"English is spoken here."
"The new hospital will be opened by the Queen."
"Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center."
"John was asked several questions by the police."
"He was hit by a car."
"The chocolate was melted over a low flame."
NOTA: aunque por lo general utilizamos la pasiva sin el agente, cabe la posibilidad de incluirlo utilizando la
preposición BY.
EXAMPLES:
"The money was stolen by Bugsy this morning."
"'Romeo and Juliet' was written by Shakespeare."
INDIRECT FORM
Algunos verbos, como GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE, SEND, SHOW, TEACH y PAY pueden
tener dos objetos: uno DIRECTO y uno INDIRECTO. Tanto el objeto directo como el objeto indirecto pueden
convertirse en el sujeto de una oración pasiva:
"My grandmother gave me a watch."
"The watch was given to me for my birthday."
(direct object)
"I was given the watch for my birthday."
(indirect object)
NOTA: normalmente utilizamos el objeto indirecto como sujeto de una oración pasiva en la forma indirecta.
CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
Describir cuando una persona permite, pide, obliga o quiere que otra persona realice una acción.
EXAMPLES:
"My father never let me drive
the car when I was a teenager. He had my brother drive me everywhere."
"Gee, the car's filthy; I must get it washed.
Janice! I want you to wash the car for me."
"Get Frank to do it!"
USE:
Describir cuando una persona permite que otra persona realice una acción (LET) o cuando una persona obliga
o convence a otra persona para que realice una acción (HAVE, MAKE o GET).
FORM:
Por lo general utilizamos los siguientes verbos en causativas activas (en todas las formas, inluyendo las
modales):
LET
HAVE
MAKE
GET
(También PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE,
ASK, BEG y EXPECT.)
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + LET, HAVE, MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll have her call home."
"You're making him get angry."
"She lets them stay up late."
[SUBJECT + GET + Object + INFINITIVE...]
EXAMPLES:
"We'll get him to finish it on time."
"She got him to wash the floor."
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS
Podemos utilizar LET, HAVE, MAKE y GET en sus formas negativa e interrogativa.
EXAMPLES:
"The boss didn't let me go home early."
"They are not having their house painted this
"He couldn't get them to clean their room."
year."
"When will you let me use your computer?"
"Can't you get him to apologize?"
"Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"
PASSIVE CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
La forma pasiva se utiliza con causativos como con los demás verbos para poner énfasis en el receptor de la
acción. La utilizamos cuando
queremos que se haga algo a alguien o a algo.
FORM:
Por lo general utilizamos los siguientes verbos en CAUSATIVAS PASIVAS:
WANT
WOULD LIKE/'D LIKE
(Más formal que WANT)
HAVE
GET (Menos formal que HAVE)El verbo que expresa la acción está en participio pasado.
Si queremos mencionar el agente (la persona que realiza la acción), utilizamos la preposición BY después del
verbo.
NOTA: por lo general WANT no se conjuga en las formas perfecta o progresiva.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"I want the dishes washed!"
"You're getting your car fixed
by the best mechanic in town!"
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS
Podemos utilizar WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE y GET en sus formas negativa e interrogativa.
EXAMPLES:
"I don't want the house painted
blue!"
"I won't have my hair cut today."
"She didn't get the computer fixed last week."
"How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"
USO:
Para conectar dos frases de igual importancia.
EJEMPLO:
"At Paradise Travel we do everything for you! You neither have to organize your journey, nor worry
about accommodations. We both buy your tickets and book your hotel. We guarantee that you
will not only enjoy your holiday but also remember it for the rest of your life!"
Las conjunciones tambi'en se usan para un "eco" corto a las frases y a las preguntas Si/No. .
EJEMPLOS:
"I remember that holiday very well."
"So do I. It was terrible."
"But I can't remember the name of our hotel."
"I can't either, and I don't want to remember it."
"Well, do you think we'll be luckier this year?"
"I hope so!"
Podemos expresar un contraste entre dos ideas utilizando el hilativo ALTHOUGH.
EJEMPLOS:
"The children watched television, although I wanted them to go to bed."
"Although it was very cold, it was a beautiful day."
NOTA: a veces se utiliza THOUGH como alternativa a ALTHOUGH.
EJEMPLO:
"She decided to go though the doctor had advised against it."
Podemos introducir una frase de contraste (pero no una oración) con los hilativos DESPITE e IN SPITE OF.
EJEMPLOS:
wonderfully, in spite of her
"She dances
age."
"Frank decided to marry Elaine, despite his parents' objections."
NOTA: las cláusulas contienen un sujeto y un verbo y funcionan como un miembro de una oración
compuesta, mientras que las frases son grupos de una o más palabras relacionadas gramaticalmente que,
juntas, ejercen una función modificadora o coordinadora. HILATIVOS: CONTRASTE
Podemos expresar un contraste entre dos ideas utilizando el hilativo ALTHOUGH.
EJEMPLOS:
"The children watched television, although I wanted them to go to bed."
"Although it was very cold, it was a beautiful day."
NOTA: a veces se utiliza THOUGH como alternativa a ALTHOUGH.
EJEMPLO:
"She decided to go though the doctor had advised against it."
Podemos introducir una frase de contraste (pero no una oración) con los hilativos DESPITE e IN SPITE OF.
EJEMPLOS:
"She dances wonderfully, in spite of her age."
"Frank decided to marry Elaine, despite his parents' objections."
NOTA: las cláusulas contienen un sujeto y un verbo y funcionan como un miembro de una oración
compuesta, mientras que las frases son grupos de una o más palabras relacionadas gramaticalmente que,
juntas, ejercen una función modificadora o coordinadora.
USO:
Para describir una secuencia de hechos, podemos unir dos o más oraciones con los hilativos FIRST y THEN,
o con los ordinales FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, etc. Podemos utilizar FINALLY para introducir el último
elemento de la secuencia.
EJEMPLOS:
"First, they asked
me about my qualifications, then they asked about my previous experience, and finally, they
offered me the job."
"First, plug in the hair dryer; second, attach the diffuser; third, switch the dryer on."
Podemos expresar un contraste o un cambio inesperado en la secuencia utilizando AT FIRST y BUT THEN o
BUT LATER.
EJEMPLOS:
"At first, he refused
to lend us the money, but then he changed his mind."
"At first, I really liked her, but later, I discovered that she was terribly dishonest."
USO:
Cuando la oración subordinada describe el propósito o resultado esperado de la acción descrita en la oración
principal, utilizamos el hilativo SO THAT.
EJEMPLOS:
"The thief shone a bright light in my eyes so that I couldn't see him."
"The teacher speaks slowly so that everybody can understand."
Cuando la oración subordinada establece las condiciones necesarias para el estado o hecho descrito en la
oración principal, utilizamos los
hilativos IF, ON THE CONDITION THAT y PROVIDED THAT.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'll cook the dinner provided that you do the shopping."
"Fred will lend you his car on (the) condition that you drive very carefully."
"The bank will take away our house if we don't pay back the loan."
El equivalente negativo de IF (=IF + NOT) es UNLESS.
EJEMPLO:
"The bank will take away our house unless we pay back the loan."
Cuando la oración subordinada describe un hecho posible (pero incierto) que explica la acción descrita en la
oración principal, utilizamos el hilativo IN CASE.
EJEMPLO:
"I'm taking my umbrella in case it rains."
USO:
Cuando la oración subordinada describe la CAUSA o MOTIVO del hecho o estado que se describe en la
oración principal, podemos utilizar los hilativos BECAUSE o SINCE.
EJEMPLOS:
"I arrived late because I missed the train."
"John got up early because he wanted to watch the sunrise."
"Mary knew London well since she had lived there as a child."
CAPACIDAD DEL SUJETO: Attempt, Fail, Learn, Manage, Try, Be able to, etc.
EJEMPLO:
"Because I missed
the train, I arrived late."
Utilizamos el hilativo SEEING THAT al comienzo de una oración para explicar una decisión o acción que se
describe en la oración principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"Seeing that the car wouldn't start, she decided to go by bus."
"Seeing that I couldn't persuade Frank to help, I asked his sister."
Utilizamos el hilativo NOW THAT para presentar una nueva condición que explica una decisión relativa a
una acción futura.
EJEMPLO:
"Now that I've
got lots of money, I'm going to buy you a sports car!"
Cuando la oración subordinada describe el EFECTO o RESULTADO del hecho o estado descrito en la
oración principal, utilizamos los hilativos SO y THEREFORE. Ambas palabras van a menudo precedidas de
una coma y nunca inician la oración.
EJEMPLOS:
"Nobody invited Jane to the party, so she didn't go."
"I do not know Smith personally, therefore I cannot describe his character."
USO:
El inglés, al contrario de muchos otros idiomas, permite sólo una expresión negativa en una oración negativa.
Una oración que contiene dos expresiones negativas tiene un sentido positivo debido a que una
de estas expresiones anula a la otra. Por lo tanto, la oración "Nobody does not like John." significa "
Everybody likes John.".
NEGACION DE SUSTANTIVOS
Tanto el sujeto como el complemento directo de una oración pueden ir precedidos por cuantificadores
negativos NO (el equivalente negativo de A o SOME) o NEITHER (cuando solo hay dos).
EJEMPLOS:
"No dogs are allowed in the house."
"Neither of the twins likes vegetables."
"Neither half of the audience could see the
"We've found no signs of life on Mars."
other."
El sujeto puede ir precedido por los cuantificadores negativos NOT MANY o NOT MUCH.
EJEMPLOS:
"Not many children learn Latin these days."
"Not much snow fell yesterday."
Si el sustantivo va precedido por el artículo THE o por un pronombre posesivo ( MY, YOUR, HIS, etc. o
JOHN's, PETER's, etc.) utilizamos los cuantificadores negativos NONE OF o NEITHER OF.
EJEMPLOS:
"None of my friends
eats garlic."
"Until they got married, she had met none of his brothers or sisters."
"Neither of my parents can speak English."
"Since the accident, she can use neither of her hands."
PRONOMBRES NEGATIVOS
USO:
Los pronombres negativos NOBODY, NO ONE, y NOTHING pueden actuar como el sujeto o el
complemento directo de una oración.
EJEMPLOS:
"Nobody liked my new dress."
"No one wanted to be the first to leave the party."
"Nothing is impossible."
"I saw nobody, I heard no one, and I felt nothing."
NEGACION DE VERBOS
FORMA:
Generalmente, la forma negativa de los verbos se forma añadiendo el adverbio NOT (a menudo abreviado
como N'T) al final de BE, HAVE y todos los verbos modales.
EJEMPLOS:
"We are not (aren't) afraid."
"Fred is not (isn't) sleeping."
"James has not (hasn't) got any money."
"I have not (haven't) seen that film."
"You cannot (can't) come in here."
"You must not (mustn't) believe her."
"Louis should not (shouldn't) be late."
"Jack won't help us."
El verbo auxiliar DO + NOT (DOES + NOT para la tercera Persona Singular) se utiliza como negación de los
verbos en Presente Simple.
EJEMPLOS:
"I do not (don't) believe you."
"Pat does not (doesn't) live here."
El auxiliar DID + NOT es usado para negar verbos Pasado Simple.
EJEMPLOS:
"Geoff did not (didn't) enjoy the play."
"Peter did not (didn't) drive home."
También se pueden negar los verbos utilizando los advervios NEVER, HARDLY EVER (= ALMOST
NEVER) y NEITHER...NOR. Estos adverbios se ubican, normalmente, justo antes del verbo principal.
EJEMPLOS:
"I never drink alcohol."
"John has never seen that picture."
"Mary has hardly ever scolded the child."
"Fred hardly ever smokes cigars."
"I neither like nor understand his jokes."
"Tom neither drives a car nor rides a bicycle."
Observa que cuando utilizamos NEITHER...NOR no tenemos que repetir el sujeto antes del segundo verbo.
Cuando el verbo tiene tres o más elementos (por ejemplo, SHOULD HAVE BEEN DONE o MAY HAVE
BEEN DOING), el adverbio negativo
se sitúa entre los dos primeros elementos.
EJEMPLOS:
"They should never have released that film."
"He may not have been working for long."
En la mayoría de los casos podemos enfatizar la negación de un verbo al agregar AT ALL al final de la
oración.
EJEMPLOS:
"I don't like fish at all."
"We couldn't understand him at all."
Al utilizar un inglés formal se puede comenzar la oración con NEVER y HARDLY EVER para darle mayor
énfasis. En este caso, el verbo adopta
la forma interrogativa (incluyendo inversión).
EJEMPLOS:
"Never will I enter this house again!"
"Never have I seen such an extraordinary painting!"
OBJETOS DE VERBOS NEGATIVOS:
USO:
Considerando que dos expresiones negativas en la misma oración dan un sentido positivo a esta, normalmente
no se utiliza un cuantificador
negativo (NO, NONE OF, etc.) con el complemento directo del verbo (I DON'T LIKE, etc.), o con el
complemento del verbo con un sujeto negativo (NOBODY LIKES, etc.). En este caso se usa, por lo general,
ANY.
EJEMPLOS:
"We didn't buy any bread."
"Janet couldn't see any clouds."
"Nobody gave me any money."
Utilizamos de la misma forma los pronombres ANYBODY, ANYONE y ANYTHING.
EJEMPLOS:
"Paula won't speak to anybody."
"He didn't like anyone in the school."
"Nobody sent Fred anything."
USO:
Estas oraciones se utilizan para hablar del momento, lugar, tiempo atmosférico y demás condiciones en
expresiones en las que el verbo "BE " no tiene un sujeto real
FORMA:
[IT + BE + Expresion de tiempo/adjetivo + RESTO]
EJEMPLOS:
"It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome."
"It's warm and sunny today in Washington."
"It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show."
"It's time to start cooking dinner."
"Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!"
"It's very dusty up in our attic."
La confusión entre estas dos expresiones puede llevar a oraciones que se forman correctamente, pero que no
expresan el significado deseado.
HAD BETTER (a menudo abreviado como 'D BETTER) normalmente se utiliza para expresar una
recomendación importante sobre cómo debe comportarse el sujeto.
EJEMPLOS:
"If you want to pass that exam, you'd better start studying now."
"You'd better not eat that chicken; it smells bad."
WOULD RATHER (a menudo abreviado como 'D RATHER) normalmente se utiliza para describir la
elección o preferencia personal del sujeto.
EJEMPLOS:
"Shall we go to the cinema or the theater?"
"I'd rather go to the cinema."
"Would you like some tea?"
"I'd rather have some coffee, thanks!"
En inglés, todos los verbos excepto las formas no conjugadas, tales como los infinitivos, gerundios y
participios, deben llevar sujetos gramaticales. Cuando no existe un "agente" obvio para el verbo, normalmente
utilizamos IT o THERE como un "sujeto tácito".
FORMA:
[IT + el verbo BE...]
EJEMPLOS:
"It is difficult learning to drive."
(instead of "Learning to drive is difficult.")
"It was impossible to understand him."
(instead of "To understand him was impossible.")
"It will be easy for you to learn Spanish."
(instead of "For you to learn Spanish will be easy.")
"It was kind of them to invite Joe."
(instead of "For them to invite Joe was kind.")
"It was Michael who woke up first."
(instead of "Who woke up first was Michael.")
También utilizamos IT para hacer aseveraciones tentativas con SEEM, LOOK y APPEAR en las siguientes
expresiones impersonales:
EJEMPLOS:
"It seems that
the letter was stolen."
"It looks as though we've lost the match."
"It appears that they missed the train."
THERE normalmente se utiliza sólo con BE + SUSTANTIVO;
"THERE IS X" equivale más o menos a "X EXISTS" o a
"X CAN BE FOUND."
EJEMPLOS:
"There is some
beer in the refrigerator."
"Are there any penguins in Scotland?"
Los adjetivos que describen la naturaleza o propiedades físicas de algo (tales como BIG, YELLOW,
STRONG, DULL, etc.) se conocen como ADJETIVOS CALIFICATIVOS. Cuando un solo sustantivo va
precedido por varios adjetivos calificativos estos deben seguir el orden correcto.
En muchos casos, basta con ceñirse a la sencilla norma de que "el adjetivo más objetivo permanece más
cercano al sustantivo".
Si queremos decir que un libro está "en inglés" y a la vez es "interesante", vemos que "interesante" es un
adjetivo relativamente subjetivo (creo que el libro es interesante, pero otra persona lo puede hallar aburrido,
en tanto que "inglés" es relativamente objetivo (nadie puede negar que el libro está en inglés).
Por lo tanto, decimos "an interesting English" y no "an English interesting book."
EJEMPLOS:
"a beautiful Chinese
doll"
"an old wooden table"
"an ugly old man"
Cuando hay varios adjetivos igualmente objetivos, normalmente van en el siguiente orden, siendo el número
ocho el que más próximo se sitúa al sustantivo:
1. NÚMERO (AN, FIVE, A HUNDRED, etc.)
2. TAMAÑO (LARGE, SMALL, HUGE, etc.)
3. AGE (NEW, OLD, etc.)
4. FORMA (LONG, OVAL, SQUARE, etc.)
5. COLOR (LIGHT, BLACK, RED, etc.)
6. MATERIAL (STEEL, CANVAS, etc.)
7. ORIGEN (FRENCH, AFRICAN, etc.)
8. FINALIDAD (COOKING, HUNTING, etc.)
EJEMPLOS:
"an enormous brown leather
chair"
"a pair of new French riding boots"
"three tiny round copper coins"
Estos dos verbos a menudo son fuente de confusión para gente que habla idiomas que utilizan la misma
palabra para traducir ambas.
Por lo general, resulta muy útil recordar que MAKE tiene un significado similar al de CREATE,
CONSTRUCT o INVENT: el objeto usual del verbo es una cosa.
EJEMPLOS:
"What are you making?"
"I'm making a dress."
"I've made a cake; would you like a piece?"
"This chair was made two hundred years ago."
El significado de DO se parece más a PERFORM o a CARRY OUT; el OBJETO usual del verbo es una
ACCION.
EJEMPLOS:
"What are you doing?"
"I'm thinking."
"Janet does a lot of swimming."
"My husband always does the ironing."
Hay muchos "casos especiales" de expresiones estándar que utilizan los verbos MAKE o DO.
EJEMPLOS:
"I'll do my best."
(I'll work as well as I can.)
"This medicine will do you good."
(This medicine will make you feel better.)
"I can't do without books." (I need books very much.)
"What do you do?" (What is your profession?)
"I must do my hair." (I must fix my hair.)
"We've done up the bedroom."
(We've decorated the bedroom.)
"The thieves made off with the money."
(The thieves escaped with the money.)
"Can you make out this signature?"
(Can you read/understand this signature?)
"She made up a clever excuse."
(She created a clever excuse.)
Existe también una serie de arreglos estándar: sustantivos que normalmente van asociados con MAKE o DO.
Los siguientes sustantivos normalmente son objetos de DO:
DAMAGE, A DUTY, AN EXAMINATION, AN EXERCISE, A FAVOR, HARM, HOMEWORK,
HOUSEWORK, A JOB, A TEST, WORK.
Los siguientes sustantivos normalmente son objetos de MAKE:
ARRANGEMENTS, A CHOICE, A COMPLAINT, A DECISION, A DISCOVERY, AN EFFORT, AN
INQUIRY, AN EXCUSE, FUN (OF SOMEBODY), LOVE, A MISTAKE, MONEY, AN OFFER, PROFIT,
A SUGGESTION, SURE, ROOM (FOR SOMEBODY), USE (OF SOMETHING), WAR.
There are various different types of commonly made errors in English. Three of the most common are
GRAMMATICAL (badly-formed sentences), LEXICAL (wrongly-chosen words), and SEMANTIC (correct
language, wrong meaning or usage). In this Language Index, we focus on the errors involving HAD BETTER
vs. WOULD RATHER, THERE vs. IT, DO vs. MAKE, and ORDER OF ADJECTIVES.
HAD BETTER vs. WOULD RATHER
These two expressions are commonly confused. HAD BETTER is normally used to express strong advice
about how a subject should behave. WOULD RATHER is normally used to describe a subject's personal
choice or preference.
EXAMPLES:
"A: You had better bring your
"B: I'd rather buy a new car."
car in to the repair shop."
THERE vs. IT
We normally use IT or THERE as "dummy subjects" when there is no obvious "agent" for a verb. IT is also
used when the agent or real subject of the sentence is awkward.
EXAMPLES:
"It isn't that difficult
learning to read."
(instead of "Learning to read isn't that difficult.")
"It was a mistake to bring him."
(instead of "To bring him was a mistake.")
"There is some ice cream in the freezer."
NOTE: "THERE IS X" is roughly equivalent to "X EXISTS" or "X CAN BE FOUND".
DO vs. MAKE
These two verbs are often confused by speakers of languages which have only one word to translate both.
MAKE has a similar meaning to CREATE, CONSTRUCT, or INVENT: the normal object of the verb is a
thing. DO is more similar in meaning to PERFORM or CARRY OUT; the normal object of the verb is an
action.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you making?"
"I'm making a model airplane."
"What are you doing?"
"I'm resting." There are many special expressions using MAKE or DO.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you doing?"
"I am doing my homework."
"I am making my bed."
"Your behavior just won't do."
( = is not acceptable)
"Don't make up any more excuses."
( = create)
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
When a single noun is preceded by several adjectives of quality, they must appear in the correct order. In
many cases it is sufficient to observe the simple rule that "the most objective adjective stays closest to the
noun".
EXAMPLES:
"an expensive Oriental rug"
"a hand-made woolen sweater"
When there are several equally objective adjectives, they normally come in the following order:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
NUMBER (AN, FIVE, etc.)
SIZE (LARGE, SMALL, etc.)
AGE (NEW, OLD, etc.)
SHAPE (LONG, SQUARE, etc.)
COLOR (LIGHT, RED, etc.)
MATERIAL (STEEL, CANVAS, etc.)
ORIGIN (FRENCH, AFRICAN, etc.)
PURPOSE (COOKING, HUNTING, etc.)
EXAMPLES:
"a large old brown German hunting dog"
"five small wooden African statues"
Existen varios tipos de errores. Tres de los más comunes son los GRAMATICALES (oraciones mal
estructuradas), LÉXICOS (palabras mal escogidas) y SEMÁNTICOS (lenguaje correcto y significado o uso
equivocado). Entre los errores frecuentes que aparecen en este Índice Lingüístico se incluyen:
Like vs. Mind
Prepositions following verbs and adjectives
Parallel Structures
So vs. Such
LIKE vs. MIND
La confusión entre las palabras LIKE y MIND da pie a un error semántico bastante común, en especial cuando
se emplean en sus formas interrogativas con el modal WOULD.
WOULD + SUBJECT + LIKE +...? se utiliza para hacer una oferta o invitación en tanto que WOULD +
SUBJECT + MIND +...? se utiliza para solicitar de forma cortés una acción o un permiso.
EXAMPLES:
"Would you like to go for a walk?"
"Would Danny like a piece of cake?"
"Would you mind turning off the air-conditioner?"
"Would you mind if I borrowed this book?"
PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWING VERBS AND ADJECTIVES
Muchos verbos y adjetivos suelen utilizarse con preposiciones particulares. El uso de una preposición
incorrecta da pie a un error léxico bastante común.
EXAMPLES - VERBS:
"He was accused of murder."
"I believe in free speech."
"He insisted on speaking to the
manager."
EXAMPLES - ADJECTIVES:
"You should be ashamed of yourself
"Tom is always kind to animals."
for saying it!"
NOTA: en el Índice Lingüístico que trata sobre este tema se incluye una lista más completa de combinaciones
de verbo + preposición + adjetivo + preposición.
PARALLEL STRUCTURES
Otro error gramátical común se da cuando los hablantes mezclan en la misma frase verbos conjugados,
infinitivos y formas acabadas en -ing. Todos los verbos de un sujeto en particular deben estar en la misma
forma.
EXAMPLE:
"I like reading, dancing and listening
to music."
(NOT: I like reading, dancing, and to listen to music.)
SO vs. SUCH
Otro par de palabras que se confunden con facilidad es SO y SUCH.
FORMS:
[...SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT...]
[...SUCH (+ A/AN) + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLES:
"She was so happy that
she'd passed the test."
"I didn't realize that this was going to be such a
problem."