Spectacled Caiman Caiman crocodilus

Anuncio
Spectacled Caiman Caiman crocodilus
Alvaro Velasco1 and José Ayarzagüena2
2
1
Aptdo Postal 66597, Caracas 1010, Venezuela ([email protected])
Fundación La Salle de Ciencias NaturalesApartado 1930Caracas1010Venezuela ([email protected])
Common Names: Spectacled caiman, common caiman,
baba (Venezuela), babilla (Colombia), guajipal (Nicaragua),
jacare tinga (Brazil), jacare, lagarto blanco (Peru), cocodrilo,
ocoroche, cascarudo, cachirre, tulisio, polulo (Mexico).
Need for wild population recovery: Low
Potential for sustainable management: High
2009 IUCN Red List: LRlc (Lower Risk, least concern,
probably numbers in the millions, widely distributed
throughout its range, although locally depleted or extirpated
in some localities) (IUCN 2009) (last assessed in 1996).
Important synonyms: Caiman sclerops
Principal threats:
threats Illegal hunting, habitat loss, hydroelectric
dam
Range: Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador,,
French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago,
Venezuela (introduced: Cuba, Puerto Rico, United States).
Introduction
Five subspecies of Caiman crocodilus have been recognized
previously. Caiman c. yacare, the southern form, is distributed
from southern Brazil through Bolivia, Paraguay, and
Argentina, and is generally accepted that it is a full species
(ie Caiman yacare) (see King and Burke 1989) - it is treated
as such in the CSG Action Plan (CSG 2009). Busack and
Pandya (2001), using morphological analysis, showed that
there were no differences between the subspecies. However,
recent mitochondrial DNA analysis demonstrated significant
genetic structures between and within Mesoamerica and
South America (Venegas-Anaya et al. 2008).
Figure 1. Distribution of Caiman crocodilus. Populations in
Florida (USA), Puerto Rico and Cuba are introduced.
The most recent morphological (Busack and Pandya 2001)
and DNA analyses (Amato and Gatesby 1994) suggest that
C. c. fuscus and C. c. chiapasius form one natural group and
C. c. crocodilus and C. c. yacare another. However, Brazaitis
et al. (1998) recorded large differences in size distributions
among populations for both C. c. crocodilus and C. c. yacare
along a cline of over 1000 km in the Madeira River and its
tributaries. Vasconcelos and Campos (2007), who returned to
these places to quantify the variation and define geographical
boundaries, pustule species and their variants. Population
genetic analysis of C. crocodilus from South America has
been related by Vasconcelos et al. (2006).
Conservation Overview
Ecology and Natural History
CITES: Appendix II, except C. crocodilus apaporiensis
(Appendix I)
The Spectacled caiman is the most widely distributed of the
New World crocodilians, ranging from southern Mexico in
the North to Peru and Brazil in the South. It is also the most
geographically variable species in the Americas, with four
subspecies generally being recognized (Medem 1981; King
and Burke 1989; see above):
CSG Action Plan:
Availability of survey data: Adequate, except in Central
America where there is insufficient data available.
Velasco, A. and Ayarzagüena, J. (2010). Spectacled Caiman crocodilus. Pp. 10-15 in Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan.
Third Edition, ed. by S.C. Manolis and C. Stevenson. Crocodile Specialist Group: Darwin.
10
• C. c. crocodilus, the nominate form, distributed throughout
the Orinoco drainage and llanos in Venezuela, and the
Amazon drainage from Colombia through Brazil north
and east of Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Guyana and French
Guyana.
• C. c. fuscus, from Nicaragua to Atlantic coastal drainages
of Colombia (including the Magdelena River), Ecuador
and into western Venezuela.
• C. c. chiapasius, Medem (1981, 1983) referred to
distribution as Central America, Mexico to Pacific
Colombia and possibly Ecuador and to the Gulf of Uruba.
Over the last two decades some authorities have considered
C. c. chiapasius to be identical to C. c. fuscus. Recent
mtDNA work shows sufficient differences to consider C.
c. chiapasius a valid subspecies and that its distribution
is limited from Pacific coastal Oaxaca and Chiapas in
Mexico to El Salvador (Venegas-Anaya et al. 2008).
• C. c. apaporiensis, a narrower snouted form restricted
to the upper Apaporis River of Colombia, although a
cline of narrow-snouted caimans may be present across
Colombia and the Venezuelan llanos (Ayarzagüena 1984;
Ayarzagüena and Castroviejo 2008; Gorzula 1994).
sub-audible vibrations, bark and visual displays, similar to
behaviors described by Vliet (1989) in A. mississippiensis.
Another important characteristic is that hatchling and juvenile
groups remain together under female care for 12-18 months.
Figure 3. Tail arching and “flank vibrating” by C. crocodilus.
Photograph: Andres Seijas.
Investigations into feeding behavior indicate many unique
hunting techniques and that the amount of prey items taken
varies according to time of year, sex, and size of the caiman
(eg Allsteadt and Vaughan 1994). Information is available on:
aspects of the ecology of the species in the Venezuelan Llanos
(Staton and Dixon 1975; Seijas 1984, 1986; Gorzula 1987);
group fishing (Thorbjarnarson 1993); relationship between
clutch and egg size and female size (Staton and Dixon 1977;
Thorbjarnarson 1994); parasites, injuries, growth and diet
in Brazilian Amazonia (Magnusson 1985; Magnusson and
Sanaiotti 1995; Magnusson et al. 1987; Da Silveira and
Magnusson 1999); and various other parameters (eg habitat
selection, wariness, migration, etc.; eg Allsteadt and Vaughan
1992; Bolaños et al. 1997; Cerrato 1991; Chiriví 1973;
Escobedo 2006, 2008; Martinez-Ibarra et al. 1997; Ouboter
and Nanhoe 1987, 1988; Pacheco 1990; Ron et al. 1998;
Perez 2001).
The Spectacled caiman is a medium-sized crocodilian
(maximum length in males 2.7 m; Ayarzagüena 1983), that
is extremely adaptable in terms of habitat requirements,
occupying rivers, caños or creeks, lagoons, lakes, borrow
pits, swamps, dams and marshes. Female Spectacled caiman
reach sexual maturity at about 1.2 m and lay an average of
28-32 eggs in a mound nest, usually during the annual wet
season (Thorbjarnarson 1994; Velasco et al. 1996). A close
relationship between precipitation in certain months and the
proportion of females that reproduce in that year has been
reported (Ayarzagüena and Castroviejo 2008).
Conservation and Status
Figure 2. Adult C. c. fuscus. Photograph: Matt Brien.
Owing to the extensive development of ventral osteoderms
(boney inclusions), caiman belly skins are of inferior
commercial quality compared to those of crocodiles and the
American alligator, and usually only the flanks are used from
large animals. Because of the low value of the skin, caiman
exploitation did not begin until the 1950s when stocks of
the more valuable classic crocodile species had dwindled.
However, since the 1950s, millions of caiman have been
harvested and C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus continue to
supply the vast majority of skins on the international market
(Velasco 2005).
Ayarzagüena and Castroviejo (2008) summarise the species’
ecology and behavior in detail. They comment that the genus
Caiman, along with Alligator, shows the most elaborate
behaviors known in crocodilians. Spectacled caiman behavior
includes complex sound signals: “warning calls” emitted by
female to the young; “distress call” emitted by juveniles;
and, “group cohesion calls” emitted by all individuals. Males
display social behaviours: “vertical tail” and “arch tail” with
Caiman appear to have been quite resilient to commercial
hunting for a number of reasons, but particularly because
they reproduce at a relatively small size, and hunting in many
areas seems to have been concentrated on larger adult males.
Another important factor has been the near extirpation of
larger, sympatric species of crocodilian of greater commercial
value. For example, caiman in Brazilian Amazonia occupy
habitats that were formerly dominated by Melanosuchus
niger (Magnusson 1982). Furthermore, in areas such as
11
the llanos of Venezuela and Colombia, the proliferation of
man-made water bodies (eg borrow pits) has increased the
carrying capacity for caiman populations in these habitats.
Although they may be locally depleted, present populations
may be larger than they were historically. The ecological
adaptability of the Spectacled caiman is evidenced through its
rapid population growth where it has been introduced, both
accidentally and deliberately. Introduced (feral) populations
are established in the United States (especially Florida),
Puerto Rico (Watlington 2002), Cuba (under harvest since
1995; Berovides et al. 2000) and Colombia (San Andres
Island; Forero et al. 2006).
farms is also underway, where populations will be monitored
in collaboration with local communities in south of Bolivar
(Mercado and Palacios 2006; Palacios et al. 2008) and in
Cispata Bay (Ulloa et al. 2005).
The distribution and status of C. c. apaporiensis is unknown,
and its evaluation through surveys and habitat characterization
remains a high priority.
Over the last 12 years, various populations across the species’
range have been evaluated.
Brazil: Caiman populations, especially in the Amazon area,
have been evaluated through several studies indicating wild
populations are stable or continuing to grow (Marioni et al.
2008; Da Silveira et al. 2008; Vasconcelos et al. 2006; Da
Silveira et al. 1997; Rebelo and Lugli 2001). Campos et al.
(2008) showed that size distributions of breeding females in
the Central Amazon vary greatly between populations and
legal size limits will be more effective if based on data from
local populations. A captive breeding program is in place for
C. c. crocodilus (Coutinho and Luz 2008).
Figure 4. Farmed C. c. fuscus in Colombia. Photograph: Matt
Brien.
Colombia: Colombia is the largest producer of C. c. fuscus,
with export of over 7.8 million skins between 1995 and 2007
(Medrano and Gómez 2008). Farms are based on closed-cycle
captive breeding of C. c. fuscus and C. c. crocodilus.
Costa Rica: Small areas have been studied, showing a reduced
population but improved status from earlier reports (Cabrera
et al. 2003). Escobedo and González (2006, 2008) reported
that caiman populations were male-biased in the Sierpe
River (southern Pacific coast) and Caño Negro National
Wildlife Refuge (NWR) located at northern Caribbean coast.
The Sierpe River population had reduced numbers in the
reproductive size classes (over 120 cm), probably in response
to overexploitation, while in Caño Negro NWR the population
size and structure do not appear to have been impacted as
much as the latter.
Recent surveys of C. c. fuscus in Cispata Bay (Ulloa and
Cavanzo 2003; Cavanzo 2004) and Via Parque Isla de
Salamanca (Balaguera and Reina 2009) report population
size structure is dominated by hatchlings and juveniles, and
that densities are lower than those reported previously by
Rodriguez (2000).
Several conservation programs have been initiated, with
the participation of communities, private enterprises and
environmental authorities. In 2004 a pilot program was
designed, which included the harvesting and incubation of
eggs and breeding of caimans by fishing communities. Later,
the hatched individuals were raised for a year and released in
different swamps of the Canal del Dique (Bolívar State), in
the same areas where the eggs were originally harvested. The
study finished in 2006 (Fundación Biodiversa 2005).
El Salvador: Escobedo et al. (2004) report the first crocodilian
surveys in El Salvador, with a very depleted population for
C. crocodilus; only four caimans were recorded at 9 sites.
Recent studies in RAMSAR-designated Laguna el Jocotal
(Martínez 2005), The Natural Conservation Area Santa Rita
and el Zanjón el Chino (Martínez and Dueñas 2007) reported
small C. crocodilus populations.
Guyana A program based on the harvest of wild C. crocodilus
Guyana:
populations is in place.
Based on the successful experiences of the Canal del Dique
program, a larger program was implemented in the State
of Atlántico in 2005 (eg Palencia et al. 2006; Rojano and
Velasco 2006). This program involved the reintroduction
of over 15,000 yearling and sub-adult individuals, which
comprised the repopulation quotas of the closed-cycle
breeding farms, into the wetlands where the species had
been almost totally removed. This program continues, and
reintroduced populations have shown rapid growth (Rueda et
al. 2007; Medrano and Rojano 2009). Another conservation
program based on reintroduction of C. c. fuscus from private
Honduras: Detailed information on caiman population status
is not available, although some research has been undertaken
(eg Trujillo Bay Conservation Area with small caiman
population; Cerrato 2002).
Mexico: Flores (2002, 2005) reported a stable population of
C. c. chiapasius in Chiapas State, and Aguilar-Galindo et al.
(2005) monitored caiman populations in Chiapas State and
reported good status.
12
Nicaragua A recent C. crocodilus population survey was
Nicaragua:
conducted in 2009, indicating populations in the Caribbean
watersheds are stable and tending to increase, but still facing
several human pressures (Buitrago 2009).
Historically, illegal trade in caiman skins has been an issue in
Latin America, but in recent years there have been few reports.
Legal production of caiman skins exceeds one million skins
per year (Velasco, in press), and improved enforcement and
CITES implementation appears to have reduced the flow of
illegal skins.
Panama: Panamanian authorities are preparing the first national
census of C. crocodilus (and C. acutus). Currently, the National
Secretary of Science and Technology, Smithsonian Institution
(SI), and Texas Tech University (TTU) are developing a longterm study on population dynamics and population genetics
using molecular and telemetry tools. The Panamanian
Government in collaboration with SI and TTU are designing
the Panama Canal management plan of conservation and
sustainable use of C. acutus and C. crocodilus. Panama also
has collaborative research with most of the Central American
and Caribbean countries on the systematic and geographic
history of Caiman and Crocodylus lineages (M. VenegasAnaya, pers, comm.). A captive breeding program has been
implemented in Panama.
Venezuela: Since 1983, Venezuela has operated the largest
cropping program for any species of crocodilian, based on
controlled hunting by private landowners. The system allows
private landowners to harvest up to 20% of caiman above 1.8
m total length each year, effectively restricting the harvest to
adult males. Quotas were initially established based on census
data from each property, provided by licensed surveyors
engaged by the property owners. Annual exports average
70,000-90,000 skins. The program also includes a rigorous
system of licensing of producers and processors, centralized
inspection and storage of skins and careful monitoring of
tanneries and exports.
Figure 5. Introduced (feral) C. crocodilus in Florida, USA.
Photograph: Jemeema Carrigan.
Priority Projects
High priority
1. Taxonomic study of the Caiman crocodilus complex:
The relationships among the C. crocodilus complex are
still poorly understood. This has created conservation
problems due to the inability to recognize sub-species
that may differ in trade restrictions. Investigation of the
southern C. crocodilus - C. yacare relationship is underway
but remains inconclusive. In the near future such research
should include the use of genetic tools, such as DNA
analysis, to determine phylogenetic relationships within
the C. crocodilus complex.
Annual evaluations of the program and independent surveys
in 1991-1992 suggested overexploitation in some areas
(Velasco and Ayarzagüena 1995). In 1994, a new method
of assigning harvest quotas was established, and the annual
export quota was set at 70,000 skins. Currently, quotas are
assigned on the basis of regional surveys, ecological region
and the size of the property, and restricted to 15% of the class
IV (1.8 m length) individuals (Velasco et al. 1995). The values
generated are compared with the regional average values
derived independently by the CITES Management Authority,
and adjustments to the estimated population and harvest quota
are calculated (De Sola and Velasco 1994). The program
offers an unparalleled opportunity to establish experimental
harvesting regimes in conjunction with population studies.
2. Survey of Apaporis River caiman in Colombia: Caiman
c. apaporiensis is believed to be present only in the upper
and middle Apaporis River, and some adjacent areas, in
southern Colombia. No recent information on the status
of these populations is available, and surveys are urgently
needed to determine it.
In 1996, Venezuela implemented a complete halt to caiman
harvesting to allow detailed analysis of the effect on
populations (Quero and Velasco 1995). Harvest re-opened in
1997 based on the results of extensive re-evaluation of wild
populations. Evaluation of harvest effect determines which
caiman populations will be harvested (Velasco et al. 2003).
Caiman populations under wild harvest were continually
evaluated (Velasco et al. 1997; Colomine et al. 2000;
Villarroel et al. 2002), and a healthy status reported (Velasco
et al. 2003).
3. Ecology and population dynamics: Research into
ecology, population dynamics and population genetics in
regions under commercial use regimes (eg wild cropping,
captive breeding, ranching) is needed. Evaluation of size
classes, surveys, land occupation patterns and harvest
effects are areas of interest. Long-term projects using
molecular and geographic data on population dynamics
and home range, integrating all small projects currently in
progress, are needed. Establish the distribution boundaries
and hybridization zones for the C. crocodilus lineage.
13
Moderate priority
IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group, IUCN: Gland.
4. Population surveys in Guyana and Nicaragua: Wild
C. c. crocodilus in Guyana and Nicaragua are harvested
through an annual quota. Research on population status
and the impact of the harvest are needed.
Bolaños, J., Sánchez, J. and Piedra, L. (1997). Inventario y
estructura poblacional de crocodílidos en tres zonas de
Costa Rica. Revista de Biología Tropical 44(3)/45(1):
283-287.
Buitrago, F., Torres, N., Medina, A. and Arroliga, O. (2009).
Conteo de los Crocodylia del Caribe y Río San Juan,
Nicaragua 2009. MARENA, Programa DR-CAFTA/Paso
Pacífico: Managua, Nicaragua.
Acknowledgements
Fabio Buitrago, Zilca Campos, Sergio Medrano-Bitar,
Miryam Venegas-Anaya, Armando Hiram Escobedo Galva,
Luciano Verdade and Juan Bolaños provided valuable input
into this plan.
Busack, S. and Pandya, S. (2001). Geographic variation in
Caiman crocodilus and Caiman yacare (Crocodylia:
Alligatoridaea): systematic and legal implications.
Herpetologica 57: 294-312.
References
Cabrera, J., Quesada, M., Urriola, M. and Cubero, R. (2003).
Distribución y abundancia de Caiman crocodilus en el
Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro, Costa
Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 51(2): 571-578.
Aguilar-Galindo, A. (2005). Evaluación del estado de
conservación del Caiman crocodilus fuscus (Mertens,
1943) durante el año 2003-2004, en el sistema lagunar de
Chantuto, Reserva de la Biosfera la Encrucijada, Chiapas,
México, Unpublished BSc Thesis, UAM, México DF.
Campos, Z.. Magnusson, W., Sanaiotti, T. and Coutinho, M.
(2008). Reproductive trade-offs in Caiman crocodilus
crocodilus and Caiman crocodilus yacare: implications
for size-related management quotas. Herp. J. 18: 91-96.
Allsteadt, J. and Vaughan, C. (1992). Dry season habitat
selection of Caiman crocodilus (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae)
in Caño Negro, Costa Rica. Brenesia 38: 65-69.
Cavanzo, D. (2004). Caracterización y diagnostico de las
poblaciones de Caiman crocodilus fuscus y su hábitat
natural. Bahía de Cispatá, Departamento de Córdova.
Unpublished BSc Thesis, Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana.
Allsteadt, J. and Vaughan, C. (1994). Food habits of Caiman
crocodilus in Caño Negro, Costa Rica. Vida Silvestre
Neotropical 3: 24-29.
Amato, G. and Gatesby, J. (1994). PCR assays of variable
nucleotide sites for identification of conservation units. Pp.
215-226 in Molecular Ecology and Evolution, Approaches
and Applications, ed. by B. Schierwater, G.P. Wagner and
R DaSalle. Birkauser Verlag: Basel.
Cerrato, C. (1991). Composición y tamaño de las poblaciones
silvestres de caimanes (Caiman crocodilus chiapasus) y
cocodrilos (Crocodylus acutus) de la costa Caribe de
Honduras, Centro América. Unpublished MSc Thesis
(Manejo y Conservación de Vida Silvestre). Programa
Regional en Manejo de Vida Silvestre para Mesoamérica
y el Caribe. Universidad Nacional, Heredia.
Ayarzagüena, J. (1984). Ecología del caimán de anteojos
(Caiman crocodilus L.) en los Llanos de Apure (Venezuela).
Doñana Acta Vert. 10(3): Seville, Spain.
Cerrato, C. (2002). Inventory of crocodiles in the Trujillo Bay
Conservation Area. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter
21(2): 16.
Ayarzagüena, J. and Castroviejo, J. (2008). La baba (Caiman
crocodilus) en la Estación Biológica El Frío (Estado
Apure). Llanos del Orinoco, Venezuela. Pp. 181-294 in
Contribución al Conocimiento del Género Caimán de
Suramérica, ed. by J. Castroviejo, J. Ayarzagüena and
A. Velasco. Publ, Asoc. Amigos de Doñana 18: Seville,
Spain.
Colomine, G., Velasco, A., De Sola, R., Villarroel, G., Lander,
A., Vázquez, W., Pino, T. and Corazzelli, J. (2000).
Evaluation of the density and structure of size class of the
Spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Alto and
Bajo Apure ecological regions, Venezuela. Pp. 304-309 in
Crocodiles. Proceeding of the 15th Working Meeting of the
IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland.
Balaguera-Reina, S. and González-Maya, J. (2009).
Estructura poblacional, abundancia y uso del hábitat de
Caiman crocodilus fuscus (Cope, 1868) en la Vía Parque
Isla Salamanca, Caribe Colombiano. Revista de Biología
Marina y Oceanografía 44(1): 145-152.
Coutinho, M. and Luz, V. (2008). Política Nacional para
la conservación y manejo de Caiman yacare en Brasil.
Situación de la especie, seguimiento, investigaciones
y regulaciones actuales. Pp. 71-82 in Contribución al
Conocimiento del Género Caiman de Suramérica, ed. by
J. Castroviejo, J. Ayarzagüena and A. Velasco. Publ, Asoc.
Amigos de Doñana 18: Seville, Spain.
Berovides V., Méndez, M. and Soberón, R. (2000). Análisis
de la explotación del caimán común o babilla (Caiman
crocodilus) en la Isla de la Juventud. Pp. 249-261 in
Crocodiles. Proceeding of the 15th Working Meeting of the
14
Da Silveira, R. and Magnusson, W. (1999). Diets of spectacled
and black caiman in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central
Amazonia, Brazil. J. Herpetol. 33(2): 181-192.
en ciclo cerrado y las comunidades para el desarrollo de
un sistema mixto de producción en la ecoregión canal del
dique. Mimeografiado 50 pp.
Da Silveira, R., Magnusson, W. and Campos, Z. (1997).
Monitoring and distribution, abundance and breeding
areas of Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger in
the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil.
J. Herpetol. 31(4): 514-520.
Gorzula, S. (1994). A longirostrine Caiman crocodilus from
central Venezuela. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter
13(3): 16.
IUCN (2009). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Ver.
2009.1 (www.iucnredlist.org; viewed 30 September
2009).
Da Silveira, R., Magnusson, W. and Thorbjarnarson, J.
(2008). Factors affecting the number of caiman seen
during spotlight surveys in Mamirauá Reserve, Brazilian
Amazonia. Copeia 2008(2): 425-430.
King, F.W. and Burke, R.L. (1989). Crocodilian, Tuatara and
Turtles Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic
Reference. Assoc. Systematics Collections: Washington,
DC.
De Sola, R. and Velasco, A. (1994). Commercial harvest of
caimans in Venezuela 1993 and 1994 seasons. Crocodile
Specialist Group Newsletter 13(3): 16-18.
Magnusson, W. (1982). Biological aspects of the conservation
of Amazonian crocodilians. Pp. 108-116 in Crocodiles.
Proceedings of the 5th Working Meeting of the IUCNSSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland.
Escobedo, A.H. (2006). Temperature variation in nest of
Caiman crocodilus (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae). Acta
Herpetologica 1(2): 131-134.
Magnusson, W.E. (1985). Habitat selection, parasites and
injuries in Amazonian crocodilians. Amazoniana 2: 193204.
Escobedo-Galván, A.H. (2008) Estructura poblacional y
proporción de sexos en Caiman crocodilus en Caño Negro,
Costa Rica. Iheringia Sér Zool 98(4):489-492
Magnusson, W.E., Da Silva, E.V. and Lima, A.P. (1987). Diets
of Amazonian crocodiles. J. Herpetol. 21: 85-95.
Escobedo, A.H., Dueñas, C. and Martínez, C. (2004). Notes
on crocodiles in El Salvador. Crocodile Specialist Group
Newsletter 23(3): 14.
Magnusson, W.E. and Sanaiotii, T.M. (1995). Growth of
Caiman crocodilus crocodilus in Central Amazonia,
Brazil. Copeia 1995:498-501.
Escobedo, A. and Gonzalez Maya, J.F. (2006). Estructura
poblacional y proporción de sexos del Caimán (Caiman
crocodilus) en el río Sierpe, Costa Rica. Acta Zoologica
Mexicana 22(2): 151-153.
Marioni, B., Da Silveira, R., Magnusson, W. and
Thorbjarnarson, J. (2008). Feeding behavior of two
sympatric caiman species, Melanosuchus niger and
Caiman crocodilus, in the Brazilian Amazon. J. Herpetol.
42(4): 768-772.
Escobedo, A. and Gonzalez Maya, J.F. (2008). Estado
poblacional del Caimán, Caiman crocodilus, en el Refugio
Nacional de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro, Costa Rica.
Yu’am: Revista Mesoamericana de la Conservación 1(1):
15-22.
Martínez, C.C. (2005). Distribución, abundancia y composición
por tallas de las poblaciones de crocodrilianos presentes en
el sitio Ramsar, Laguna El Jocotal, Departamento de San
Miguel, El Salvador. Unpublished Thesis, Universidad de
El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador.
Flores, C. (2002). Estado actual de la población del
Caiman crocodilus chiapasius en El Castaño, Chiapas.
COMACROM: Mexico.
Martinez-Ibarra, J.A., Naranjo, E. and Nelson, K.C. (1997).
Las poblaciones de cocodrilos (Crocodylus acutus) y
caimanes (Caiman crocodilus) en una zona pesquera de
la reserva de la biosfera La Encrucijada, Chiapas, México.
Vida Silvestre Neotropical 6: 21-28.
Flores, C.G. (2005). Caracterización de una población del
Caiman crocodilus chiapasius en El Castaño, Reserva de
la Biosfera La Encrucijada, Chiapas, México. Unpublished
BSc Thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
México D.F.
Martínez, C. and Dueñas, C. (2007). Observaciones
preliminares de Caiman crocodilus en el Área Natural
Protegida Santa Rita y El Zanjón El Chino, El Salvador.
Mesoamericana 10: 38-41.
Forero-Medina, G., Castaño-Mora, O.V. and RodríguezMelo, M. (2006). Ecología de Caiman crocodilus fuscus
en San Andrés isla, Colombia: Un estudio preliminar.
Caldasia 28(1): 115-124.
Medem, F. (1981). Los Crocodylia de Sur América. Vol I. Los
Crocodylia de Colombia. Colciencias: Bogotá.
Fundación Biodiversa (2004). Desarrollo de un proyecto
para determinar la relación entre conservación y uso de la
especie Caiman crocodilus fuscus por parte de la zoocría
Medrano, S. and Gómez, A. (2008). Conservación y
15
aprovechamiento de la baba o babilla (Caiman crocodilus,
Linnaeus 1756) en Colombia. Pp. 23-69 in Contribución
al conocimiento del Género Caiman de Suramérica, ed. by
J. Castroviejo, J. Ayarzagüena and A. Velasco. Publ, Asoc.
Amigos de Doñana, 18: Seville, Spain.
4): 1095-1109.
Rodríguez, M. (2000). Estado y distribución de los Crocodylia
en Colombia. Ministerio del Medio Ambiente and Instituto
Alexander von Humboldt: Colombia.
Medrano-Bitar, S.A. and Rojano, A.M. (2009). Conservation
program, sustainable use and management of some
wetlands in the State of Atlántico, Phase II Corporacion
Regional del Atlantico (CRA). Pp. 94-99 in Crocodiles.
Proceedings of the 19th Working Meeting of the IUCNSSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland.
Rojano, A. and Velasco, A. (2006). Repopulation of babillas
in Tocagua Swamp. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter
25(2): 9-10.
Ron, R.S., Vallejo, A. and Andanza, E. (1998). Human
influence on the wariness of Melanosuchus niger and
Caiman crocodilus in Cuyabeno, Ecuador. J. Herpetol.
32(3): 320-324.
Mercado, A. and Palacios, I. (2006). Plan de acción para la
conservación de la especie Babilla (Caiman crocodilus
fuscus) en jurisdicción de la Corporación Autónoma
Regional del Sur de Bolívar - CSB, Colombia. Pp. 231236 in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 18th Working
Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group,
IUCN: Gland.
RuedaAlmonacid J.V., Carr, J.L, Mittermeier, R.A., RodriguezMahecha, J.V., Mast, R.B., Vogt, R.C., Rhodin, A.G.J., de
la Ossa-Velasquez, J., Rueda, J.N. and Mittermeier, C.G.
(2007). Las Tortugas y los Cocodrilianos de los Países
Andinos del Trópico. Serie de Guías Tropicales de Campo
Nº 6. Conservacion Internacional, Editorial Panamericana,
Formas e Impresos: Bogotá, Colombia.
Outboter, P.E. and Nanhoe, L.M. (1987). Notes on nesting and
paternal care in Caiman crocodilus crocodilus in northern
Suriname and an analysis of crocodilian nesting habitats.
Amphibia-Reptilia 8: 331-348.
Seijas, A.E. (1984). Estimaciones poblacionales de babas
(Caiman crocodilus) en los Llanos occidentals de
Venezuela. Ministerio del Ambiente y de Recursos
Naturales Renovables (PT) Serie Informes Técnicas
DGSIIA/IT/165,1-23.
Ouboter, P.E. and Nanhoe, L.M.R. (1988). Habitat selection
and migration of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus in a
swamp and swamp-forest habitat in northern Suriname. J.
Herpetol. 22: 283-294.
Seijas, A. (1986). Estimaciones poblacionales de babas
(Caiman crocodilus) en los llanos occidentales de
Venezuela. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 1(1): 24-30.
Pacheco, L. (1990). Wariness of caiman populations and its
effect on abundance estimates. J. Herpetol. 30: 123-126.
Staton, M.A. and Dixon, J. (1975). Studies on the dry
season biology of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus from the
Venezuelan llanos. Society Ciencias Naturelaza La Salle
35: 237-266.
Palacios, I., Gómez, J., Lagares, P., Tecillo, A., Zambrano,
R., Hoyos, J. And Ruiz, M. (2008). Plan de acción para
la conservación de la especie babilla (Caiman crocodilus
fuscus) en el complejo cenagoso B15, municipios de Achí,
Altos del Rosario, Barranco de Loba, Pinillos, San Martín
de Loba y Tiquisio, en jurisdicción de la Corporación
Autónoma Regional del Sur de Bolívar - CSB. Ministerio
de Ambiente Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial: Bogotá.
Staton, M.A. and Dixon, J. (1977). Breeding biology of the
spectacle caiman, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus in the
Venezuelan llanos. Wildlife Research Report (U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service) 5: 1-21.
Palencia, L.T., Rojano, A.M. and Bedrano-Bitar, S.A. (2006).
Return of the “babilla” (Caiman crocodilus fuscus): a key
species in the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands
in the Department of Atlantico (Colombia). Crocodile
Specialist Group Newsletter 25(3): 15-17.
Thorbjarnarson, J.B. (1993). Fishing behavior of spectacled
caiman in the Venezuelan Llanos. Copeia 1993: 11661171.
Thorbjarnarson, J.B. (1994). Reproductive ecology of the
spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Venezuelan
llanos. Copeia 1994(4): 907-919.
Pérez, T. (2001). Incubacion artificial de huevos de baba
(Caiman crocodilus crocodilus). Zootecnia Tropical 19(2):
151-164.
Ulloa, G. and Cavanzo, D. (2003). Conservación, manejo y
uso sostenible de la babilla (Caiman crocodilus fuscus) en
la Bahía de Cispata. Etapa I: caracterización y diagnostico
de las poblaciones de Caiman crocodilus fuscus y su
hábitat natural. Corporación Autónoma Regional de los
Valles del Sinu y de San Jorge (CVS): Departamento de
Córdoba.
Quero, M. and Velasco, A. (1985). Ecological pause for
caiman harvest. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter
14(4): 14-15.
Rebelo, G. and Lugli, L. (2001). Distribution and abundance
of four caiman species (Crocodylia: Alligatoriadea) in Jaú
National Park, Amazonas, Brazil. Rev. Biol. Trop. 49(3-
Ulloa, G., Sierra, C. and Cavanzo, D. (2005). Proyecto de
16
conservación del Crocodylus acutus (Curvier, 1807) y
su hábitat natural - Bahía de Cispatá, Departamento de
Córdoba - Colombia. Pp. 118-126 in Reunión Regional
de América Latina y el Caribe del Grupo de Especialista
en Cocodrilos (CSG/SSC/IUCN). IUCN: Gland. (CD
Publication).
de cocodrilos desde Latino América y el Caribe. Pp. 127143 in Reunión Regional de América Latina y el Caribe del
Grupo de Especialistas en Cocodrilos (CSG/SSC/IUCN).
IUCN: Gland. (CD Publication).
Velasco, A., De Sola, R. and Quero, M. (1995). Programa de
manejo de la baba (Caiman crocodilus) de Venezuela. Pp.
213-220 in La Conservación y el Manejo de Caimanes y
Cocodrilos de América Latina, ed. by A. Larriera and L.
Verdade. Fundación Banco Bita: Santa Fe, Argentina.
Vasconcelos, W.R., Hrbek, T., Da Silveira, R., De Thoisy,
B., Marioni, B. and Farias, I.P. (2006). Population genetic
analysis of Caiman crocrodilus (Linnaeus, 1758) from
South America. Genetics and Molecular Biology 29(2):
220-230.
Velasco, A., De Sola, R., Colomine, G., Villarroel, G., Cordero,
G., León, N., Miranda, R., Oropeza, E., Ochoa, A., Pino,
T. Quero, M., Silva, M., Vázquez, W. and Corazzelli, J.
(1997). Monitoreo de las poblaciones de baba (Caiman
crocodilus) por regiones ecológicas: I. Situación actual
de la densidad y estructura de tamaños. Pp. 221-227 in
Memorias de la 4ta Reunión Regional de Especialistas
en Cocodrilos de América Latina y del Caribe. Centro
Regional de Innovación Agroindustrial S.C.: Villahermosa,
Tabasco.
Vasconcelos, W. and Campos, Z. (2007). Geographic variation
between Pantanal caiman (Caiman crocodilus yacare) and
Amazonian caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus): First
Phase. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 26(4): 6-7.
Velasco, A. (2009). Crocodile management, conservation and
sustainable use in Latin America. Pp. 72-88 in Crocodiles.
Proceedings of the 19th Working Meeting of the IUCNSSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland.
Venegas Anaya, M., Crawford, A.J., Galván, A.H.E.,
Sanjur, O.I., Densmore III, L.D. and Bermingham, E.
(2008). Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of Caiman
crocodilus in Mesoamerica and South America. J. Exp.
Zool. 309A(10): 614-627.
Velasco, A. and Ayarzagüena, J. (1995). Situación actual de
las poblaciones de baba (Caiman crocodilus) sometidas
a aprovechamiento comercial en los llanos venezolanos.
Publicación de la Asociación de Amigos de Doñana. No
5. 71 pp.
Villarroel, G., Velasco, A., Colomine, G., De Sola, R., Lander,
A., Pino, T., Vásquez, W. and Corazzelli, J. (2002).
Monitoring wild populations of Caiman crocodilus (babas)
in Guárico and Llanos Boscosos Ecological Regions. Pp.
224-230 in Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 16th Working
Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group.
IUCN: Gland.
Velasco, A., Colomine, G., De Sola, R. and Villarroel, G.
(2003). Effects of sustained harvest on wild populations of
Caiman crocodilus crocodilus in Venezuela. Interciencia
28(9): 544-548.
Velasco, A., Colomine, G., Villaroel, G., Camacaro, O., De
Sola, R., León, N., Oropeza, E., Pérez-Hernandez, R.,
Pino, T., Quero, M., Ramos, J., Ramos, S., Sanchez, G. and
Vázquez, W. (1996). Surveying nest of spectacled caiman
(Caiman crocodilus) in ecological areas of Venezuelan
llanos. In
I Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 13th Working
Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group,
IUCN: Gland.
Vliet, K.A. (1989). Social displays of the American alligator.
Amer. Zool. 29(3): 1019-1031.
Watlington, F. (2002). Stranger in a lost paradise: Caiman
crocodilus, Puerto Rico’s own aliengator. Pp. 239-243 in
Crocodiles. Proceeding of the 16th Working Meeting of the
IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN: Gland.
Velasco, A. and De Sola, R. (2005). Exportaciones de pieles
17
Descargar