Brigham Young University BYU ScholarsArchive All Theses and Dissertations 2015-06-01 Dialect Contact: Lexical Availability as a Measure of the Acquisition of Characteristics from Another Dialect Ross James Cairns Brigham Young University - Provo Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd Part of the Spanish and Portuguese Language and Literature Commons BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Cairns, Ross James, "Dialect Contact: Lexical Availability as a Measure of the Acquisition of Characteristics from Another Dialect" (2015). All Theses and Dissertations. Paper 5477. This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Dialect Contact: Lexical Availability as a Measure of the Acquisition of Characteristics from Another Dialect Ross James Cairns A thesis submitted to the faculty of Brigham Young University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Orlando Alba, Chair Geoffrey Lynn Williams David Eddington Department of Spanish and Portuguese Brigham Young University June 2015 Copyright © 2015 Ross James Cairns All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT Dialect Contact: Lexical Availability as a Measure of the Acquisition of Characteristics from Another Dialect Ross James Cairns Department of Spanish and Portuguese, BYU Master of Arts This study uses lexical availability as a way in which to measure the level of an individual’s acquisition of the dialect of their spouse. Although lexical availability studies are in abundance, to the author’s knowledge, this is one of the few, if not the only, type of study that uses lexical availability to measure dialect contact. Lexical availability studies attempt to determine the most readily available lexical items in an individual’s lexicon. This study implemented standard methodologies in order to determine whether dialect contact was more likely when specific topics were chosen. That is, if the topic in question was considered a masculine topic, would the female spouse utilise the spouse’s word and vice versa. Participants completed vocabulary lists on six different topics of interest in addition to noting down their definition of a series of visual images that appeared before them. The conclusions highlight that, for this study at least, men are more likely to show evidence of dialect contact if the topic under scrutiny is traditionally considered male-related. The same is true for female participants, that is, the probability of their exhibiting dialect interference is greater if the topic is considered female-related. The results also showed that, in general, women are more likely to use their spouse’s vocabulary item. The length of time that the couple had been married was not an overly telling factor. Keywords: Spanish, Spanish language, lexical availability, dialect contact, accommodation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to give special thanks to Dr. Orlando Alba, my thesis chair, not only for his expertise, but for guiding me along the way and providing valuable insight. I would also like to thank the other members of my thesis committee, Dr. Lynn Williams and Dr. David Eddington, for their invaluable feedback that helped to shape the project. In addition, my thanks go out to the research participants who sacrificed their time in order to make this thesis possible. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Emilie, for her unconditional support and sacrifice during what has been a very hectic period of our lives. Without you, this would not have been possible. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF CHARTS ..................................................................................................................vii Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Review of Literature .................................................................................................................. 4 Dialect Contact....................................................................................................................... 4 Age ..................................................................................................................................... 6 Length of Residence (LoR)................................................................................................ 7 Gender ................................................................................................................................ 7 Social networks/identity..................................................................................................... 8 Attitude/Motivation............................................................................................................ 8 Lexical Availability ............................................................................................................. 10 Panhispanic Project .......................................................................................................... 12 Other lexical availability studies ...................................................................................... 13 Lexical availability among L2 learners of Spanish.......................................................... 13 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 14 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 15 Participants ........................................................................................................................... 15 Procedures ............................................................................................................................ 16 Data gathering. ................................................................................................................. 16 Instruments. ...................................................................................................................... 16 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 17 iv Results ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 21 Vocabulary List Responses .................................................................................................. 21 Gender .............................................................................................................................. 22 Topic of Conversation...................................................................................................... 23 Years Married .................................................................................................................. 24 Visual Image Response ........................................................................................................ 25 Gender .............................................................................................................................. 26 Years Married .................................................................................................................. 27 Additional Findings ............................................................................................................. 28 Mexican influence. ........................................................................................................... 28 Excluded data. .................................................................................................................. 30 Conclusions and Discussion .................................................................................................... 32 The Results........................................................................................................................... 32 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 33 Recommendations for Further Research .............................................................................. 34 Contributions of the Study ................................................................................................... 35 Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 36 Appendix B .............................................................................................................................. 37 Appendix C .............................................................................................................................. 38 Appendix D .............................................................................................................................. 39 Appendix E .............................................................................................................................. 40 Appendix F............................................................................................................................... 60 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 65 v LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. Summary of Participants ........................................................................................ 15 Table 3.2. Sample participant response to vocabulary list activity......................................... 18 Table 3.3. Participant responses to visual image activity. ...................................................... 20 Table 4.1. Analysis of participants’ vocabulary lists responses. ............................................ 21 Table.4.2. Dialect intereference according to gender. ............................................................ 22 Table.4.3. Instances of dialect contact according to topic. ..................................................... 23 Table.4.4. Number of instances according to years married................................................... 25 Table.4.5. Analysis of participants’ visual image responses. ................................................. 25 Table.4.6. Dialect interference directly related with spouse. .................................................. 27 Table.4.7. Instances of dialect interference according to years married. ................................ 28 Table.4.8. Vocabulary lists. Instances of dialect interference from sources other than participants’ spouses. ............................................................................................................... 29 Table.4.9. Visual image response. Instances of dialect interference from sources other than participants’ spouses. ............................................................................................................... 29 Table.4.10. Instances of dialect contact for both activities by excluded couples. .................. 30 vi LIST OF CHARTS Chart 4.1. Percentage of dialect contact according to topic of conversation. ......................... 24 vii CHAPTER 1 Introduction In today's world, relocating is as feasible as it ever has been. The ease with which people can travel all over the world and the collaboration between nations have made it more possible than ever to start afresh in a new country. This can be seen, for example, in the vast number of British citizens who have emigrated to Canada and Australia or of Latin Americans residing in Spain. Those who choose to relocate have to adapt to new cultures and social norms. However, in the examples stated above, they share at least one thing with those in their new place of residence: language. Being able to travel and settle in another city or country has brought dialects of the same language into contact and, as a result, many speakers have gradually acquired characteristics of the dialect spoken where they now reside (D2) and lost some of their native dialect (D1). Needless to say, it is usually fairly obvious for even the most casual observer to detect such accommodation in the speech patterns of relocated individuals. This process of accommodation is not limited to individuals who relocate but can also be witnessed in various other settings: in couples who speak the same language but are from different countries or regions within the same country or within an individual’s social group if the majority of such a group are from one country and the minority from another. Jeff Siegel (2010), in his book on second dialect acquisition highlights an important principle relating to dialect contact: “One important aspect of second dialect acquisition (SDA) in naturalistic contexts that distinguishes it from second language acquisition (SLA) is that it can be unintentional. Since migrants to a new dialect area can continue to speak in their original dialect (D1) and still be able to communicate, they may not try to learn the dialect of their new home (D2). Nevertheless, they may unconsciously “pick-up” or acquire some features of the D2 and use them in their speech.” (5). 1 If such changes may be either intentional or unintentional, a number of questions come to mind. Does social pressure play a part? If no changes occur at all, is this due to the individual's desire to retain his/her own identity? Does a person's age or gender have any influence? Studies have shown that women have a higher propensity than men to utilise educated/prestigious speech (Molina, 2006; Woods, 2007), whereas adolescents are usually the quickest and most likely to adapt their speech (Molina, 2006). And if an individual’s social network is crucial to dialect formation, as Parodi (2003) sensibly maintains, is it not likely that length of time away from the place of origin is an influential factor in the acquisition of characteristics of the D2? (Pérez Castillejo, 2013). The majority of research relating to dialect contact attempts to study an individual’s acquisition of characteristics of the D2 after having left the region of their D1 (Evans, 2004; Munro, Derwing, & Flege, 1999; Pesqueira, 2008; Serrano, 2002). Consequently, a particularly neglected area of research is that of intra-familial dialect contact. That is, the effects of dialect contact between married/co-habitating couples who share the same native language but are from different countries of origin. As indicated above, the likelihood of different dialects of the same language coming into contact has increased significantly in recent years due to the ever increasing ease of relocating and this trend will probably continue. Therefore, the likelihood of couples from different dialect regions coming together will also rise. As a result, it is important for the scholarly community to analyse the influence of intrafamilial dialect contact and confirm whether or not causes associated with such contact are similar in nature to those identified in research already conducted in this field of interest. In this study, I investigate the extent to which intrafamilial dialect contact affects binational Spanish-speaking couples living in Utah, and more precisely, whether it shows up in the individual’s lexical availability. Some research questions that are important to this study are: 2 1. Who is more likely to accommodate their speech? Men or women? 2. If intrafamilial dialect contact does occur, in what contexts? 3. What, if any, are the factors that facilitate/encourage/underly accommodation? In this study, I analyse the role of lexical availability in relation to intrafamilial dialect contact. Regarding acquisition of D2 features, researchers have examined a number of independent variables that correlate with it: age, gender, social network & identity, and length of residency (LoR). Age, gender and length of residency are factors that explain themselves. However, the study of an individual’s social network looks at their interaction (social circles, i.e., work colleagues, friends outside of work, etc.) with residents native to the country in which they now reside. Such will largely be the focus of the current study. 3 CHAPTER 2 Review of Literature For the current study, it is important not only to be familiar with research in the field of dialect contact but, in addition, to be up-to-date with studies conducted in lexical availability. That said, a literature review will follow. Dialect Contact The study of interdialect contact is one area of linguistic research that does not abound with data. However, existing studies provide important information relating to the factors that influence interdialect contact and the ways in which it is manifest. As previously mentioned, researchers in the field of dialect contact have primarily focused on the reasons attributed why individuals alter their habitual way of speaking to that of someone pertaining to another dialect region. Factors explaining this are potentially numerous, however, the principal aspects can be narrowed down to the following: age, gender, social network, social identity, and LoR. According to Siegel (2010), the study of dialect contact has been divided up into three main contexts: national, regional, and social. National dialect contact refers to situations where two dialects converge due to someone relocating to another country where the same language is spoken. An example of this would be either a Spaniard relocating to Mexico or vice versa. Regional dialect contact alludes to an individual relocating but instead of relocating to another country, the individual moves to another part of the country in which they currently reside. For example, someone from Seville moving to Barcelona for work. The final context for dialect contact is social. This context is defined as dialects coming in contact due to factors other than geography. For example, gender and social networks, among others. Next, Siegel (2010) delves deeper into the topic of dialect contact. He does this by exploring dialect acquisition in two contexts: naturalistic and educational. A naturalistic setting 4 implies that an individual begins to acquire aspects of another dialect (D2) without any formal instruction. That is, dialect contact occurs when someone relocates to another area with a different dialect and, over time, the speech of that individual is noticeably influenced by the D2. It has been noted that accommodation in this context is often ‘unintentional’. An educational setting for dialect contact refers to contact in a formal setting. An example of this is when children begin school. When starting, the probability of many children not having been exposed to the standard variety of their language is high. Following contact with the standard variety, children decide whether they want to align their speech with the standard variety or retain their regional variety of speech. Having identified settings in which dialect contact occurs, it is now necesary to mention the important concept of linguistic accommodation. In his theory of accommodation, Giles discusses the influence that an individual’s desire to feel part of a particular community has on whether or not the individual accommodates speech patterns to sound more like those in the community of interest. There are factors that can either speed up or slow down this process. Factors that facilitate accommodation: 1. Comprehension issues 2. Phonological naturalness Factors that impede accommodation: 1. Homonymic clashes 2. Phonotactic issues 3. Exaggerated prominence The next section considers some of the independent variables that encourage/influence D2 acquisition. 5 Age The first, and possibly most significant factor in dialect convergence, is age. Much research has been done in relation to the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). It has been determined that the age at which an individual is exposed to a new dialect will greatly influence the level of accommodation. Additionally, second language acquisition (SLA) studies confirm that age plays a pivotal role in the attainment of a native accent (Flege, Munro, & MacKay, 1995a, Oyama, 1973, Long, 1990). Chambers (1992) adds evidence to this claim in his study of six Canadian youth who relocated to England. In this study, the six youngsters ranged in age from 9-17 and, in terms of adoption of British English vocabulary, the youngest had the highest percentage whereas the oldest at had one of the lowest (p.692). These findings support the notion that L2 acquisition is more easily facilitated at a younger age. If this is the case for L2, it may apply to those who are exposed to a second dialect (D2). Trudgill and Chambers (1994) mention two theories in connection with age and dialectal accommodation. The first is the Lexical Theory Hypothesis, which states that if the individual comes in contact with the D2 after the cut-off age (generally around 13-14 years of age), dialect contact will mainly be a lexical process. The second, the Rule-Change Hypothesis, asserts that if contact occurs before the cut-off point, the chances of acquiring phonological aspects of the D2 are greater. Thus, it appears that age has an effect on the acquisition of characteristics of another dialect. Tagliamonte and Molfenter (2007) reiterate this claim: People who move into a new community where the same language but a different dialect is spoken must adapt a new set of linguistic rules in order to sound like their peers. However, children appear to be the only sector of the population capable of doing this successfully. (p.650) 6 However, Munro, Derwing and Flege’s (1999) account of Canadians in Alabama showed a degree of dialect acquisition by adults. These scholars note that even trained phoneticians had difficutly identifying these individuals as Canadian. Length of Residence (LoR) Another factor often reviewed in dialect contact studies is the length of residence (LoR) in the new region. Whilst it may seem obvious that a longer LoR will result in greater degrees of dialect assimilation, research relating to Hispanics in the U.S. (Otheguy & Zentella, 2012; Montrul, 2004), has shown this factor not to be overly significant (Foreman, 2003; Stanford, 2007). While some studies do show LoR as being important (Rodríguez Cadena, 2001; Pesqueira, 2008) others have shown mixed results (Trudgill, 1981; Berthele, 2002) with some cases documenting particularly low percentages given the LoR (Kerswill, 1994; Omdal, 1994) and others showing no statistically significant link between the two (Ivars, 1994; Omdal, 1994; Wells, 1973). Gender Studies relating to gender have shown that dialect contact resulting in usage of D2 features is not significantly greater among men than women (Wells, 1973; Shokey, 1984). When there have been differences, the higher degrees of prevalent D2 features have been linked to secondary factors and not to intrinsic differences between men and women. This may be considered surprising given that previous studies have demonstrated that women are predominantly the driving force in terms of new language variation and change (Labov, 2010, Otheguy and Zentella, 2012, Pesqueira, 2008; Woods, 2007) and are more aware than men of elements such as prestige (Rys, 2007). In fact, it has been suggested that women do not actually elect to implement prestigious terms but rather their use of particular linguistic features creates new prestige norms (Milroy & Milroy, 1993; Labov, 2001). 7 Social networks/identity The concept of social networks, first employed in sociolinguistics by Milroy (1987), addresses the amount of interaction an individual has with others in his network. The amount of contact that a person has with the D2 has also been shown to be an important element for implementing aspects of the D2. If an individual relocates but manages to form part of a dense social network made-up of people from the same dialect region as them, they are more likely to retain D1 characteristics. On the other hand, if they do not and the network to which they belong is lax, the chances of acquiring D2 features increases. Studies detailing the importance of the individual’s position within their network in relation to their adoption, or not, of D2 characteristics have been conducted by various scholars (Payne, 1978; Labov, 2001). Referring to Auer and Hinskens’s (2005) “identity projection model”, Drummond (2013) suggests that “the desire to identify with a particular social group is enough for a person’s speech to adopt or supress relevant language features, regardless of who the interlocutor might be” (p.67). As previously highlighted by Siegel (2010), dialect acquisition can occur unintentially, however, the identity that an individual or group of people retains with respect to the D1 can also affect their decision not to implement any features of the new dialect (Escure, 1997). Attitude/Motivation The concept of attitude and motivation is another telling factor. The degree of positivity or negativity the individual has regarding the D2 will greatly influence his/her decision to embrace its features. It has been proposed that people project a particular identity towards the people with whom they wish to identify (Page & Tabouret-Keller, 1985). In relation to SLA, some of the main reasons that hinder/aid L2 attainment according to Montrul (2008) are age, motivation, input and previous linguistic knowledge. Motivation plays a vital part in one’s 8 ability to gain a high level of proficiency in a second language (Gardner, 1979, Gardner and Smythe, 1975 Dixon et al., 2012). Not surprisingly, the majority of sociolinguistic studies relating to dialect contact have centred on phonological changes. This is no doubt due to the fact that other variables are harder to identify and address. For example, the research that I have conducted so far on the subject has shown me that studies into syntactic, lexical, and morphological effects of dialect contact are scarce. That does not mean that none exist, however. With respect to dialect contact and lexical manifestations, Potowski (2011), in her study on ‘MexiRicans’ (Hispanic children with mixed marriage parents, that is, one parent from Mexico, the other from Puerto Rico) in Chicago, found a strong correlation between the feeling of identity and the vocabulary that they used. For example, if the children felt more Mexican their vocabulary would reflect this as they would use Mexican words more often. The same applies to those children who felt more Puerto Rican. Zentella (2011), in her study of Hispanics in New York, concluded that an individual’s decision to use a specific lexical item depended on three things: 1. Frequency with which it occurred, 2. Semantic weight of the word, and 3. Desire to avoid homonyms. A couple of studies on the syntactic effects of dialect contact show interesting data. Chinnelato (2011), in his study of the use of usted in Mérida in Venezuela, found that the participant of his study consciously accommodated her speech to use usted when speaking with her close friend from Mérida, an area with high frequency use of usted. However, when speaking with a close family member, she did not implement usted once. However, as previously mentioned, there are many more studies available regarding phonological changes that occur as a result of dialect contact and social pressure. (Aaron & Hernández, 2007; Rodríguez Cadena, 2001; Alvord, 2006). 9 A common theme in all of these studies is that dialect contact and the degree of implementation correlate, to some extent, with the relative prestige of the two dialects. In many cases, accommodation seems to happen more easily when the D2 is considered more prestigious than the D1. Finally, some other linguistic factors that have been looked at, and considered pertinent in studies of this nature, are salience (Trudgill, 1986), stigmatisation (Siegel, 2010; BortoniRicardo, 1985; Chambers, 1992), linguistic change (Bowie, 2000), phonetic distance (Foreman, 2003), and phonological contrast (Trudgill, 1986). Lexical Availability Being able to identify the most common vocabulary items of a given community was the driving force behind pioneer lexicon-statistical studies. On reflection, however, the major downside to such research was that the focus was purely on frequency. (Alba, 2014). While such studies were interesting in that they afforded the linguistic community an insight into popular vocabulary words within a given speech community, they were problematic in that they failed to identify lexical items which were highly frequent but only occurred in specific contexts. Such studies were referred to as basic lexical research. Lexical availability, on the other hand, refers to vocabulary the speaker has available to them in specific communicative contexts (Sánchez Morales & Murillo Rojas, 1993) and is measured through the use of vocabulary lists with the position the word occupies within those lists indicating its availability to the speaker (González Martínez, 1999). Since the initial lexical availability investigations by researchers such as Michéa (1953) and Gougenheim (1967), studies now abound in the field, especially in the Spanish speaking world (López Morales, 1973; Alba, 1996; Samper & Hernández, 1997; López Chavez, 1993). The original idea to compose lists to measure lexical availability was proposed by Müller in 1968, however, mathematic formulae to correlate their position in the lists with their frequency 10 were not developed until 1983 (González Martínez & Orellana Ramírez, 2006) by Lorán and López Morales and later in 1991 by López Chávez and Strassburger. Lexical availability studies generally follow the same pattern: participants are given two minutes to complete vocabulary lists on various areas of interest. The idea of providing the research subjects with time limits was introduced by Mena Osorio in 1986 (Fernandez, 2002) and has since been generally accepted as the standard method. In addition, another aspect common to lexical availability studies is that of accounting for sociolinguistic factors, a variable arising from López Morales’ (1979) study in Puerto Rico. An important aspect of lexical availability studies is that they have provided comparisons between different dialect regions as they highlight what words are most common in specific contexts for a particular region. López Chávez (1993) notes in this regard: “El análisis cuantitativo de la disponibilidad léxica de una comunidad dialectal dada nos da una buena descripción de esta parcela de su norma léxica. Sin embargo, donde estos estudios ofrecen su mejor y más valiosa contribución es en las comparaciones interdialectales” (p.20). Lexical availability studies comparing different dialect regions (Alba, 1998; Alba, 2000; López Chávez, 1995; Samper Padilla, 1998) show that, in spite of obvious phonetic differences, the lexicon essentially demonstrates the closeness of Spanish spoken throughout the world. To demonstrate this point, Alba (2000) points out that: “Los datos anteriores muestran una compatibilidad léxica entre el dialecto dominicano y los demás dialectos comparados, mayor que la que suele creerse y pregonarse. Al considerar en conjunto los vocablos de los tres centros de interés, la coincidencia sobrepasa el 60% en todos los casos” (p.121). Furthermore, it has been suggested that lexical availability studies are not only useful for identifying the most frequent lexical items of different regions and similarities between 11 countries but also for assisting academics to devise course curricula (López Morales, 1978; Alba, 1995). Studies in the field of lexical availability have also provided valuable insight into the influence of anglicisms in the Spanish speaking world (Alba, 1995; Alba 1999; López Morales, 1999; Paredes, 2001, 2005). For example, Alba (1999) found that the density of anglicisms in Dominican Spanish had increased from the time he performed his initial study on the same topic a few years previously with those pertaining to higher socioeconomic classes documenting more instances of anglicisms. Providing a valuable overview of lexical availability research, Bartol Hernández (2006) highlights the three main lines of investigation: López Morales’ important Panhispanic Project, other lexical availability studies similar in nature but with different research criteria, and finally, available lexicon research performed on students learning Spanish as a second language (Benítez, 1994). Panhispanic Project The motive behind the Panhispanic Project by López Morales is summed up by Saralegui and Tabernero (2008) in their contribution to the project for Navarre, Spain: “El objetivo general de tales estudios es elaborar Diccionarios de Disponibilidad Léxica para las diversas zonas del mundo hispánico, siguiendo criterios homogéneos que permitan establecer comparaciones de tipo lingüístico, etnográfico y cultural, dibujar áreas de difusión y servir de punto de partida para análisis posteriores.” (745). To ensure the validity of the project, research participants are all in their last year of high school (bachillerato). This is to reduce the likelihood of participants’ language being contaminated by the accumulation of technical vocabulary associated with university attendance. It also control the independent variables of age and cultural level of participants. 12 Contributions to the Panhispanic Project are many (Ahumada, 2006; Ávila Muñoz, 2006; González, 2002; Gómez Molina & Gómez Devís, 2004; Gómez Devís, 2003), each sudy testing participants’ lexical availability on sixteen areas of interest. Other lexical availability studies Other studies in the field of lexical availability have taken into consideration additional extralinguistic variables such as gender and social class (Ávila Muñoz & Villena Ponsoda, 2010; Echeverría, 1991; González Martínez & Orellana Ramírez, 1999; López Morales, 1979). Regarding the educated norm and popular speech, research has shown that there is a generation change that favours the use of standard over popular forms (Hernández Cabrera & Samper Hernández, 2002). Studies relating to gender show that women tend to have a richer vocabulary than men and use fewer stigmatized forms (González Martínez & Orellana Ramírez, 1999). Further studies highlight that the greatest differences between gender are seen if special attention is paid to particular topics of interest (Garcia Domínguez, M. J., Marrera Pulido, V., Pérez Martín, J. A., & Piñero Piñero, G. 1994). Pioneer studies by López Morales in Puerto Rico highlight that the higher classes exhibit greater lexical availability (López Morales, 1973, 1979). Lexical availability among L2 learners of Spanish There are various studies that focus on L2 language learners’ lexical availability in Spanish (Carcedo González, 2000; Carcedo González, 1998; Samper Hernández, 2001, 2002). However, it should come as no surprise to discover that lexical availability is greater among students with a higher level of Spanish (Laserna, 2009, Kalan, 2015). This is supported by studies carried out relating to school children immigrants living in Spain that show low results for lexical availability (Jiménez-Berrio, 2013). An interesting study in Iceland showed that Icelandic students of Spanish had lower levels of lexical availability than other students learning Spanish as a second language (Magnúsdóttir, 2012). 13 Research Questions Having reviewed the literature on dialect contact and lexical availability, I hypothesise the following: 1. Men are more likely to accommodate their speech when the topic of interest is considered female-related. 2. Women are more likely to accommodate their speech when the topic of interest is considered male-related. 3. Intrafamilial dialect borrowing will be more evident among couples who have been together longer. 14 CHAPTER 3 Methodology Participants The participants in this study consisted of ten married couples. They were native Spanish speakers born outside of the U.S. Each member of the couple was born in a different Spanish speaking country and had to have been married for at least five years. This was to give sufficient time for substantial intrafamilial dialect contact to occur. Two couples’ results were excluded from the findings as they had been married for less than five years. All participants were bilingual Spanish/English speakers. A summary of the research participants can be found in Table 3.1. Table 3.1. Summary of Participants Participant ID # 12 8 20 24 31 40 35 22 15 6 85 66 71 52 61 53 78 44 95 18 Sex M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Country of Birth Chile Uruguay El Salvador Peru Venezuela Peru Mexico Argentina Mexico Venezuela Guatemala Bolivia Chile Colombia Colombia Ecuador Mexico Ecuador Guatemala El Salvador Length of Marriage (years) 15 15 32 32 10 10 12 12 10 10 13 13 13 13 7 7 12 12 21 21 The participants in this study were recruited through word of mouth (referrals). Given that the first couple interviewed knew more people that met the research criteria, the 15 aforementioned method employed was by far the easiest way in which to find more individuals to participate in the study. Each individual that volunteered to assist the investigator in the study did so knowing that there would be no financial remuneration for their participation. Procedures Data gathering. The data for the study were collected on five different days due to the troublesome nature of coordinating a suitable time to meet with each research couple. Once arranged, each session lasted around thirty minutes and was conducted by the researcher in person. A brief explanation of the research topic and the purpose of each activity was provided to the participants at the outset of the session. As little information as possible relating to the purpose of the study was given to the participants in order to ensure original results. If any further explanation was needed during the study, it was given in English in order to avoid possible interference with participants’ responses. Instruments. In this study there are three instruments: questionnaires, vocabulary lists, and visual images of the objects of interest. The first questionnaire’s sole purpose is to gather information on each participant, that is, their name, where they are from, how long they have been married, etc. It took no longer than five minutes to complete. Refer to Appendix A for more information. Given the nature of the study, the idea behind the second questionnaire, found in Appendix B, is to assist in determining reasons behind any potential instances where dialect interference is evident. As a result, the questionnaire includes questions attempting to elicit the individual’s thoughts on both their own dialect of Spanish and that of their spouse. For example, the questionnaire includes questions such as “What do you think of your spouse’s dialect of Spanish?” and “Do you think that you have acquired aspects of your spouse’s dialect of Spanish. If so, why?”. If, in their responses to the lexical availability activities, any individual provided evidence of dialect borrowing, the investigator referred to the 16 questionnaire to determine if there were any correlations between their use of vocabulary from the other dialect and their opinion of that dialect. The questionnaire took no longer than ten minutes to complete. The vocabulary list activity required each participant to fill out six different vocabulary lists on specific topics pre-selected by the researcher. Participants had two minutes to fill out each column and the topics were chosen based on whether or not they were considered to be male or female-related. The activity can be found in Appendix C. The final procedure required each individual to note down their answers to a series of images as they appeared on a computer screen. The decision to include each image was based on the researcher’s knowledge that variation existed within the Spanish speaking world of the lexical items chosen. The visual images utilised in this study are found in Appendix D. Data Analysis The overarching aim of lexical availability studies is to ascertain which lexical items are most readily available to individuals. In order to test this, the traditional method of word association was implemented. This method provides each participant two minutes to write down every word that comes to their mind in relation to a specific topic provided by the researcher (i.e. means of transport, food and drink, etc.). In total, there were six centres of interest that the participants had to complete and can be seen below. The research subjects were informed when the two minutes were over and they then proceeded to fill out the next vocabulary list under the same conditions. The reason attributed to limiting participant response time to two minutes was to ensure that participants noted down the lexical items that were actually readily available in their minds. If this had not been the case and more time had been allocated, it is very possible that participants could have included words that were not necessarily the most readily available to 17 them as they would have had more time to delve into their memory. This reasoning is supported in other research (Alba, 2014). Every study that has contributed to the Panhispanic Project has used the same 16 centres of interest, however, given that the nature of the current study is slightly different, only six topics were chosen: 1. Means of transport 2. Food and drink 3. Clothing and accessories 4. Children 5. DIY 6. The kitchen and its utensils. As the objective of the study is to show dialect interference depending on the topic of conversation, two topics were chosen that are traditionally considered more associated with women (clothing & accessories and food & drink), two that are generally associated with men (means of transport and DIY), and finally, two topics that were considered neutral by the research investigator (food & drink and the kitchen & its utensils). In order to show what a completed vocabulary list activity would look like, an excerpt of one participant’s responses can be found in Table 3.2. Table 3.2. Sample participant response to vocabulary list activity. Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 tren lancha auto bote avión helicoptero yate aeroplano piernas carne pollo arroz porotos lechuga huevos sal pimienta pan 18 pantalones camisas vestido traje pollera caravanas anillo pulsera lentes 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 camión camioneta omnibus patines coche caballo 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 gaseosa cerveza ron tequila limonada chorizo palta pepino papa boniato 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 polera cinto cartera billetera reloj sandalias chalas buzo chaleco campera In studies contributing to the Panhispanic Project, every participant response is recorded and analysed. The most frequent words for each section are subsequently identified and documented. The current study, however, does not follow this method. Since the principal objective of this study is not to determine frequency or the most common lexical items but rather to highlight instances of intrafamilial dialect interference, the researcher reviewed each participant’s lists individually. For example, under column one “medios de transporte” in Table 3.2, the research subject included two Spanish words for car (in third and fourteenth position respectively). The data were analysed by monitoring instances similar to the one just mentioned and identifying which words appear higher in each list. In this particular case, the lexical item “auto” appears before “coche”. Now, if these responses were given by a research subject native to Spain, it would be possible to claim that they were being influenced by another dialect of Spanish. In addition, if a research subject from Spain but married to a Uruguayan were to include a lexical item considered Uruguayan without including a Peninsular Spanish word, this would also indicate the dominance of one dialect over another. In order to verify the data provided by the participants, reference was made to the Real Academia Española’s online dictionary (www.rae.es) and the well-known Spanish-English online bilingual dictionary SpanishDict (www.spanishdict.com). 19 Regarding the visual image response portion of the research, the principal investigator analysed the data by recording participants’ responses and determined whether their answer represented a word used in their own country, in that that of their spouse, or in another country altogether. An example set of responses can be found in Table 3.3. Table 3.3. Participant responses to visual image activity. Image Response Car Boot Bus Popcorn Insect Peach Avocado Beans Glasses Garden/Grass Lawnmower Muffin Pen Pavement To take the bus To speak Coche Cajuela Microbus Palomitas de Maíz Pinacate Durazno Aguacate Frijoles Gafas Pasto Podadora Panque Lapicero Banqueta Abordando el Bus Platicar Again, both sources previously mentioned (www.rae.es and www.spanishdict.com) were used to determine instances of dialect interference. The questionnaire created was referred to in order to confirm any correlations between a participant’s responses to the vocabulary lists and visual images. If, for example, a participant showed no instances of dialect interference, the investigator would consult their responses to the questionnaire to verify if their opinion of their spouse’s dialect of Spanish was negative or positive. The same procedure was carried out when dialect interference was documented by participants. 20 CHAPTER 4 Results Overview The total number of words provided by research participants in both the vocabulary lists and the visual image responses totalled 2,472. Vocabulary List Responses As stated in chapter two, lexical availability studies generally focus on two things: the frequency of lexical items and their position on vocabulary lists for specific topics. However, the present study attempted to determine the influence of intrafamilial dialect contact using lexical availability as the measure. Table 4.3 provides an overview of each participant’s responses to the vocabulary list portion of the research, namely, the number of responses given, the instances of possible dialect borrowing, and whether or not the instances occurred when dealing with a male or female-related topic. It is important to note that, included under the column “instances of dialect interference” in Table 4.3 are not only instances of dialect accommodation for each participant and their spouse but also examples of another dialect influencing the lexicon of participants. For example, if neither couple is from Mexico but a Mexican word appears in their vocabulary list, it is counted here as an example of dialect interference. Table 4.1. Analysis of participants’ vocabulary lists responses. Participant ID# Possible No. vs. Actual No. of Responses Given Instances of Dialect Interference 12 8 20 24 31 40 35 22 180/87 180/112 180/66 180/114 180/135 180/126 180/86 180/79 0 3 (polera, chalas, huincha) 0 1 (fustán) 1 (chupón) 4 (polera, caraota, chupón, trinche) 3 (auto, corpiños, chupete) 0 21 15 6 85 66 71 52 61 53 78 44 95 18 180/101 180/72 180/98 180/130 180/98 180/154 180/151 180/126 180/86 180/86 180/123 180/122 0 0 3 (tacuche, playera, pacha) 1 (polera) 3 (buseta, carroza, playera) 0 1 (chompa) 2 (mote, tina) 0 3 (achiote, aretes, chupón) 4 (micro, aretes, pacha, pichel) 4 (pepe, chiche, paila, aretes) An analysis of Table 4.1 indicates that dialect interference was present among 65% of the participants in the study. In order to follow the research hypotheses of this study, the data in this section will be analysed taking into consideration instances of dialect contact according three variables: gender, topic of conversation, and length of time married. Gender In chapter two, gender was shown not to be a significant factor when dealing with dialect contact. When significant differences were found, such instances were reported as being due to secondary factors and not gender directly. The results from this study show that, whilst there were slightly more female participants displaying instances of dialect borrowing, it is not enough to be considered significant. Table 4.2 illustrates this below. Table.4.2. Dialect intereference according to gender. Male Female Gender 46% 54% From Table 4.2, it is possible to see that, in this study at least, women were marginally more likely than men to use lexical items found in the dialect of their spouse. It is important to point out that not all the examples of dialect contact provide evidence of dialect interference between spouses. In some cases, participants would note down a lexical item 22 that was actually characteristic of a country other than that of their spouse. Examples such as these are omitted from this point onwards but shall be discussed later. Topic of Conversation Given that two of the research questions attempt to determine whether or not dialect interference is linked to topic of conversation, an essential part of this study was to document the topics in which examples of dialect borrowing occurred. In Table 4.3, all instances of dialect contact are displayed according to topic of conversation. Table.4.3. Instances of dialect contact according to topic. Participant ID# 8 Participant Gender F 24 F Masculine 1 (huincha) - 40 F - 35 M 71 M 61 M 53 F 1 (auto) 2 (buseta, carroza) 1 (chompa) - 44 F - 95 M - 18 F 1 (auto) Topic Feminine 2 (polera, chalas) 1 (fustán) 2 (corpiños, chupete) - Neutral 1 (caraota) - - - 1 (tina) 2 (achiote, chupón) 1 (pacha) - 1 (aretes) - Chart 4.1.gives an indication of the contexts in which both male and female participants documented instances of dialect borrowing. 23 - Chart 4.1. Percentage of dialect contact according to topic of conversation. These results provide some interesting reading. There is no clear tendency as to which gender is found to be more influenced by the other, however, women had a slightly higher number of occurrences as out of 16 instances, nine were provided by female participants and the remaining seven by the male participants. However, the results do not support the research hypotheses. According to the numbers from this part of the project, topic of conversation shows a tendency for both men and women to utilise lexical items from their spouse’s dialect. However, for female participants, borrowings were evident when the topic was female-related rather than male-related. On the same note, male participants’ borrowings were prevalent when the topic was male-related. Rather than be influenced by their spouse when talking about a topic normally associated with the gender of their spouse, it appears, at least in this case, that the probability of men or women being influenced by their spouse is greater when talking about topics traditionally associated with their own gender. Years Married The purpose of measuring this variable was to determine if the length of time married played a significant part in a research subject’s use of their spouse’s lexical items. Table 4.4 permits an overview of this variable and whether or not it is telling. 24 Table.4.4. Number of instances according to years married. Total No. of Instances 3 (polera, chalas, huincha) 3 (auto, corpiños, chupete) 3 (achiote, aretes, chupón) 2 (buseta, carroza) 1 (pacha) 1 (fustán) 1 (auto) 1 (caraota) 1 (chompa) 1 (tina) Years Married 15 Participant ID# 8 12 35 12 44 13 71 21 95 32 24 21 18 10 40 7 61 7 53 The results here are similar to those for LoR in that, while it may be true in some cases that longer length of time married yields more instances of dialect interference, this is not always the case. In fact, those participants who had been married to their spouse longest (#24, #95, #18) were those who displayed the least influence from their spouse. Visual Image Response Table 4.5 presents a general overview of the findings from this activity. Table.4.5. Analysis of participants’ visual image responses. ID# Instances of Dialect Interference From Spouse’s Dialect? 12 8 20 0 0 2 (grama, baúl) 0 2 Y&N 24 31 25 Y&N 40 35 22 15 6 85 66 71 52 61 53 78 44 95 18 (grama, pluma) 1 (pasto) 0 1 (aguacate) 0 2 (cajuela, podadora) 1 (zacate) 3 (cajuela, palta, pasto) 0 1 (podadora) 1 (esfero) 3 (cajuela, canguil, podadora) 0 2 (cajuela, canguil) 3 (banqueta, grama, auto) 3 (grama, platicar, gafas) N Y Y N N N Y N Y N Y&N A quick glance at Table 4.5 allows us to see that 65% of the participants showed signs of being influenced by another dialect, but only 53% of them were directly influenced by the dialect of their spouse. Gender Similarly to results for the vocabulary lists, women (61%) were more likely to show evidence of dialect influence. However, as previously stated, all instances above included examples of dialect contact whether from their spouse or from elsewhere. Table 4.6 contains only data from those participants directly affected by their spouse. 26 Table.4.6. Dialect interference directly related with spouse. ID# Instances of Dialect Contact From Spouse? 20 2 (grama, baúl) 2 (grama, pluma) 1 (aguacate) 2 (cajuela, podadora) 1 (esfero) 2 (cajuela, canguil) 3 (grama, platicar, gafas) Y&N 31 22 6 61 44 18 Y&N Y Y Y Y Y&N When dealing only with influence directly from the spouse, the results are somewhat closer (57% women, 43% men). However, the results for this section are similar to those for the vocabulary lists in that women are still more likely to be influenced than men. That said, the likelihood of women being influenced was slightly higher in this activity than in the vocabulary lists. The reason for this is unclear, however, it could perhaps be attributed to the quicker response time required. Whereas in the vocabulary lists, participants had two minutes to write down as many lexical items as possible, the visual image response section provided them with significantly less time to think and and this may have increased dialect interference. Years Married Only participants that showed influence directly from their spouse’s dialect will be analysed in this section. Table 4.7 has been included below to help visualise the results and determine any correlations between years married and instances of borrowings. 27 Table.4.7. Instances of dialect interference according to years married. Total No. of Instances 3 (grama, platicar, gafas) 2 (grama, baúl) 2 (cajuela, canguil) 2 (cajuela, podadora) 1 (aguacate) 1 (grama) 1 (esfero) Years Married 21 32 12 10 12 10 7 The results in Table 4.7, whilst not conclusive, are at least descriptively interesting in that the two participants exhibiting most instances of interference had been married the longest. It also appears to show an overall correlation between the length of time married and the number of occurrences of dialect intereference between the participants. Additional Findings The research carried out brought to light some information that was not foreseen prior to conducting the investigation. Mexican influence. At the beginning of this chapter, it was mentioned that participants showed elements of dialect contact from dialects other than that of their spouse. It is now important to include the relevant data for two reasons: 1. In Utah, the highest Hispanic population is made up of Mexicans and 2. Since the participants in this study had resided in the U.S./Utah for a significant period, the probability of their being influenced by Mexican Spanish cannot be denied. Tables 4.8 and 4.9 list the information that was excluded from the research findings earlier for both the vocabulary lists and visual image responses. 28 Table.4.8. Vocabulary lists. Instances of dialect interference from sources other than participants’ spouses. Participant ID# 40 Gender F 85 M 66 F 95 M 18 F 71 M 31 M No. of Instances 3 (polera, trinche, chupón) 3 (tacuche, playera, pacha) 1 (polera) 3 (aretes, pichel, micro) 3 (chiche, paila, aretes) 1 (playera) 1 (chupón) The most salient finding is that, in the case of participants who exhibited instances of dialect interference, at least 75% of those occurrences were linked to a dialect other than their spouse’s. In addition, of all recorded instances, 73% were lexical items characteristic of Mexico. This finding adds strength to the influence of the dominant Mexican population in Utah. Table.4.9. Visual image response. Instances of dialect interference from sources other than participants’ spouses. ID# 20 31 40 85 66 52 53 Instances of Dialect Contact 2 (grama, baúl) 1 (pluma) 1 (pasto) 1 (zacate) 3 (cajuela, palta, pasto) 1 (podadora) 3 (cajuela, canguil, podadora) 29 From Spouse’s Dialect? Y&N Y&N N N N N N 95 3 (auto, grama, banqueta) 3 (gafas, grama, platicar) 18 N Y&N Particularly noteworthy is the fact that more than half of the 17 instances (65%) of interference recorded were instances of borrowing from Mexican Spanish and not from the dialect of the spouse. Excluded data. As mentioned in chapter 3, two sets of data were omitted from the initial findings as it transpired at the time of the interview that some couples did not meet the research criteria, that is, they had been married for less than five years. However, in an attempt to determine whether this criterion was relevant, a summary of these data is provided below in Table 4.10. Table.4.10. Instances of dialect contact for both activities by excluded couples. Participant ID# Gender/Co untry Years Married Instances of Dialect Intererence Vocab Lists 99 98 M/Mexico F/Honduras 4 4 97 M/Mexico 3 96 F/Honduras 3 0 5 (achiote, elotes, chayote, ayote, cachucha) 1 (auto) 3 (chicharos, aretes, chupón) Visual Image Response 0 3 (cofre, pasto, banqueta) 1 (auto) 2 (pasto, podadora) Originally, it was decided that part of the research criteria would be that each participant had to have been married for five years. The reason for this was to ensure enough time for dialect contact to occur. However, the findings in Table 4.10 cannot be ignored given that both female participants here displayed a higher number of instances of dialect intereference than any other participant interviewed in this study. Another curious finding is 30 that, of the female participants analysed, all cases of dialect contact were directly related to the Mexican dialect of their spouse. This could be due, as previously stated, to the strong influence of Mexican Spanish in Utah. Furthermore, as reported by one of the participants after being interviewed “hay que usar palabras mexicanas cuando hablas a un mexicano aquí porque ellos no van a cambiar las palabras que utilizan así que somos nosotros quienes tenemos que adaptar”. It can be assumed, then, that within the Mexican community in Utah, there exists a strong sense of linguistic pride that radiates onto other Hispanic populations resulting in the appearance of Mexican lexical items in their speech. 31 CHAPTER 5 Conclusions and Discussion The Results An in-depth overview of the research participants’ results was included in chapter 4, however, the data collected provided unanticipated results. That dialect interference will result from two dialects in contact goes without saying. However, it was expected that evidence of any dialect interference from either spouse would occur in specific contexts, namely, in male-related topics for female participants and vice versa. It was also assumed that dialect interference would be more apparent among those couples who had been married for longer. Nevertheless, the study produced results to the contrary. First, when the male participants utilised vocabulary from their spouse’s dialect, they did this mostly when the topic was one deemed to be male-related. Second, an even greater proportion of the women participants showed evidence of dialect contact when talking about female-related topics. Finally, length of time married did not yield telling results in both activities undertaken. In the vocabulary lists, it was found that those participants that had been married the longest were amongst the lowest ranking for instances of dialect contact, whereas, the visual image response portion suggested that years married perhaps played a part in the number of times dialect contact was apparent. Overall, the most striking outcome of the study relates to the additional findings included at the conclusion of chapter 4. Whilst it was anticipated that there would be some influence from Mexican Spanish, it was not expected that it would have such an impact. In the vocabulary list activity, the excluded results highlight that over 70% of the manifestations of dialect contact involved lexical items characteristic of Mexican Spanish. The visual image response also produced important results, with over 60% of pertinent vocabulary words typifying Mexican Spanish. Thus it seems clear that the variety of speech utilised by the 32 majority will exert some influence over those in the minority. Examples such as these support Siegel’s assertion included at the outset of this work that, in some instances, it appears that this is a conscious action on the part of the individual – various participant responses alluded to having a negative opinion of Mexican Spanish but still admitted to using Mexican words as they had no other option – and in others the individual seems to be unaware of their inclusion in their answers. The latter notion is clearly evidenced in a conversation the researcher had with one research couple shortly before commencing the tests. In response to my explanation of the purpose of the study, the Mexican spouse exclaimed “ya, pero mi esposa no usa palabras mexicanas”, an opinion which was shared by his Venezuelan wife. However, the visual image response section of the investigation documented two instances in which the Venezuelan spouse did clearly note down two Mexican lexical items. One result, not directly related to the research hypotheses, but interesting nonetheless is that the women in this study showed more instances of dialect intereference than the men. Out of 74 occurrences, 64% were produced by female research subjects. Limitations Initially, it was unclear as to how many eligible couples could be found in Utah, therefore, no restriction was set as to where the research couples were from. That is, the only stipulation was that each member of the couple was from a different Spanish speaking country. In addition, no consideration was given to external circumstances that may have influenced a participant’s speech such as previous residence or membership of a particular social group. This study focused solely on each participant’s linguistic traits as they were at the time of interview. 33 Recommendations for Further Research To the researcher’s knowledge, there are no other studies similar in nature to the present study. Therefore, various recommendations can be given. First, during the data collection phase, it became apparent that in the areas of Salt Lake and Utah County alone, there are substantially more couples that fit the research criteria than originally anticipated. As a result, one obvious recommendation would be to increase the sample size in order to provide a more comprehensive analysis and to test the results of this pilot study. Second, as previously stated, given the researcher’s preoccupation of lack of eligible research participants, couples from various Spanish speaking countries were chosen to participate. However, the data analysis would have been considerably easier if a criterion for eligibility was that one member of the couple had to originate from Mexico, for example. This would have facilitated the decision of visual images selected. Third, no effort was made to determine the socioeconomic status of the participants. Had this been done, it might have been possible to establish correlations between instances of dialect interference and socioeconomic status. Fourth, another possible criterion to include in future studies of this kind would be to ensure that research participants had not resided in their spouse’s country before relocating to the U.S. Fifth, before conducting the research, certain topics were chosen as they were considered male or female-related. However, one of the topics chosen, bricolaje, only yielded one instance of dialect contact. Choosing a topic like that, is of course problematic as it limits the chances of determining if there are, in fact, occurrences of dialect interference. However, it must be noted that the principal reason for the lack of results in this section was that, quite frankly, there is not a lot of variation in that particular topic. As a result, choosing 34 topics of conversation should be a carefully thought out process to ensure that vocabulary contains variation in the Spanish speaking world. Also, whilst bricolaje – DIY in English – is a well-known concept in the English speaking community, most native Spanish speakers, at least those included in this study, are not familiar with the term in Spanish or English. Therefore, thought must be given when choosing topics. Finally, it was noted during the investigation that the longer the individual had resided in the U.S. the harder it was for them to remember Spanish vocabulary. Therefore, rather than set a minimum length of marriage criterion, future studies could include criterion for LoR in the U.S. For example, it might be decided that a couple that has lived in the U.S. for more than five years is ineligible to participate in the study. In addition, Chambers (1992) noted that acquirers will make most of their lexical replacements within the first two years. Therefore, removing a stipulation that research couples should be married for at least five years is also a possibility in future research. Contributions of the Study As declared in the previous section, to the researcher’s knowledge, there are no other studies with the same research aims as this project. Therefore, this study has provided a platform for future studies of this kind. It has given an indication that length of time married is not a particularly convincing factor in determining the level of dialect contact that is present in an individual. In addition, the data collected in this study can assist sociolinguists in continuing similar research in other regions of the Spanish speaking world and attempting to link instances of dialect contact measured through lexical availability studies to factors such as socioeconomic status. 35 Appendix A Preguntas básicas 1. ¿Cómo se llama? 2. ¿De dónde es usted? 3. ¿Cómo se llama su esposo/a? 4. ¿Cuánto tiempo lleva casado/a? 36 Appendix B Opinion Questionnaire 1. ¿Qué opina usted del español de su esposo/a? 2. ¿Qué opina usted del español de su país? 3. ¿Piensa que su español es más elegante que el de su esposo/a? ¿Por qué? 4. ¿Piensa usted que ha adquirido aspectos del dialecto de su esposo/a? 5. ¿Cuáles aspectos ha adquirido y por qué? 37 Appendix C Vocabulary Lists Medios de Transporte 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Alimentos y Bebidas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Ropa y Complementos Los niños 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 38 Bricolaje 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Appendix D Visual Images 39 Appendix E Participant Responses to Vocabulary Lists Participant #61 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complement os Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Ruta 1 Pimentón 1 Pantalón 1 Pañales 1 Martillo 1 Cernidor 2 Pasajero 2 Limón 2 Pantaloneta 2 Teta 2 Cinta 2 Olla 3 Chofer 3 Uva 3 Saco 3 Biberón 3 Pegamento 3 Salero 4 Pasaje 4 Parilla 4 Buso 4 Leche 4 Cerrucho 4 Sartén 5 Metro 5 Naranja 5 Chaqueta 5 Sueño 5 Llaves 5 Tapa 6 Bus 6 Manzana 6 Chamarra 6 Múscia 6 Puntillas 6 Cuchara 7 Avión 7 Mora 7 Chompa 7 Ropita 7 Guantes 7 Tenedor 8 Ticket 8 Fresa 8 Rompivientos 8 Medias 8 Desarmador 8 Cuchillo 9 Tiquete 9 Arándano 9 Camisa 9 Crema para pañal 9 Destornillador 9 Taza 10 Equipaje 10 Mogolla 10 Camiseta 10 Chupo 10 Alicate 11 Ventanilla 11 Roscón 11 Calzoncillo 11 Silla de carro 11 Cegueta 10 Microondas 11 Molde 12 Azafata 12 Galleta 12 Boxer 12 Sonajero 12 Hombre solo 12 Molinillo 13 Baño 13 Rosca 13 Interior 13 Cuento 13 Clavos 13 Espátula 14 Transmilenio 14 Churro 14 Calzón 14 Audífonos 14 Metro 14 Guantes 15 Barco 15 Chocolate 15 Brasier 15 Osito 15 Nivel 15 Limpión 16 Carga 16 Maní 16 Tanga 16 Peluche 16 Regla 16 Picador 17 Maleta 17 Marañon 17 Falda 17 Patines 17 Pintura 17 Rallador 18 Ayudante 18 Watila 18 Medias 18 Mitones 18 Cinta 18 Licuadora 19 Gasolina 19 Maíz 19 Tenis 19 Cuadernos 19 Brocha 19 Cafetera 20 Combustible 20 Arracacha 20 Botas 20 Colegio 20 Rodillo 20 Nevera 21 Piloto 21 Yuca 21 Bolso 21 Tarea 21 21 22 Capitán 22 Yuca 22 Manilla 22 Mochila 22 22 23 Cobrador 23 Pescado 23 Cartera 23 Cartuchera 23 23 24 Espera 24 Tomate 24 Carriel 24 24 24 25 Aeropuerto 25 Zanahoria 25 Mochila 25 25 25 26 Tren 26 26 Sombrilla 26 26 26 27 Caballo 27 27 27 27 27 40 Participant #53 Medios de Transporte 1 Tren Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Fréjoles 1 Zapatos 1 Teta 1 Madera 1 Vasos 2 Bus 2 Papas 2 Zapatillas 2 Chupón 2 Martillo 2 Copas 3 Trenaereo 3 Pan 3 Botas 3 Pañal 3 Jarros 4 Carro 4 Naranja 4 Sandalias 4 Juguete 4 Jarra 5 Moto 5 Pescado 5 Cinturón 5 Cobija 3 Clavo 4 Destornillador 5 Masquin 6 Motocicleta 6 Sandía 6 Cintillo 6 Medicina 6 Tornillo 6 Platos 7 Bicicleta 7 Conchas 7 Camisa 7 Tina 7 Brocha 7 Cucharón 8 Triciclo 8 Camarón 8 Pantalón 8 Shampoo 8 Pintura 8 Cuchareta 9 Avión 9 Plátano 9 Short 9 Jabón 9 Spray 9 Cuchillo 10 Avioneta 10 Guineo 10 Licra 10 Toalla 10 Alicate 10 Jabón 11 Patineta 11 Manzana 11 Saco 11 Camiseta 11 Focos 11 Esponja 12 Patines 12 Pollo 12 Chaleco 12 Sillas 12 Olla 13 Camión 13 Choncho 13 Chompa 13 Ventilador 13 Olleta 14 Ferrocarril 14 Tortillas 14 Gorra 14 14 Sartén 15 Barco 15 Chifles 15 Collares 15 15 Licuadora 16 Canoa 16 Queso 16 Anillos 12 Pantalón 13 Termómetro 14 Cortauñas 15 Crema Rabo 16 Medias 16 16 Tostadora 17 Lancha 17 Leche 17 Pulseras 17 Goroo 17 17 Microonda 18 Velero 18 Coco 18 Medias 18 Chompa 18 18 Cocina 19 Paracaídas 19 Limón 19 Mallas 19 Compota 19 19 Cafetera 20 Trax 20 Arepas 20 Falda 20 Babero 20 20 Horno 21 Pasola 21 Mote 21 Bufanda 21 Cuna 21 21 Cuchara 22 22 Arroz 22 Guantes 22 Monitor 22 22 Tenedor 23 23 Empanadas 23 Gorro 23 Móvil 23 23 24 24 24 Sombrero 24 24 25 25 25 Vestido 25 25 26 26 26 Terno 26 26 27 27 27 Corbata 24 Muñeco 25 Mesa Comer 26 Columpio 27 27 27 28 28 28 Calzoncillo 28 28 28 29 29 29 Calzón 29 29 29 30 30 30 Pañuelo 30 30 30 41 5 Taza Participant #95 Medios de Transporte 1 Camioneta Alimentos y Bebidas Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Camisa 1 Cuna 1 Taladro 1 Estufa 2 Pantalón 2 Pañales 2 Sierra 2 Vasos 3 Pantaloneta 3 Toallas 3 Serrucho 3 Tazas 4 Calcetines 4 Pegamento 5 Cinta Adhesiva 6 Tornillos 5 Porcelana 6 Corbata 4 Ropa 5 Comida de bebé 6 Nombre 4 Platos 6 Caballo 4 Frijoles 5 Plátanos Fritos 6 Crema 7 Carreta 7 Queso 7 Saco 7 Juguetes 7 Clavos 7 Cucharas 8 Bicicleta 8 Chorizo 8 Traje 8 Pacha 8 Ollas 9 Patines 9 Azucar 9 Calzón 9 Pepe 8 Prensa 9 Desarmador 10 Camión 10 Sal 10 Brasier 10 Crema 10 Mezcla de Pared 10 Mesa 11 Micro 11 Sandía 11 Aretes 11 Talco 11 Cemento 11 Sillas 12 Patineta 12 Manzana 12 Collar 12 Colcha 12 Ladrios 12 Refrigerador 13 Moto 13 Mango 13 Pendientes 13 Estroler 13 Arena 13 Gabinetes 14 Avión 14 Fresas 14 Bufanda 14 Piedras 14 Almacén 15 Tren 15 Uvas 15 Camiseta 14 Carriola 15 Portabebé 15 Manguera 15 Pichel 16 Barco 16 Tortillas 16 Calzoneta 17 Seguro 17 Lancha 17 Cilantro 17 18 Cayuco 18 Jamón 19 Balsa 20 2 Guagua 3 Carro 4 Auto 5 Burro 1 Agua 2 Fresio de Ensalada 3 Arroz Ropa y Complementos 5 Zapatos 6 Tenedores 9 Sartenes 17 16 Fertilizante 17 Maquinas 17 Paletas 18 18 18 Brocas 18 Micro 19 Pimienta 19 19 19 Cadenas 19 Tostadora 20 Pollo 20 20 20 Cables 20 21 21 Carne 21 21 21 Alambres 21 22 22 Costillas 22 22 22 22 23 23 Camarón 23 23 23 23 24 24 Pescado 24 24 24 24 25 25 Yuca 25 25 25 25 26 26 Pupusas 26 26 26 26 27 27 Tomate 27 27 27 27 42 16 Cucharones Participant #18 Medios de Transporte 1 Auto Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje 1 Martillo La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Quinoa 1 Gorro 1 Pepe 2 Moto 2 Arroz 2 Bufanda 2 Pacha 2 Clavo 2 Cucharón 3 Bicicleta 3 Frijoles 3 Blusa 3 Leche 3 Tornillos 3 Tenedor 4 Caballo 4 Mango 4 Camiseta 4 Babero 4 Tenazas 4 Cuchillo 5 Avión 5 Pasta 5 Sweater 5 Chiche 5 Pinzas 5 Espátula 6 Bus 6 Bananas 6 Pantalones 6 Gorro 6 Cadena 6 Olla 7 Camioneta 7 Piña 7 Shorts 7 Mantilla 7 Metal 7 Plato 8 Carreta 8 Sandía 8 Falda 8 Pañal 8 Cobre 8 Paila 9 Burro 9 Carne 9 Chaleco 9 Talcos 9 Alambre 9 Taza 10 Camello 10 Pescado 10 Zapatos 10 Pomada 10 Pega 10 Tazón 11 Scooter 11 Camarones 11 Tenis 11 Pintura 11 Estufa 12 Patineta 12 Pollo 12 Zapatillas 12 Brocha 12 Tostadora 13 Canoa 13 Puerco 13 Calzetas 11 Crema 12 Pantalones 13 Calzetas 13 Refri 14 Bote 14 Tortillas 14 Medias 14 Zapatos 15 Barco 15 Pan 15 Gafas 16 Crucero 16 Naranjas 16 Cadena 17 17 Galletas 17 Medalla 15 Protector Solar 16 Mosquitero 17 Cuna 13 Lija 14 Espátula 18 18 Dulces 18 Broche 18 Almohada 19 19 Chocolate 19 Anillo 19 Toalla 20 20 Merengue 20 Pulsera 21 21 Jalea 21 Calzones 22 22 Mantequilla 23 24 15 Gallon 16 Recipiente 17 Bote 1 Cuchara 14 Tetera 15 Freidora 16 17 20 Shampoo 18 Focos 19 Lámpara 20 20 21 Jabón 21 21 22 Brasier 22 Agua 22 22 23 Queso 23 Arretes 23 23 23 24 Crema 24 Reloj 24 24 24 43 18 19 Participant #44 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Carro 1 Arroz 1 Vestido 1 Cuna 1 Martillo 1 Cuchara 2 Bus 2 Achiote 2 Zapatos 2 Biberón 2 Clavo 2 Cucharón 3 Buseta 3 Maduro 3 Pantalón 3 Pañal 3 Tornillos 3 Tenedor 4 Moto 4 Verde 4 Chaleco 4 Mono 4 Alicate 4 Cuchillo 5 Avión 5 Guineo 5 Saco 5 Babero 5 Pinzas 5 Cernidor 6 Tren 6 Fideo 6 Camisa 6 Serrucho 6 Olla 7 Barco 7 Papa 7 Falda 7 Tachuelas 7 Sartén 8 Veleta 8 Queso 8 Corbata 9 Bicicleta 9 Cola 9 Anillos 6 Chupón 7 Columpio 8 Imperdible 9 Talco 10 Burro 10 Papaya 10 Blusa 10 Bibidi 10 Pintura 10 Vajilla 11 Avioneta 11 Mango 11 Shorts 11 Teta 11 Madera 11 Licuadora 12 12 Mandarina 12 Collar 12 Coche 12 Cemento 12 Trapos 13 13 Choclo 13 Aretes 13 13 13 Jabón 14 14 Pan 14 Calzones 14 14 14 Jarrón 15 15 Alverjas 15 Calzoncillos 15 15 15 16 16 Habas 16 Pijamas 16 16 16 17 17 Ají 17 Sostén 17 17 17 18 18 18 Poncho 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19 19 44 8 Destornillador 9 Metro 8 Jarra 9 Vasos Participant #78 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Avión 1 Pollo 1 Camisa 1 Pañales 1 Pegamento 1 Sartén 2 Autobus 2 Harina 2 Corbata 2 Cuna 2 Martillo 2 Cuchara 3 Carro 3 Carne 3 Chamarra 3 Toalla 3 Tornillos 3 Cuchillo 4 Motocicleta 4 Pimienta 4 Bufanda 4 Cobija 4 Clavos 4 Tenedor 5 Bicicleta 5 Sal 5 Gorra 5 Chupón 5 Pintura 5 Cucharón 6 Tren 6 Lechuga 6 Camiseta 6 Biberón 6 Desarmador 6 Licuadora 7 Microbus 7 Tomate 7 Pantalón 7 Portabebé 7 Serrucho 7 Olla 8 Helicóptero 8 Cebolla 8 Calzón 8 Almohada 8 Cinta 8 Espátula 9 Tranvía 9 Pepino 9 Calcetines 9 Cajonera 9 Pala 9 Vaso 10 Aeroplano 11 Globoaerostático 12 Caballo 10 Pimiento 10 Blusa 10 10 Pico 11 Arroz 11 Aretes 11 11 Taladro 12 Canela 12 Anillos 12 13 Burro 13 Leche 13 Toallas 13 14 14 Azucar 14 Zapatos 14 12 Brocas 13 Cinta de Medir 14 Espátula 10 Jarra 11 Termómetro 12 Molde 15 15 Mantequilla 15 Botas 15 15 15 16 16 Frijoles 16 Sandalias 16 16 16 17 17 Chile 17 Guarache 17 17 17 18 18 Manteca 18 18 18 18 19 19 Aceite 19 19 19 19 20 20 Limón 20 20 20 20 21 21 Cilantro 21 21 21 21 45 13 14 Participant #40 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Carro 1 Apio 1 Polo 1 Biberón 1 Martillo 1 Tenedor 2 Bicicleta 2 Tomate 2 Pantalón 2 Babero 2 Cuchillo 3 Moto 3 Sandía 3 Zapatos 3 Zapatos 4 Omnibus 4 Papaya 4 Zapatillas 4 Cuna 2 Clavos 3 Destornillador 4 Regla 4 Cucharita 5 Camioneta 5 Jugo 5 Medias 5 Carriola 5 Medidor 5 Vaso 6 Tractor 6 Naranja 6 Calzón 6 Asiento 6 Centímetro 7 Trailer 7 Melón 7 Sostén 7 Vaso 7 Serrucho 8 Camión 8 Brocoli 8 Collar 8 Pañales 8 Sierra 6 Plato 7 Tabla para cortar 8 Sorbete 9 Taxi 9 Pan 9 Aretes 9 Talco 9 Lima 9 Pinzas 10 Avión 10 Torta 10 Anillos 10 Ropón 10 Pulidor 10 Cucharón 11 Bote 11 Caramelo 11 Camisa 11 Frasada 11 Tornillos 11 Trinche 12 Lancha 12 Chicle 12 Saco 12 Coche 12 Cables 12 Espátula 13 Canoa 13 Pizza 13 Abrigo 13 Andados 13 Tuercas 13 Sartén 14 Barco 14 Chocolate 14 Charpa 14 Triciclo 14 Sacatuerca 14 Ollas 15 Combi 15 Sandwich 15 Palera 15 Juguetes 15 Focos 15 Plancha 16 Tren 16 Chupetín 16 Calzoncillo 16 16 Parilla 17 17 Chicha 17 Reloj 17 17 Tazas 18 18 Gaseosa 18 Pulsera 16 Chupón 17 Videojuegos 18 Peluches 18 18 Cubiertos 19 19 Manzana 19 Aros 19 Botitas 19 19 Cortador 20 20 Plátano 20 Lentes 20 20 20 Bandeja 21 21 Jamón 21 Gafas 21 21 21 22 22 Pollo 22 Gorro 22 22 22 23 23 Carne 23 Boina 23 23 23 24 24 Tallarin 24 Sombrero 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 27 25 Leche 26 Mantequilla 27 Arroz 27 27 27 27 28 28 Caraota 28 28 28 28 29 29 Tacos 29 29 29 29 30 30 Cuy 30 30 30 30 26 46 3 Cuchara Participant #31 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos 1 Bicicleta 1 Merengada 2 Carro 2 Arepas 2 Falda 3 Moto 3 Cachapas 3 Camisa 4 Patines 4 Ensalada 4 Reloj 5 Avión 5 Parrilla 6 Barco La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Ollas 2 Gorra 2 Serrucho 2 Cuchillo 3 Mameluco 3 Metro 3 Tenedor 4 Pañal 4 Clavos 4 Cuchara 5 Terno 5 Andadera 5 Licuadora 6 Yogurt 6 Smokn 6 Coche 6 Cocina 7 Lancha 7 Queso 7 Zapatos 7 Chupón 5 Tornillos 6 Destornillador 7 Nivel 8 Ferri 8 Jamón 8 Franela 8 Tetero 8 Madera 8 Nevera 9 Bus 9 Pan 9 Chemise 9 Sonaja 9 Cincel 9 Microonda 10 Popuesto 10 Burrito 10 Blusa 10 Juguete 10 Mandarria 10 Mesa 11 Bote 11 Ceviche 11 Deportivos 11 Muñeca 11 Tenaza 11 Bandeja 12 Triciclo 12 Cerveza 12 Guarda Guantes 12 Carritos 12 Cegueta 12 Tostadora 13 Gandola 13 Ron 13 Interior 13 Perinola 13 Caladora 13 Vaso 14 Metro 14 Blumer 14 Yoyo 14 Taladro 14 Lavaplato 15 Sostén 15 Trompo 15 Compresor 15 Pelapapa 16 Guagua 14 Whiskey 15 Ponche de Fruta 16 Limonada 16 Pantaleta 16 16 Alicate 17 Taxi 17 Lechón 17 Corbata 17 17 Pinza 18 Tico 18 Caraota 18 Collar 18 19 Trineo 19 Cambur 19 Cadena 19 18 Llave de Tubo 19 Piqueta 16 Rayo 17 Ayudante de Cocina 20 20 Lechosa 20 Lazo 20 20 20 Guantes 21 21 Parchina 21 Arete 21 21 21 Toallas 22 22 Sarcillo 22 22 22 Envase 23 Sortija 23 23 23 Extractor 24 22 Hallaca 23 Morir Soñando 24 Mamón 24 Colita 24 24 24 25 25 Malteada 25 Short 25 25 25 26 26 Chicha 26 Bermuda 26 26 26 27 27 27 Traje de Baño 27 27 27 28 28 28 Suéter 28 28 28 29 29 29 Chaqueta 29 29 29 30 30 30 Braga 30 30 30 23 1 Cuna Bricolaje 1 Martillo 15 Combi 1 Pantalón Los niños 47 7 Horno 18 Batidora 19 Termómetro Participant #35 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Caminar 1 Coca 1 Calzoncillos 1 Pañales 1 Tornillos 1 Platos 2 Bicicleta 2 Agua 3 Aguas Frescas 2 Camisas 2 Chupete 2 Clavos 2 Vasos 3 Camisetas 3 Babero 3 Martillos 3 Cucharas 4 Autobus 4 Vino 4 Pantalones 4 Medias 5 Metro 5 Shorts 7 Tren 5 Cerveza 6 Carnes de Res 7 Pollo 8 Barco 3 Auto 5 Entero 4 Desarmador 5 Grapas 5 Cubiertos 6 Medias 6 Juguetes 6 Podadora 6 Sartén 7 Traje 7 Cuna 7 Focos 7 Ollas 8 Pescado 8 Saco 8 8 Candiles 8 Mesa 9 Lancha 9 Mariscos 9 Sombrero 9 Mesa para cambiar 9 Madera 9 Cuchillos 10 Patines 10 Arroz 10 Corbata 10 Monitor 10 Cemento 10 Lavaplatos 11 Monopatín 11 Fideos 11 Falda 11 Zapatos 11 Vidrio 11 Detergente 12 Motocicleta 12 Frijoles 12 Blusa 12 Broches 12 Varilla 12 Esponja 13 13 Lentejas 13 Vestido 13 Triciclos 13 Puertas 13 Cepillo 14 14 14 Calcetines 14 Mecedora 14 Ventanas 14 Estufa 15 15 15 Corpiños 15 Cobija 15 Persianas 15 Microondas 16 16 16 Brasier 16 16 Refrigerador 17 17 17 Sombreros 17 18 18 18 16 Azulejo 17 Alfombra 18 Plantas 19 19 19 19 Bloques 19 20 20 20 20 Luces 20 6 Avión 48 4 Tenedores 17 Comida 18 Agua Participant #22 Medios de Transporte 1 Colectivo Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos 1 Vino 1 Pollera Los niños 1 Mamadera Bricolaje 1 Martillo La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Cocina 2 Auto 2 Gaseosas 2 Pantalón 2 Chupete 2 Hacha 2 Microondas 3 Camioneta 3 Sidra 3 Remera 3 Pañales 3 Heladera 4 Tren 4 Milanesa 4 Chaqueta 4 Cuna 5 Barco 5 Zanhoria 5 Medias 5 Calcetines 6 Bicicleta 6 Papas 6 Vestido 6 Carriola 7 Ferri 7 Pollo 7 Polera 7 Carseat 3 Clavos 4 Cartadora Pasto 5 Tenaza 6 Destornillador 7 Metro 8 Subte 8 Choclo 8 Chancletas 8 Sonajero 8 Lijadora 8 Sartén 9 9 Anana 9 Botas 9 Sacamocos 9 Motosierra 9 Cucharón 10 10 Manzana 10 Zapatilloas 10 Corralito 10 Tachuela 11 11 Ensalada 11 Camisa 11 Hamaca 11 12 12 Torta 12 Corbata 12 12 13 13 Banana 13 Jumper 13 13 10 Espátula 11 Molde de Tortas 12 Lavadora de Platos 13 Cubertera 14 14 Empanadas 14 Buso 14 14 14 15 15 Fideos 15 Collar 15 15 15 16 16 Sopas 16 Brazalete 16 16 16 17 17 17 Anillos 17 17 17 18 18 18 Aros 18 18 18 49 4 Cuchillos 5 Tendeores 6 Cucharas 7 Vasos Participant #6 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Autobus 1 Pan 1 Franela 1 Cuna 2 Carro 2 Manzana 2 Camisa 2 Pañalera 1 Pega de Madera 2 Martillo 3 Moto 3 Patilla 3 Chemi 3 Formula 3 Clavo 3 Vacija 4 Bicicleta 4 Cambur 4 Corbata 4 Tetero 4 Metro 4 Cubiertos 5 Camión 5 Harina Pan 5 Pantalón 5 Chupón 5 Escalera 5 Tenedor 6 Gandola 6 Salmón 6 Ropa Interior 6 Pañales 6 Cuchillo 7 Tren 7 Zanahoria 7 Collar 7 Monitos 7 Cuchara 8 Avión 8 Queso 8 Zarcillos 8 Camisetitas 6 Madera 7 Destornillador 8 Porcelana 9 Avioneta 9 Jamón 9 Anillos 9 Vestidos 9 Manguera 9 Cocina 10 Helicóptero 10 Melón 10 Zapatos 10 Toallitas Mojadas 10 Pintura 10 Licuadora 11 Camioneta 11 Aguacate 11 Medias 11 Porta Bebé 11 Potes 11 Tazas 12 Cadenas 12 Carriola 12 Alfombra 12 Copas 13 Chaquetas 13 Mamila 13 13 Ollas 1 Platos 2 Vasos 8 Cucharón 13 Lancha 12 Chile Serrano 13 Leche 14 Cruzero 14 Limón 14 Falda 14 14 14 Colador 15 15 Almendras 15 Vestido 15 15 15 Bandejas 16 16 Tomate 16 Suéter 16 16 17 17 Cebolla 17 Sudadera 17 17 18 18 Pimentón 18 Cartera 18 18 16 Abrelatas 17 Tabla de Cortar 18 Refractarios 19 19 Pepino 19 Cintillo 19 19 19 20 20 Piña 20 20 20 20 21 21 Huevos 21 21 21 21 22 22 Pimienta 22 22 22 22 23 23 Papa 23 23 23 23 24 24 Yuca 24 24 24 24 12 Barco 50 Participant #15 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Carro 1 Limón 1 Reloj 1 Juguetes 1 Martillo 1 Platos 2 Caminar 2 Naranja 2 Calcetines 2 Leche 2 Cinta 2 Vasos 3 Bicicleta 3 Manzana 3 Pantalones 3 Formula 3 Pinturas 3 Tenedores 4 Patineta 4 Melón 4 Camisas 4 Gerber 4 Desarmador 4 Cucharas 5 Rollerblades 5 Zanahoria 5 Cadenas 5 Sonajas 5 Taladros 5 Sartenes 6 Motocicleta 6 Plátano 6 Celular 6 Cunas 6 Cortadora 6 Licuadoras 7 Triciclo 7 Espinacas 7 Tenis 7 Pañales 7 Mesa 8 Avión 8 Celery 8 Zapatos 8 Toallitas 7 Pinzas 8 Bolsas de Trabajo 9 Chamarras 9 9 Dados 9 Estufa 10 Sacos 10 10 Lavadoras 10 Refrigerador 11 Cinturón 11 11 Lavaplatos 14 11 9 Carne de Res 10 Carne de Puerco 11 Pescado 12 12 Frijoles 12 Lentes 12 13 13 Garbanzo 13 Gorras 13 11 Secadoras 12 Refrigerador 13 Luces 14 14 Lentejas 14 Sombreros 14 14 9 Tren 10 Automóvil 51 8 Freidora 12 Microondas 13 Sillas Participant #20 Medios de Transporte 1 Carro Alimentos y Bebidas 1 Zanahoria Ropa y Complementos 1 Abrigo Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Biberón 1 Pintura 1 Tenedores 2 Camión 2 Mango 2 Camisa 2 Sonajas 2 Martillo 2 Cuchillos 3 Bicicleta 3 Naranja 3 Pantalones 3 Pañales 3 Clavos 3 Platos 4 Autobus 4 Apio 4 Corbata 4 Pijamas 4 Medidor 4 Vasos 5 Caballo 5 Sandía 5 Calcetines 5 Juguetes 5 Mantel 6 Carreta 6 Limón 6 Zapatos 6 Carritos 6 Microonda 7 Suéter 7 Muñeca 5 Cables 6 Ventanas 7 Tornillos 8 Ropa Interior 8 Pelota 8 Bañeras 8 Horno 9 Corella 9 Libros 9 Cemento 9 Sillas 10 10 Cuentos 10 10 Ollas 11 11 Música 11 11 11 7 Jugo de Tamarindo 8 Jugo de Maracuya 9 Jugo de Cereza 10 Jugo de Zanahoria 11 Frijoles 12 12 Arroz 12 12 12 12 13 13 Carne 13 13 13 13 14 14 Cereal 14 14 14 14 15 15 Espagetti 15 15 15 15 7 Barco 8 Avión 9 Tren 10 52 7 Hornilla Participant #24 Medios de Transporte 1 Carro Alimentos y Bebidas 1 Carne Ropa y Complementos 1 Zapatos Los niños 1 Juguetes Bricolaje 1 Lámparas La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Platos 2 Bici 2 Pollo 2 Zapatillas 2 Libros 2 Tornillos 2 Cucharas 3 Patines 3 Tomate 3 Blusa 3 Pantalón 3 Plantas 3 Cuchillo 4 Pies 4 Pepino 4 Camisa 4 Camisetas 4 Luces 4 Taza 5 Bote 5 Fresas 5 Panty 5 Shorts 5 Cocinas 5 Vaso 6 Tren 6 Plátanos 6 Medias 6 Zapatillas 6 Tenedor 7 Patines 7 Fideos 7 Short 7 Escuela 8 Avión 8 Manzana 8 Bra 8 Vacunas 6 Neveras 7 Microondas 8 Martillos 9 Camión 9 Espinaca 9 Fustán 9 Edad 9 Llaves 9 Cocina 10 Taxi 10 Zanahoria 10 Enagua 10 Dientes 10 Fuego 11 Moto 11 Lechuga 11 Falda 11 Juegos 12 12 Papas 12 Blumer 12 Fútbol 10 Cajeras 11 Máquinas 12 Líquidas 13 13 Taquitos 13 Lavador 14 Pinturas 14 Depósito 15 Brochas 15 Colador 16 16 Sopa 16 16 Cortinas 16 Nevera 17 17 Tacosa 17 17 Tinas 17 Microondas 18 18 Frijoles 18 13 Piano 14 Boy Scout 15 Verano 16 Vacaciones 17 Accidentes 18 Tenis 13 Limpieza 15 13 Refresco 14 Chicha Morada 15 Arroz 18 19 19 Tallarines 19 19 Parque 20 20 Sandía 20 20 18 Puertas 19 Colgadores 20 Buzones 21 21 Uvas 21 21 21 Cintas 21 14 14 Corbata 15 Cartera 53 7 Servilletas 8 Jabón 11 Agua 12 Jugo 19 20 Participant #12 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Avión 1 Zapallo 1 Chaqueta 1 Pijama 1 Pintar 1 Cuchara 2 Auto 2 Papas 2 Chaleco 2 Camisón 2 Cepillo 2 Plato 3 Barco 3 Cebolla 3 Pantalón 3 Pañales 3 Lija 3 Servilleta 4 Bicicleta 4 Comino 4 Calcetines 4 Mantilla 4 Lima 4 Tenedor 5 Moto 5 Cilantro 5 Camisa 5 Calcetas 5 Brocha 5 Cuchillo 6 Patín 6 Perejíl 6 Vestón 6 Juguetes 6 Clavos 6 Servilletero 7 Alas Delta 7 Lechuga 7 Polera 7 Sonajeros 7 Martillo 7 Panera 8 Camión 8 Zanahoria 8 Zapatos 8 Babero 8 Serrucho 8 Juguera 9 Bus 9 Pepinos 9 Zapatillas 9 Colgantes 9 Goma 9 Colador 10 Caballo 10 Tomates 10 Aros 10 10 Lápiz 10 Tijera 11 Camello 11 11 Collar 11 11 Madera 11 Ollas 12 Cohete 12 Aceitunas 12 Lentes 12 12 Cerraduras 12 Sartén 13 Monopatín 13 13 Gorro 13 13 Aceite 14 Patines 14 14 Medias 14 14 Azucar 15 Skateboard 15 15 Calzón 15 13 Tornilla 14 Destornillador 15 Alicate 16 16 16 Sandalias 16 16 16 Pinzas 17 17 17 Corbata 17 17 17 18 18 18 Pulsera 18 18 18 19 19 19 Reloj 19 19 19 20 20 20 Anillo 20 20 20 54 15 Vasos Participant #8 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas 1 Tren 1 Carne 2 Lancha 3 Auto Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Pantalones 1 Pañales 1 Martillo 2 Pollo 2 Camisa 2 Toalla 2 Clavos 2 Sartén 3 Arroz 3 Vestido 3 Mamadera 3 Madera 3 Cuchara 4 Bote 4 Porotos 4 Traje 4 Andador 4 Pintura 4 Licuadora 5 Avión 5 Lechuga 5 Pollera 5 Coche 5 Lija 5 Olla a Presión 6 Helicóptero 6 Huevos 6 Caravanas 6 Osito 6 Pincel 6 Cafetera 7 Yate 7 Sal 7 Anillo 7 Pelele 7 Rodillo 7 Batidora 8 Aeroplano 8 Pimienta 8 Pulsera 8 Pelluche 8 Huincha 8 Medidor 9 Piernas 9 Pan 9 Lentes 9 Chupete 9 Tornillos 9 Espumadora 10 Camión 10 Gaseosa 10 Polera 10 Talco 10 Tenedor 11 Camioneta 11 Cerveza 11 Cinto 11 Gorrito 12 Omnibus 12 Ron 12 Cartera 12 Bañera 10 Nivel 11 Destornillador 12 Pala 13 Patines 13 Tequila 13 Billetera 13 Pico 14 Coche 14 Limonada 14 Reloj 15 Caballo 15 Chorizo 15 Sandalias 13 Teta 14 Asiento de Auto 15 15 Alambre 13 Heladera 14 Lavadora de Platos 15 Escoba 16 16 Palta 16 Chalas 16 16 Piedras 16 Pala 17 17 Pepino 17 Buzo 17 17 Plantas 17 Trapos 18 18 Papa 18 Chaleco 18 18 Flores 18 Esponja 19 19 Boniato 19 Campera 19 19 Abono 19 20 20 Fideos 20 Polerón 20 20 20 21 21 Agua 21 Remera 21 21 21 22 22 Vino 22 Cadena 22 22 22 23 23 Pate 23 Medalla 23 23 23 55 14 Tierra 1 Olla 11 Cuchillo 12 Cocina Participant #52 Medios de Transporte 1 Buseta Alimentos y Bebidas 1 Mora Ropa y Complementos 1 Zapatos Los niños 1 Pañales Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Martillo 1 Estufa 2 Microbus 2 Marcacuya 2 Tennis 2 Tetero 2 Pegante 2 Nevera 3 Taxi 3 Guanabona 3 Pantuflas 3 Leche 3 Pinzas 3 Cuchillo 4 Tarifa 4 Mango 4 Camiseta 4 Chupo 4 Alicate 4 Cuchara 5 Carro 5 Ceruba 5 Chaqueta 5 Compota 5 Cerrucho 5 Tenedor 6 Tren 6 Fresa 6 Vestido 6 Cuna 6 Navaja 6 Plato 7 Bicicleta 7 Piña 7 Pantalon 7 Sonaja 7 Tijeras 7 Vaso 8 Moto 8 Papaya 8 Shorts 8 Panzelos 8 Cuchillo 8 Pasilla 9 Camión 9 Coco 9 Falda 9 Tina 9 Compresor de Aire 9 Tabla para Picar 10 Camioneta 10 Melocotón 10 Medias 10 Coche 10 Escoba 10 Olla 11 Auto 11 Durazno 11 Tacones 11 Silla de Seguridad 11 Lija 11 Cacerola 12 Chiva 12 Somdia 12 Sandalias 12 Juguetes 12 Pintura 13 Patines 13 Papa 13 Botas 13 Ropa 13 Pinceles 14 Motocicleta 14 Cebolla 14 Cinturon 15 Bus 15 Queso 15 Calzones 14 Remedios 15 Termómetro 14 Madera 15 Pistola de Aire 12 Cuchara de Pollo 13 Trapo 14 Jabon 15 Esnopajo 16 Transmitenso 17 Transvia 16 Jamon 16 Brasier 16 Copitos 16 Linterna 17 Huevos 17 Cachucha 17 Tollcos 18 Bote 18 Pan 18 Sombrero 18 Shampó 19 Varco 19 Leche 19 Aretes 19 Crema 17 Aceite 18 Desengrasante 19 Tornilla 16 Escorridor del Losa 17 Losa 18 Olla Express 19 Licuadora 20 Avioneta 20 Jalea 20 Collar 20 Perfume 20 Puntilla 20 Batidora 21 Avión 21 Marmelada 21 Anillo 21 Toalla 21 Extension Electrica 21 Bandeja 22 Helicóptero 22 Mayonesa 22 Saco 22 Chaqueta 22 Cargador 22 Horno Microndas 23 23 Galletas 23 Chaleco 23 Silla para Comer 23 23 Lava Platos 24 24 Arroz 24 Pijama 24 Cereal 24 24 Cajón 25 25 Aceite 25 Sudadera 25 Frutas 25 25 26 26 Bananas 26 Camisa Ombliguera 26 Cepillo 26 26 27 27 Patilla 27 Vestido de Baño 27 Vestidos 27 27 28 28 Pijamas 28 28 29 29 Caminador 29 29 30 30 30 30 28 29 30 28 Crema de Leche 29 Lechera 30 Leche Evaporada 56 Participant #71 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas 1 Bus 1 Lucuma 2 Camion 3 La Chancha 4 Rompe Huesos 5 La Guagua Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Gorra 1 Pañales 1 Pala 1 Tenedor 2 Palta 2 Bufanda 2 Coche 2 Serrucho 2 Cuchra 3 Chizirolla 3 Calzones 3 Gorrita 3 Rartillo 3 Cuchillo 4 Uva 4 Sosten 4 Pijamas 4 Clavos 4 Ollas 5 Lentejas 5 Pisana 5 Guantes 5 Escuadra 5 Tabla de Picar 6 Buseta 6 Porotoz 6 Calcetines 6 Caminador 6 Gato 6 Platos 7 La Yegua 7 Garbanzos 7 Zapatos 7 Locion 7 Pacanca 7 Colador 8 Taxi 8 Horchata 8 Camisas 8 Azaon 9 Colectivo 9 Zapallo 9 Poleras 9 Tijeras 10 Coleto 10 Mani 10 Berrudas 8 Colonia 9 Toallas Huredas 10 Cuchillo 8 Tijeras 9 Afilador de Cuchilla 10 Loba Bajidlas 11 La Burra 11 Manzanas 11 Short 11 Cortadora de Pasto 11 Cortadora de Pasto 12 El Troley 12 Peras 12 Chalas 12 Repizas 12 Repizas 12 Cucharon 13 Pullman 13 Platano 13 Correa 13 Pegarento 13 Regarento 13 Refrigerador 14 La Carreta 14 Lechuga 14 Chaleco 14 Duct Tape 14 Duct Tape 14 Expriridor 15 La Carroza 15 15 Poncho 15 La Gotita 15 La Gotita 16 16 16 Pasa Montañas 16 Pintura 16 Pintura 17 17 17 Corbata 17 Brochas 17 Brochas 15 Abrelatas 16 Copas de Redir 17 Rallador 18 18 18 Playera 18 18 18 Vasos 57 10 Cuchillo 11 Ensaladera Participant #85 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños 1 Motocicleta 1 Carne 1 Short 1 Diaper 2 Bicicleta 2 Pollo 2 T-shirt 2 Formula 3 Carro 3 Pescado 3 Pantalones 4 Tren 4 Arroz 5 Avión Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 2 Tenedor 3 Palma 1 Martillo 2 Desarmador 3 Alicate 4 Camisas 4 Carros 4 Tornillos 4 Platos 5 Fideos 5 Camisetas 5 Muñecas 5 Clavos 5 Sartén 6 Caballo 6 Frijoles 6 Medias 6 Peluches 6 Madera 6 Copal 7 Lancha 8 Moto de Nieve 7 Cebolla 7 Calzoncillos 7 Gorras 7 Cemento 7 Estufa 8 Ajo 8 Reloj de Mano 8 Zapatos 8 Ladrillos 8 Horno 9 Cuatri Moto 9 Naranja 9 Cincho 9 Shorts 9 Tubos 10 Scuter 10 Mango 10 Tacuche 10 Chamarras 10 Lavamanos 9 Horno de Microonda 10 Tabla de Cortar 11 11 Piña 11 Playera Deportiva 11 Cuna 11 Ducha 11 Olla 12 12 Zanahoria 12 Medias de Mujer 12 Medias 12 Lenolium 12 Cucharón 13 13 Tomate 13 Brasier 13 Compotas 13 Reglas 13 Licuadora 14 14 Ajete 14 Vestido 14 Polvo de Niños 14 Metros 14 Procesadora de Comida 15 15 Tuna 15 Falda 15 Leche 16 16 Salmón 16 Calzón 16 17 17 Clavo 17 17 18 18 Pimienta 18 19 19 Tomillo 20 21 22 1 Cuchara 3 Cuchillo 15 Molino de Granos 16 18 15 Engrapadora 16 Insulación 17 Ventilador 18 Filtros 19 19 19 Piedras 19 20 Laurel 20 20 20 Tierra 20 21 Aceite 22 Sazón de Pollo 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 58 17 18 Participant #66 Medios de Transporte Alimentos y Bebidas Ropa y Complementos Los niños Bricolaje La Cocina y sus Utensilios 1 Taxi 1 Carne 1 Gorra 1 Pañales 1 Pegamento 1 Vaso 2 Trufi 2 Pasta 2 Camisa 2 Zapatos 2 Zerrucho 2 Plato 3 Micro 3 Pollo 3 Falsa 3 Cuna 3 Medidora 3 Cucharra 4 Bus 4 Pezcado 4 Pantalones 4 Wamzies 4 Regla 4 Tenedor 5 Flota 5 Tomate 5 Zapatos 5 Babero 5 Reloj 5 Cuchillo 6 Camion 6 Cebolla 6 Tennis 6 Sonajera 6 Sierre 6 Copas 7 Carro 7 Frijoes 7 Zapatos Deportivos 7 Juguetes 7 Clavos 7 Place Matt 8 Limusina 8 Salchichas 8 Chamarra 8 Gerber 8 Tornillos 8 Cuchillo de Mesa 9 Carreta 9 Lechuga 9 Blusa 9 Martillos 9 Salero 10 Trufi Carro 10 Arbejas 10 Fustan 11 Gondola 11 Miel 11 Sosten 12 Camioneta 12 Arroz 12 Calzan 13 Tren 13 Azucar 13 Pantalon de Nieve 14 Avion 14 Cacao 15 Avioneta 9 Toallas Huinedas 10 Potty Training 11 Moises 12 Frazadita 10 Destornillador 11 Saca Clavos 10 Azucarrero 11 Cremero 12 Combo 12 Batidora 13 Biberones 13 Cuchilla 13 Secador de Platos 14 Chompa 14 Gorrita 14 Tape Scotch 15 Marreqarina 15 Chulo 15 Baby Oil 15 Escoba 16 Bote 16 Leche 16 Abrigo 17 Canoa 17 Huevos 17 Bufanda 16 Baby Lotion 17 Car Sit 18 Balsa 18 Queso 18 Pantaloneta 18 Muñecas 19 19 Pan 19 Polera 20 20 Pudin 14 Tenedor de Ensalada 15 Cucharilla de Postre 16 Saca Basurra 16 Cucharon 17 Corta Vidrio 18 Regla Metalica 17 Olla 19 Ganchas de Pañal 19 Hilo 19 Sarten 20 Polo 20 Zepillo 20 Hido de Odor para Medir 20 Olla Plana 18 Bandeja 21 Faja de Vestido 21 21 Mantel 21 Cacerloa 22 21 Maiz Cocido 22 Puerco 22 Media Nylon 22 22 23 23 Harina 23 23 23 24 24 Leche 24 24 24 22 Fuslero 23Aplastador de Papa 24 21 59 Appendix F Participant Responses to Visual Image Activity ID# 12 8 20 Auto Auto Carro Maletero Maletero Baúl Bus Omnibus Autobus Palomitas de Maíz Palomitas de Maíz Palomitas de Maíz Cucaracha Cucaracha Escarabajo Durazno Damasco Durazno Palta Palta Aguacate Porotos Porotos Granos Lentes Lentes Lentes Jardín Pasto Grama Cortadora de Pasto Cortadora de Pasto Máquina de Cortar Queque Bizcocho Pan Dulce Lapicero Lapicera Lapicero Acera Vereda Andén Tomar el Bus Tomar el Omnibus Subir el Autobus Conversar Conversar Conversar Image 60 24 31 40 35 Carro Carro Carro Carro Maletero Maleta Maletera Cajuela Autobus Autobus Omnibus Autobus Maíz Cotufa Pocor Palomitas de Maíz Insecto Escarabajo Cucaracha Escarabajo Durazno Durazno Durazno Durazno Palta Aguacate Palta Aguacate Granos Granos Porotos Legumbres Lentes Lentes Lentes Lentes Grama Grama Pasto Zacate Máquina de Cortar Cortadora de Grama Cortadora de Pasto Cortadora Dulce Ponqué Quequito Panecito Lapicero Pluma Lapicero Pluma Acera Acera Vereda Banqueta Tomar el Autobus Montar el Autobus Tomar el Bus Subir el Camión Conversar Socializar Conversar Platicar 61 71 52 44 78 Auto Carro Carro Carro Portamaletas Baúl Cajuela Cajuela Bus Bus Bus Camión Palomitas Maíz Pira Canguil Palomitas Escarabajo Bicho Escarabajo Escarabajo Durazno Durazno Durazno Durazno Palta Aguacate Aguacate Aguacate Legumbres Granos Fréjol Legumbres Lentes Gafas Lentes Lentes Pasto Jardín Césped Jardín Cortadora de Pasto Podadora Cortadora de Césped Podadora de Césped Queque Pastel Pastelillo Quequi Lápiz Lapicero Esferográfico Pluma Vereda Acera Vereda Banqueta Tomar el Bus Subirse al Bus Coger el Bus Tomar el Camión Socializar Hablar Conversar Socializar 62 18 95 61 53 Carro Auto Carro Auto ---- Baúl Baúl Cajuela Bus Camioneta Bus Bus Palomitas de Maíz Popuropo Maíz Pira Canguil Insecto Ron Ron Cucarrón Cucaracha Melocotón Durazno Durazno Durazno Aguacate Aguacate Aguacate Aguacate Granos Frijoles Frijol Fréjol Gafas Anteojos Lentes Lentes Grama Grama Jardín Césped Cortadora de Grama Cortadora de Césped Cortadora Podadora Pastelito Cubilete Muffin Muffin Lapicero Lapicero Esfero Esfero Acera Banqueta Acera Vereda Tomar el Bus Subir al Bus Agarrar el Bus Subirse al Bus Platicar Platicar Charlar Conversar 63 22 15 6 85 66 Auto Volswagen Carro Carro Carro Baúl Cajuela Cajuela Baúl Cajuela Colectivo Automovil Autobus Autobus Autobus Pororo Palomitas Cotupas Palomitas Pipocas Cascarudo Escarabajo Bicho Cucaracha Bicho Durazno Durazno Durazno Melocotón Durazno Aguacate Aguacate Aguacate Aguacate Palta Granos Semillas Granos Frijoles Porotos Lentes Lentes Lentes Anteojos Lentes Pasto Jardín Jardín Zacate Pasto Cortadora de Cesped Podadora Podadora Cortadora de Pasto Cortadora de Pasto Torta Panecillo Ponque Pastelito Pastel Lapicera Pluma Lapicero Lapicero Bolígrafo Vereda Banqueta Acera Acera Acera Tomar el Colectivo Subir el Transporte Subir el Autobus Tomar el Autobus Subirse al Micro Charlar Conversar Conversar Platicar Hablar 64 Bibliography Aaron, J. & Hernández, J. 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