' , "( .' ),( %'- ' % ,-%"&"'-( % .'-"2"8' % '+ 6 1 *. "',-"' ('," ."8 0)%"+ .' './( '8&'( .-"%"2'( ,- .'-"2"8' .'( "%.&"'&(, .' ,.)+3" &-4%" #( "+-, ('""(', *. /+&(, )(,-+"(+&'- 5,- &"- %-+(', 1 ,- '8&'( , ('( (&( % -( (-(%5-+"( ' )+"'")"( % -( (-(%5-+"( , ). 0)%"+ , % ).'-( /",- %4,"( 1 *. %( 9'"( *. (.++ , *. % "%.&"'+ % &-% ,-&(, 4'(% '+ 6 1 ," %(, %-+(', ,(+' ,- '+ 6 )(+4' ,%"+ % &-% 1 )(+ -'-( % &-% &"- %-+(', "' &+ ( !1 .' ,+" !!(, 0)+"&'-%, *. (&( /+&(, '( , ).' 0)%"+ , % ).'-( /",- %4,"( ' % 3 .+ , &.,-+ .' ",)(,"-"/( -6)"( )+ ,-."+ % -( (-(%5-+"( % &-% , "%.&"'( &"-"'( %-+(', *. ,(' +( "(, )(+ % (%-(+ '-+ 1 0",- .' "+'" )(-'"% *. , ). /+"+ +"-++"&'- (+ 9%-"&( % %/'8&-+( *. &" % (++"'- %5-+" '(, )+&"- &"+ % '9&+( %-+(', +( "(, )(+ % (%-(+ )(+ .'" -"&)( Metal A Cristal de cuarzo B Haz de luz G V " +)+,'-&(, % "'-'," (++"'- &" )(+ % %/'8&-+( ' .'"8' % "+'" )(-'"% '-+ % &-% 1 % (%-(+ )+ .' +.'" 3# % %.2 "'"'- 1 (, "'-',", ",-"'-, '(, '('-+&(, (' .+/, ,"&"%+, %, *. , &.,-+' ' % 3 .+ i Ia a Ib b -Vo V 0 ' )+"&+ %. + )+ "+'", )(-'"% ,.3"'-&'- +', % "'-'," &" )(+ % %/'8&-+( %'2 .' ,-.+"8' ,- ,-.+"8' (++,)(' *. -((, %(, %-+(', &"-"(, )(+ % &-% ,(' +( "(, )(+ % (%-(+ (+ (-+( %( ," "'/+-"&(, % )(%+" % "'-'," '( +( "+-&'- %( .% '(, "'" *. %(, %-+(', ,(' &"-"(, (' .' "+- '+ 6 "'5-" + .' )(-'"% ' -"/( -+ &"'( '(&"'( % )(-'"% )+ % "'-'," &" )(+ % %/'8&-+( , '.% ,- )(-'"% )+ , .' &" "+- % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, %-+(', &"-"(, &(( *. 0)+"&'-%&'- , (,+/ *. ,- '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& ( % )(-'"% )+ '( )' % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- (&( , )+" ' % 3 .+ '-+"(+ %( *. ," )' % )(-'"% )+ , % +.'" % +""8' 1 % '-.+%2 % &-% ' % ," ."'- 3 .+ , &.,-+ % )''" % )(-'"% )+ (' % +.'" )+ % ,( % ,("( Vo (Na) 3 2 νo 1 4 8 ν 12 (1014/s) (+ -'-( % )(-'"% )+ , ). 0)+,+ % ," ."'- (+& 0)+"&'-%&'- , '('-+8 *. % (',-'- , .'"/+,% 1 '( )' % '-.+%2 % &-% "' &+ ( % (',-'- ," *. )' % &-% *. , -+- 0",- .' -+&"' +.'" )+ % .% % )(-'"% )+ 1 )(+ -'-( % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, %-+(', &"-"(, , '.%( ,- +.'" , '(&"' +.'" .&+% (+ #( % +.'" .&+% '( , &"-' %-+(', 1 )(+ %( -'-( '( , (,+/ % -( (-(%5-+"( (&( "#"&(, '-+"(+&'- 0",-' .' ,+" !!(, 0)+"&'-%, *. '( , ).' 0)%"+ %4,"&'- &(, '.&++ ,-(, !!(, ' )+"&+ %. + , 9' % %-+(& '-",&( % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, % -+(', +6 .&'-+ (' % "'-'," % %.2 &(( *. &1(+ "'-'," % %.2 ,+4 &1(+ % '+ 6 *. "'" )(+ .'" 4+ 1 -"&)( ' % &-% 1 )(+ -'-( +6 ,+ &1(+ % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, %-+(', &"-"(, )+( !&(, /",-( *. ,-( '( , ,6 '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, %-+(', &"-"(, )' % +.'" 1 '( % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- ' , .'( %. + )+ .%*."+ +.'" % +""8' "'"'- , +6' &"-"+ %-+(', (' -% *. % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- , %( ,.3 "'-&'- +' "' &+ ( , 9' !&(, /",-( )(+ #( % +.'" (+- '( , &"-' %-+(', , .% , % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- (+ 9%-"&( ," % "'-'," % %.2 , ,.3"'-&'- 5"% (&( ,- , ",-+".1 .'"(+&&'- ' % !2 +6 !+ .' +-+,( '-+ % +)"8' % %.2 1 % &","8' %-+(', &(( *. .' %-+8' *."+ ,.3"'- '+ 6 (&( )+ ,%"+ % &-% "' &+ ( 0)+"&'-%&'- , (,+/ *. % &","8' %-+(', , "',-'-4' .'*. % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- , &.1 )*.7 ' % &(&'-( %% % +""8' , &)"2' &"-"+ %-+(', ' "',-"' . )2 0)%"+ -((, ,-(, "'('/'"'-, % -(+6 %4," )+-"+ % .'-"2"8' % '+ 6 % +""8' %-+(& '5-" .+( (' %, !")8-,", "',-"' % '+ 6 % +""8' %-+(& '5-" ,-4 .'-"2 &(( *. % '+ 6 .' (' %-+(& '5-" +.'" ,8%( ). -(&+ /%(+, *. ,' &9%-")%(, '-+(, ,- !")8-,", , ,"&"%+ % !")8-,", %'$ ,"' &+ ( "',-"' , -+/"8 + % ),( *. '( "8 %'$ 1 , % (',"++ *. % % )+()" +""8' %-+(& '5-" % *. ,-4 .'-"2 1 '( %(, (,"%(+, *. )+6' ' % !")8-,", %'$ &4, % '+ 6 '( ,8%( ,-4 .'-"2 ,"'( *. , '.'-+ (''-+ ' )*.-, '+ 6 ( .'-(, '+ 6 *. , '(&"'+(' (-(', '+ 6 .' (-8' , 1 .' (-8' , (&)(+- (&( .' )+-6.% "'"/","% "',-"' (',"+8 *. % -( (-(%5-+"( '( , .' )+(,( ('-"'.( ' % .% , / ,(+"'( '+ 6 (+& ('-"'. )(+ )+- %(, %-+(', % &-% !,- *. *."+' ,.3"'- '+ 6 (&( )+ ,%"+ % &-% ,"'( &4, "' .' )+(,( ",+-( ' % .% .' %-+8' , &"-"( .'( ,(+ .' ,(%( (-8' (&)%-( &(, /+ (&( , ).' #.,-"3+ %(, !!(, 0)+"&'-%, *. &(, '.&++ ' , % 0",-'" ,-(, (-(', .+( (' % (',+/"8' % '+ 6 % '+ 6 "'5-" % %-+8' &"-"( ,+4 (' , % '+ 6 %" .+ % %-+8' '-+( % &-% ( -((, %(, %-+(', ,-+4' " .%&'- %" (, &(, '(&"'+ % &6'"& '+ 6 %" .+ .' %-+8' '-+( % &-% '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& .' %-+8' &"-"( ,+4 )(+ -'-( '+ 6 , '(&"' % -+#( 0-+"8' % &-% ( .'"8' -+#( % &-% 1 , .' +-+6,-" % &-% ,- ."8' '(, )+&"- 0)%"+ % )+"&+ ).'-( &(( *. % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& %(, %-+(', &"-"(, ,8%( )' % +.'" % +""8' "'"'- 1 % '-.+%2 % &-% )+( '( % "'-'," % +""8' "'"'- &4, ,- ."8' '(, )+&"- %.%+ % )(-'"% )+ ,- ."8' '(, )+&"- (-'+ /%(+, )+ %, (',-'-, 1 % 3 .+ '-+"(+ &(( *. (' % /%(+ ("'""8 (' % /%(+ % (',-'- %'$ 1 *. !!( , .' (',-'- .'"/+,% (+ (-+( %( % (',-'- /% *. )' % '-.+%2 % &-% &(, /+ ('-"'."8' 8&( , 0)%" % , .'( ).'-( .%'( % '+ 6 "'5-" &40"& +( )(&(, (-'+ % +.'" .&+% *. , % *. , &.,-+ ' % 3 .+ (+ #( % +.'" .&+% %(, (-(', *. (&)('' % +""8' %-+(& '5-" '( -"'' '+ 6 ,.3"'- (&( )+ *. % ,+ ,(+"(, )(+ .' %-+8' % &-% 5,- ). ,%"+ .+( (' %, !")8-,", "',-"' ' ,- ,( %(, (-(', ),+4' %+ ( 1 '( , ,(++4' &(( *. '( , &"-' %-+(', 0)%"'( ,6 % , .'( ).'-( ' %-+8' '( ). .&.%+ % '+ 6 /+"(, (-(', )+ ,%"+ % &-% % -++ ).'-( -&"5' , 0)%" 4"%&'- )+-"+ % 0",-'" %(, (-(', " % %.2 "'"'- -"' .' "'-'," &.1 5"% (&( % '+ 6 % +""8' '( ,-4 .'"(+&&'- ",-+"." ,"'( (''-+ ' %(, (-(', , % &(&'-( %% %(, (-(', % &-% .'*. ,' &.1 )((, %(, (-(', ,+4' ,(+"(, 1 , &"-"+4' %-+(', ,"' '"' 9' +-+,( ' ,- )+-( !&(, /",-( (&( "',-"' 0)%"8 % -( (-(%5-+"( ,.)('"'( *. % '+ 6 % +""8' %-+(& '5-" ,-4 .'-"2 .+( (' %, !")8- ,", "',-"' % '+ 6 % +""8' %-+(& '5-" '( ,8%( ,-4 .'-"2 ,"'( *. , '.'-+ (''-+ ' %(, (-(', *. , (&)(+-' (&( )+-6.%, "'"/","%,