NATIONAL REPORTS on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the

United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends
in the
South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORTS
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
First published in Thailand in 2007 by the United Nations Environment Programme.
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Cover Figure:
Coral Reefs in Phu quoc Islands, Vietnam, by Nguyen Van Long
For citation purposes this document may be cited as:
UNEP, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea.
UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 11.
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
Table of Contents
OVERVIEW.......................................................................................................................................... 1
ABOUT THE SOUTH CHINA SEA ............................................................................................................ 1
HUMAN POPULATIONS BORDERING THE SOUTH CHINA SEA .................................................................... 1
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY ..................................................................................... 2
THE CORAL REEF SUB-COMPONENT OF THE UNEP/GEF SOUTH CHINA SEA PROJECT ............................ 3
REGIONAL THREATS TO CORAL REEFS .................................................................................................. 3
TOWARD THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS ................................................................. 5
CAMBODIA ....................................................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 11
PHYSICAL FEATURES ......................................................................................................................... 11
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................... 11
BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................... 11
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS ................................................................................................................. 13
THREATS .......................................................................................................................................... 15
SOCIO-ECONOMY AND RESOURCE USES ............................................................................................. 16
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................... 19
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................. 21
INDONESIA ....................................................................................................................................... 23
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 23
PHYSICAL FEATURES......................................................................................................................... 23
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................... 24
THREATS .......................................................................................................................................... 27
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES ...................................................................................................... 31
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................... 33
MALAYSIA ........................................................................................................................................ 37
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 37
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................... 38
BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................... 38
THREATS .......................................................................................................................................... 41
SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION ............................................................................................................ 46
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................... 48
PHILIPPINES ..................................................................................................................................... 55
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 55
PHYSICAL FEATURES......................................................................................................................... 56
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................... 56
BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................... 58
THREATS .......................................................................................................................................... 59
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES ...................................................................................................... 61
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................... 63
THAILAND......................................................................................................................................... 69
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 69
PHYSICAL FEATURES......................................................................................................................... 69
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ............................................................................................................... 70
BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................... 74
THREATS .......................................................................................................................................... 74
ECONOMICS VALUATION AND USES .................................................................................................... 76
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................... 78
iii
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
VIET NAM .......................................................................................................................................... 93
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 93
PHYSICAL FEATURES......................................................................................................................... 94
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND MORPHOLOGY .................................................................................. 94
BIODIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................... 98
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM CORAL REEFS ............................................................................. 104
STATUS AND THREATS..................................................................................................................... 107
MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................................. 111
iv
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
1
OVERVIEW
Vo Si Tuan
On behalf of the Regional Working Group on Coral Reefs
ABOUT THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
The South China Sea is a semi-enclosed sea bordered by nine nations: Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. The area
contains highly diverse tropical ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass, and high
species richness of marine organisms. A preliminary assessment of the sea’s biodiversity indicated
more than 8,600 species of plants and animals (Ng & Tan, 2000). Fish alone contribute 3,365 species
(Randal & Lim, 2000). The area is a global centre of shallow water marine biodiversity.
Much of the southern half of the South China Sea lies on the Sunda Shelf and waters are shallow
(< 200m deep) and influenced by both marine and river/terrestrial inputs. Further north, the South
China Sea basin and Palawan Trough are much deeper, at > 1,000m, being bordered by the shallow
continental margin and shelves. The coastal and marine waters include several major gulfs and bays,
including: the Gulf of Thailand; Gulf of Tonkin; Lingayen Gulf; and Manila Bay. The geomorphological
history of the South China Sea has been the main factor influencing the development of coral reefs in
the region.
Major oceanographic currents in the South China Sea are generated by the Asian Seasonal
Monsoons. Surface currents flow north to south along the Viet Nam coast to the Java Sea during the
northeast monsoon, October to February (Wrytki, 1961). The flow reverses south to north along the
western margin of the South China Sea during the southwest monsoon beginning in June. The South
China Sea interacts with the Indian Ocean via a north flowing current between West Kalimantan and
Peninsular Malaysia bifurcating into the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea. Waters from the South
China Sea may also flow seasonally into the Sulu Sea (Bate 1999) and Java Sea, contributing to the
Indonesian through-flow. Within the South China Sea, local current patterns form complex eddies and
counter-currents, mainly driven by the monsoon systems. Upwelling occurs in areas north west of the
Philippines and coastal Viet Nam, and influences physical conditions in the South China Sea. Current
regimes play an important role in determining the distribution and abundance of marine fauna and
flora in general, and coral reefs in particular.
Coral reefs do not develop in coastal areas with strong riverine inputs, and land-based activities can
affect coral reefs via river discharges. There are many watersheds bordering the South China Sea,
with approximately 125 major rivers draining some 2.5 million km2 of water catchments. The major
systems include:
• Kampar, Indragiri and Tembesi-Hari Rivers (Sumatra)
• Pahang, Trengganu and Kelantan Rivers (Peninsular Malaysia)
• Batang Lupar, Sarawak and Seribas Rivers (South Sarawak)
• Kapuas River (West Kalimantan)
• Rajang and Baram Rivers (Sarawak)
• Mae Klong and Chao Phraya Rivers (Thailand)
• Mekong, Red and Dong Nai Rivers (Viet Nam)
• Xun Xi & Bei Rivers (Pearl River estuary - China).
HUMAN POPULATIONS BORDERING THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
The Global International Waters Assessment Project (GIWA) (Winkinson et al., 2005) provided
information regarding socio-economic activities in the coastal catchments of the South China Sea.
The present human population of the South China Sea’s coastal zone is estimated to be 200 million.
A mayjority of the population is distributed in some 90 cities with populations > 100,000. Outside the
cities, the remaining population is distributed in thousands of villages spread along the coast, across
the lowlands and into the highlands. The larger urban centres include Manila (> 10 million,
Philippines), Hong Kong – Macao (~ 10 million, China), Hanoi, Haiphong and Ho Chi Minh Cities
(> 10 million in total, Viet Nam), Bangkok (> 5 million, Thailand), Kuala Lumpur (> 5 million, Malaysia),
Singapore (> 2 million), and Brunei Darussalam (> 2 million). Outside the cities, coastal population
densities are highest in Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin > 500 persons km-2), China and the Philippines
(~ 470 persons km-2).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
2
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
Populations are increasing at rates between 1 - 6% annually in the sub-region (e.g. 2.1% for the
Philippines, 2.9% for Indonesia, 1.6% for China, 3.3% for Malaysia, 1.3% for Thailand and 5.6% for
Cambodia), with an overall average increase of ~ 2.2% per year (Talaue-McManus 2000). Population
growth is highest in coastal areas of Cambodia, Indonesia and Malaysia. It is predicted that the
population of the sub-region will approach 300 million by 2020 and double by 2035. Parts of the subregion (e.g. Malaysian Sabah) are also experiencing substantial immigration from Indonesia and the
Philippines, up to 4% annually in some areas.
The coastal areas of the South China Sea are the location for a wide range of economic activities,
from subsistence agriculture and artisanal fisheries to light and heavy manufacturing and high
technology industries. Subsistence farming and fishing are the major activities of large numbers of
people outside of the main urban and industrial centres. The major export earners include commercial
exploitation of natural resources, particularly fisheries, aquaculture/mariculture, oil palm and other
forms of plantation agriculture, and mining. There have been increases in aquaculture (notably Tilapia
in lakes and inland waters) and mariculture (shrimps) in coastal ponds, and the supply of tropical fish
to the live and ornamental fish markets. At present, mariculture is largely dependent on wild stocks,
although hatcheries are being developed. Forestry is also a major industry although large areas of
loggable forests have already been exploited in many parts of the sub-region, or are now protected
(e.g. Palawan, Philippines). Secondary industries including resource processing and manufacturing,
and tertiary industries including electronics are of growing importance. Service industries, including
tourism, are also expanding, with for example a 5% annual increase in tourism from 1987 - 1995 in
the Philippines.
For most South China Sea nations, fisheries and aquaculture, plantation agriculture, forestry, mining,
and manufacturing are important economic activities. The sub-region is a globally important source of
minerals, with considerable reserves of oil and gas, which continue to cause international tensions.
The South China Sea is the world’s second busiest international sea-lane, utilised by more than half
of the world’s super-tanker traffic.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
Coastal areas of the South China Sea with large riverine inputs are mostly devoid of fringing coral
reefs, although small fringing and patch reefs are present in some places. Fringing reefs occur away
from the major river estuaries, particularly in the Philippines and the central - southern areas of the
South China Sea. All major reef types, including fringing, patch platforms (including 'barrier' reefs) and
atolls are observed in the South China Sea, with a total estimated reef area in the order of 10,000km2
(based on aggregation and de-aggregation of national statistics) (Spalding et al. 2001). Offshore, a
series of large platform reefs and atolls have developed, the most famous being the Spratly Islands,
Tung-Sha Reefs and Paracel Islands. These reefs are highly biodiverse and are thought to play key
roles in the maintenance and replenishment of regional biodiversity, and may be particularly important
in replenishment of harvested species.
If coral reefs are the most diverse tropical marine ecosystem on earth, then the Indo-Pacific in
general, and the South China Sea in particular, are home to a globally significant coral reef system.
The South China Sea is considered part of the “coral triangle” with the highest diversity of hermatypic
corals in the world (Veron, 1998). More than 70 hermatypic corals have been recorded in the South
China Sea. Hotspots of coral species diversity occur at Nha Trang (Viet Nam) with 351 species and El
Nida (Palawan, Philippines) with 305 species. Records of more than 200 species occur for a number
of sites in Viet Nam, Indonesia, and the Philippines (UNEP, 2004).
Coral reefs are an important marine ecosystem and habitat. Like mangroves and seagrass beds, coral
reefs provide nurseries and breeding grounds for coral reef associated species and other marine life
such as pelagic and migratory species. Like an oasis in the ocean, coral reefs are where schools of
migrating pelagic fish aggregate. In fact, a quarter of the diet of pelagic and migratory species like the
yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares) includes coral reef-associated organisms (Grandperin, 1978).
The high species richness of corals and reef-associated fauna and flora in the South China Sea
makes this region a valuable source of genetic and biochemical materials.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
3
THE CORAL REEF SUB-COMPONENT OF THE UNEP/GEF SOUTH CHINA SEA PROJECT
Three priority areas of concern were identified in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA)1 of the
South China Sea, namely the loss and degradation of coastal habitats, over-exploitation of fisheries in
the Gulf of Thailand, and land-based pollution. Within the concern about the loss and degradation of
coastal habitats, coral reefs were considered as a priority habitat along with mangroves, seagrass, and
coastal wetlands (Talaue-McManus, 2000).
The UNEP/GEF Project entitled “Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea
and Gulf of Thailand” (the South China Sea Project) was developed to address the concerns and issues
identified by the TDA. The South China Sea Project is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
and is implemented by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in partnership with seven
riparian states bordering the South China Sea2. Of the three substantive project components, habitat
degradation and loss is the largest, being divided into four sub-components: mangroves, coral reefs,
seagrass, and wetlands.
The coral reef sub-component includes 6 participating countries, namely Cambodia, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. At the regional level, the Regional Working Group on
Coral Reefs (RWG-CR) is composed of the national focal points for the sub-component from each of
the six countries, together with two internationally recognised experts from the region. The working
group has agreed Terms of Reference and a set of Rules of Procedure, which state that each group
shall elect its’ own Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and Rapporteur from among the members. The
RWG-CR was responsible for developing criteria during the first phase of the project (2002 to 2004)
for use in selecting sites for the various demonstration activities to be executed during the operational
phase of the project (2005-2007). In addition, the RWG-CR was responsible for assembling
information and data, for inputting these into a regional GIS and meta-database, and for conducting
the analyses required to demonstrate the regional and global importance of the demonstration sites
proposed to the Project Steering Committee. The RWG-CR was also involved in the process to
revised the draft regional Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the South China Sea. Specific
actions of the RWG-CR in this regard included the elaboration of goals and targets for the coral reef
component of the SAP, and development of a suite of costed actions for improved coral reef science
and management in the South China Sea.
The regional coral reef network of the South China Sea Project extends to the national level. National
Coral Reef Committees have been established in all participating countries, and are comprised of
representatives from governmental agencies, scientific institutions, and non-governmental
organisations. National reports and national action plans have been finalised by the Specialised
Executing Agencies (SEAs) for the coral reef sub-component in each country, and included in regional
database and utilised for SAP development SEAs are were also responsible for the execution of
activities at the coral reef habitat demonstration sites during the operational phase of the Project.
REGIONAL THREATS TO CORAL REEFS
Following Tun et al. (2004), coral reefs in South East Asia are the most biologically diverse and
productive coral reef systems in the world, but are also the most threatened and damaged reefs, with
unprecedented rates of coral reef destruction from the acceleration of anthropogenic pressures over
recent decades. The RWG-CR identified the key regional threats to coral reefs in the South China
Sea during its sixth meeting from 22nd to 25th August 2005. These threats include over-fishing,
destructive fishing, pollution (mainly eutrophication), and sedimentation. Indirect causes of these
threats are high demand for food, coastal development, deforestation and unsustainable tourism.
Coral bleaching is considered a serious natural threat to coral reefs in the region. Of these threats,
some discussions were considered as part of the GIWA project (Winkinson et al. 2005), and are
summarised as follows.
1
All project related documents cited in this paper can be found on the project website at www.unepscs.org.
2
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
4
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
Over-fishing
In total the South China Sea produces ~ 5 million tonnes of fisheries catch each year, some 10% of
the total global catch. Five of the bordering nations are among the top eight shrimp (Penaeus spp.)
producers globally, mostly through aquaculture with large scale attendant impacts to habitats and
water quality. Domestic fisheries consumption is highest in the Philippines, with increased production
required in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Viet Nam to meet increasing domestic demand. Reef fisheries
provide essential sustenance to artisanal fisherman and their families throughout the sub-region, and
also play an important role in supplying commercial quantities of high value products for export to
expanding international, national, and local markets. Live reef fish export operations to Hong Kong
and the Chinese mainland have burgeoned since the 1980s, with removal of large numbers of
demersal coral reef fish.
Over-fising is considered to be having severe environmental impact in the South China Sea because
most stocks are already exploited beyond maximum sustainable yield (MSY), partly through overinvestment and encroachment of large-scale commercial operations into coastal waters, including
incursions by foreign vessels using long drift nets into traditional/artisinal fishing areas. Demersal reef
fish, holothurian, mollusc and crustacean stocks are heavily over-fished. There is also overexploitation of sharks, tuna, bill-fish and other pelagic species. Sharks are also caught as ‘by-catch’ of
the trawl fisheries and the tuna long-line fishery. Additionally, the benthic invertebrate fisheries,
particularly for sedentary species of holothurian sea-cucumbers, trochus, green snails and clams, are
over-fished, particularly around the major coastal population centres. Crayfish (‘lobsters’) are also
targeted in oceanic waters, sandy reef lagoons and flats areas. There are clear indications of overfishing, with two-thirds of the major fish species and several major fishing grounds already fully or
over-exploited.
Overfishing does not only reduce production of living resources but also creates ecological
imbalances in coral reef ecosystems. Extensive outbreaks of “Crown of Thorn” starfish, blooms of
algae, and coral disease might be evidence of changes to coral reef ecosystem dynamics.
Destructive fishing
Following the “Reefs at Risk” report (Burke et al, 2002), approximately 56% of reefs in South East
Asia are under threat from destructive fishing. The use of poisons in fishing for demersal reef fish
increased significantly in the 1990s (Cesar et al. 2000) to supply the live fish food trade in Hong Kong
and China, and also the aquarium trade, with prices increasing but catch per unit effort (CPUE)
declining sharply. The targeting and capture of endangered species (e.g. turtles and dugong)
continues within the region, and there have been localised species extinctions. Blast fishing is also
widespread within the region.
Benthic trawling also occurs in close proximity to reefs, with adverse direct effects on reef productivity
and community structure. Trawl fisheries now target most demersal species, with catches of low-value
fish being used for the production of fishmeal and other products. The collection of ornamental reef
fishes and other organisms for the global aquarium market is also widespread in the sub-region. This
activity has already caused serious damage to reefs in some areas, through use of destructive
techniques of poison fishing and/or coral breakage.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is having severe environmental impact in coastal waters throughout most of the South
China Sea. This has resulted from land use practices causing extensive deforestation in many coastal
catchments, logging and mining, and urban development. This has been compounded by high rates of
erosion and siltation. There have been major changes in turbidity and levels of suspended sediments
in Malaysia, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia (Sumatra) and Thailand. These impacts, with extensive
dredging and land reclamation, have caused changes in biodiversity of affected benthic communities.
There are trends of increasingly large-scale forestry, by both national and international commercial
operators. Large areas of the ‘loggable forests’ have already been logged and other areas have been
assigned for logging, contributing to severe soil erosion in some places. Large-scale sediment
mobilisation from unregulated forestry and agriculture has already impacted on the water quality of
streams and rivers, and ultimately on estuarine and coastal habitats (e.g. fringing reefs) and
processes in parts of the sub-region.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
5
In the Philippines, approximately 1 billion m3 of sediment is lost to coastal waters annually, carrying
high loads of particle-bound nutrients. This is of particular concern given that the timber industry has
traditionally suffered from mismanagement and corruption, although there have been some recent
improvements. Nonetheless, implementation of 'best-practice' forestry management, such as the
retention of buffer zones along watercourses, is rarely enforced and violations are common (Hodgson
and Dixon 1992). One exception to this is in Palawan (Philippines), where logging was halted through
effective implementation of legislation in the early 1990s, providing a major reduction in sediment loss
from the catchments and much needed protection for the fringing coral reefs and other coastal and
marine habitats (A. Alcala pers. comm.).
Pollution
Eutrophication in the South China Sea occurs more frequently in coastal waters with moderate impact
in some areas of the Philippines. Impacts are most significant in enclosed bays, harbours and lagoons
with limited water circulation (e.g. Manila Bay), and particularly where sewage or industrial discharges
are present. The rapid development of aquaculture has caused a high potential of nutrient richness in
the coastal waters of Viet Nam and Thailand.
There is also some use of fertilisers in coastal catchments, particularly in plantation agriculture,
although by world standards use is low. At present, the effects of the nutrients are uncertain,
depending partly on rates of mineralisation and retention of the dissolved nutrients. There is little
evidence of the effects of nutrient enrichment on the distribution and abundance of biota, increased
frequency of hypoxic conditions, reduced levels of dissolved oxygen, or fish or zoobenthos mortality
other than in some enclosed bays and in the immediate vicinity of river mouths. There are no
indications that eutrophication from agricultural run-off is a significant problem at the scale of the
entire South China Sea basin, although blooms of toxic dinoflagellates have caused paralytic shellfish
poisoning in some parts of the region.
Coral bleaching
Coral reefs in the South China Sea suffered the effects of high water temperatures in 1998, causing
extensive bleaching in many areas. Moderate to severe damage was reported on Indonesia’s coral
reefs after the 1998 bleaching event and recovery has been variable. Reefs in the Philipines,
Thailand, and Viet Nam suffered widespread bleaching episodes leading to high, variable mortality.
Recovery is occurring, yet will take time due to continued anthropogenic threats causing further
stress. During 1999 – 2004, there is evidence of coral recovery in Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines,
Thailand and Viet Nam after extensive coral bleaching mortality, mostly in the northern parts of
Southeast Asia. Coral recruitment is low in the Gulf of Thailand indicating that recovery from the 1998
bleaching may be delayed. On a positive note, the coral reefs in the World Heritage Tubbataha reefs
south of Palawan are showing rapid recovery after years of blast fishing and the 1998 bleaching event
(Goldberg and Wilkinson, 2004).
TOWARD THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS
The UNEP/GEF Coral Reef Habitat Demonstration Site Network
Fourty three coral reef sites (Figure 1) were charaterised in the framework of the South China Sea
Project using a data compilation form agreed by regional experts during the preparatory phase of the
project. Data and information for the characterised sites can be accessed from the GIS database
which forms part of the South China Sea Project website <http://www.unepscs.org>. This database
contains data about reef locations and type, reef area and structure, biodiversity, and socio-economic
information regarding resource use and management at the coral reef sites. Following the process
adopted by the Regional Scientific and Technical Committee of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project, four coral reef sites were selected as demonstration sites within the framework of the project
and receive financial support from the GEF grant. These sites include Masinloc (Philippines), Koh
Chang (Thailand), Belitung (Indonesia) and Phu Quoc (joint habitat with Seagrass in Viet Nam and as
a transboundary site with Kampot, Cambodia). As coral reef area at Ninh Hai (Viet Nam) was also
selected as a demonstration site, and a proposal for activities at this site is currently being prepared
for funding as a GEF Medium Sized Project. The network of demonstration sites has been expanded
to involve self-funded projects proposed by participating countries, such as the Cu Lao Cham site in
Viet Nam. Information regarding the approved demonstration projects has been made available on the
South China Sea project website to assist in the sharing of information about activities and examples
of best practice at the sites within the project network.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
The network of coral reef demonstration sites has been developed in conjunction with a suite of
mangrove, seagrass, and coastal wetland sites. It is aimed that this network will act as a basis for
regional exchange of information and best practice in coastal habitat management of the South China
Sea.
Figure 1
Coral reef sites characterised by the South China Sea Project.
A forum for the exchange of information and experiences between habitat demonstration site
managers and local government officials associated with each habitat demonstration site was
developed within the framework of the South China Sea Project. This has involved the conduct of two
Mayors’ Round-Table Meetings, the first in Bangkok, Thailand in November 2005, and the second in
Beihai, Guangxi, China in June 2006. These meetings were highly effective in involving local and
provincial governments in the implementation of the South China Sea project, and promoting the
sharing of information between Mayors and Governors on the integration of environmental
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
7
management into local coastal development planning. During the meetings, the provincial Mayors and
Governors pledged high-level local government commitment to promote the longer-term sustainability
of demonstration site activities, and to integrate environmental considerations into their future
development plans.
Participants considered the Round-Table meetings a highly successful and valuable forum for both
political and technical people from the local government level to meet at the regional level in order to
strengthen political support for the demonstration site network and exchange of experiences.
Provincial Mayors and Governors urged UNEP to convene such meetings on an annual basis as far
as the project budget allowed. An E-Forum for the exchange of information between meetings was
established on the South China Sea Project website, and has been used to facilitate regional level
communication between local governments between meetings.
Development of the strategy for sustainable management of coral reefs
During the elaboration of the draft regional Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea, the
RWG-CR analysed the status of coral reef management in the South China Sea geographic region of
the six countries based on information assembled for 83 individual coral reef areas. The area of coral
reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites is 217,407ha (29% of the total coral reef area of the six countries,
of which 100,243ha (13% of the total area) is under management at the present time. In terms of
management effectiveness only around 5% of this area is considered as being managed successfully.
For 29% of the sites management effectiveness is considered low, whilst around 13% are not under
any form of management. The area to be added to the total area managed sustainably by the year
2015 is 53,577ha, thereby increasing the total area under sustainable management to 153,820ha
which represents 20% of the total reef area of the six countries berdering the South China Sea or 71%
of the total area of the target sites.
Coral reef monitoring has been expanded in most countries bordering the South China Sea over the
past decade, and has provided a technical baseline for long-term coral reef management (Tun et al.,
2004). The data obtained in the framework of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN)
indicates that the decadal rate of loss of coral reef cover in the South China Sea is 16%.
The RWG-CR noted that setting a target for the total area under management did not represent a
target for the environmental state of the reefs although it could be assumed that those under
management would, depending on the management regime, be more likely to sustain their biological
diversity than those that were not under management. Therefore, the RWG-CR considered an
additional target related to reducing the regional rate of coral reef cover loss. The coral reef focal
points of the participating countries agreed that improvements to coral reef management over the next
ten years could lead to a reduction in the decadal rate of coral reef cover loss from 16% to 5%. The
regional assessment of coral reef status conducted as part of the GCRMN programme will enable an
assessment of the effectiveness of coral reef management actions as part of the revised SAP.
In summary, the RWG-CR proposed the following two targets as part of the revised regional Strategic
Action Programme:
•
By 2015, at least 70% of the existing area of coral reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites
(153,000ha) to be put under an appropriate form of sustainable management.
•
By 2015, reduce the regional decadal rate of degradation in live coral cover from the
present rate of 16% to 5%.
The concept of sustainable management was also considered the RWG-CR. The group agreed that
the sustainable management of coral reef refers to managing the ecosystem in such a way that
provides for coral reef resource(s) to be used continuously, and in a cost effective and ecologically
friendly manner. Such management typical involves setting targets and objectives, and the
establishment of a formal management framework that is clearly understood at all levels and by
stakeholders. Indicators are typically used to assess the sustainability of management. The RWG-CR
identified three categories of indicators for use in assessing coral reef management, including:
management; ecological-environmental; and socio-economic indicators (Table 1).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
8
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
The purpose of the defining these indicators is to provide a means of assessing whether an area is, or
is not, under sustainable management in the framework of targets defined for the coral reef
component of the revised Strategic Action Programme. The SAP states that 70% of the existing area
of coral reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites in the South China Sea shall be under sustainable
management by the year 2015. Depending on objective(s), management input(s) (column 1) are
expected to produce measurable output(s) which should be reflected through ecological indicator(s)
(column 2) and/or socio-economic indicator(s) (column 3).
Table 1
Sustainable Management Indicator Matrix.
Management Indicators
MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
• Formal management
framework
• Trained man-power
(nos/levels)
• Facilities and equipment
• Sustainable financing
MANAGEMENT APPROACH
• Sectoral
• Integrated
• Community-based
• Multiple-use
MANAGEMENT TOOLS
• Licensing and permits
• Seasonal closure
• Zoning
Ecological/Environmental
Indicators
•
LIVE CORAL
COVER
•
ORGANISM
ABUNDANCE
•
BIODIVERSITY
•
INDICATOR
SPECIES
•
TARGET SPECIES
•
WATER QUALITY
Socio-Economic Indicators
FISHERIES
• Catch per unit effort
• Total landing
• Income
TOURISM
• Number of visitors
• Number of tourism operators
• Income
OTHER ALTERNATIVE
LIVELIHOODS
OVERALL LIVING STANDARDS
• Level of education
• Health of the community
Achieving the targets defined for sustainable coral reef management in the South China Sea requires
the implementation of regional and national level actions. The revised Regional Strategic Action
Programme contains a set of agreed regional actions aimed at meeting the following objectives:
Objective 1. To promote good environmental governance and sustainable management of
coral reef ecosystems
Objective 2. To maintain the regional management framework to ensure the use of sound
science in the sustainable management of coral reefs in the South China Sea
Objective 3. To Increase awareness of stakeholders on the ecological roles, economic
values, and need for sustainable management of coral reefs
Objective 4. To provide relevant scientific data and information for sustainable management
of coral reefs
Objective 5. To improve regional capacity in the management of transboundary issues
regarding coral reefs
At the national level, six National Action Plans have been developed with the involvement of related
stakeholders. It is aimed that the Governments of the participating countries will adopt and implement
these action plans. The scope of national level activities is very diverse in order to cover concerned
issues, including policy and legislation, public awareness, capacity building, scientific sound
management, and development of models for effective management at the site level. Diverse
stakeholders are also involved in implementing the plans in the countries, including central and local
governments, non-government organisations, private sector, mass organisations and local
communities.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
9
Literatures
Bate E.
1999. Biophysical assessment of the Sulu-Sulawesi Large Marine Ecosystem: Geology module.
A report prepared for the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion Conservation Program Development,
WWF-Philippines.
Burke L., E. Selig and M. Spalding, 2002. Reefs At Risk in Southeast Asia. World Resources Institute, 72p.
Cesar, H.S.J., Warren, K.A., Sadovy, Y., Lau, P., Meijer, S., van Ierland, E. 2000. Marine market transformation
of the live reef fish food trade in Southeast Asia. In: Cesar, H.S.J. (Ed.). Collected Essays on the
Economics of Coral Reefs. CORDIO, Dept. Biology and Environmental Sciences, Kalmar University,
Sweden.
Goldberg J. and C. Wilkinson , 2004. Global Threats to Coral Reefs: Coral Bleaching, Global Climate Change,
Disease, Predator Plagues, and Invasive Species. p: 67-92. in C. Wilkinson (ed.). Status of coral reefs
of the world: 2004. Volume 1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.
301p.
Grandperin R. 1978. Importance of reefs to ocean production. In: Crossland J. and Grandperrin R. South Pacific
Commission (Numea, New Caledonia) Fisheries Newletter 15: 125-207
Hodgson G. and J.A. Dixon. 1992. Sedimentation damage to marine resources: Environmental and economic
analysis. In James B. Marsh (ed.) Resources and environment in Asia’s marine sector. Taylor and
Francis, Washington.
Ng P.K.L. & K.S. Tan, 2000. The status of marine biodiversity in the South China Sea. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology.
Supplement N. 8: 3-7
Randal J.E. & K.K.P. Lim, 2000. A checklist of the fish of the South China Sea. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology.
Supplement N. 8: 569-667
Spalding M., C. Ravilious & E.P. Green, 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. United Nations Environment
Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 425p
Tun, K., L. M. Chou, A. Cabanban, V. S. Tuan, Philreefs, T. Yeemin, Suharsono, K. Sour and D. Lane, 2004.
Global Status of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Monitoring and Management in Southeast Asia, 2004. p: 235276. in C. Wilkinson (ed.). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004. Volume 1. Australian Institute of
Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. 301p.
Talaue-McManus, L. 2000. Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical
Report Series No. 14, UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand.
UNEP, 2004. Coral Reefs in the South China Sea. UNEP / GEF / SCS Technical Publication No. 2. 11p.
Veron J. E. N., 1998. Corals in space and time. The biogeography and evolution of the Scleractinia.
VNSW press. 321pp.
Wilkinson C., L. DeVantier, L. Talaue-McManus, D. Lawrence and D. Souter. 2005 International Waters
Assessment South China Sea, GIWA Regional assessment 54. University of Kalmar on behalf of United
Nations Environment Programme. 104p.
Wrytki K. 1961. Scientific results of marine investigations of the South China Sea and the Gulf of
Thailand 1959-1961. NAGA report, Vol.2, the University of California, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, 195p.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coatal Waters of the South China Sea
CAMBODIA
Mr. Ouk Vibol
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
186 Norodom Blvd.
P.O. Box 582, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
11
CAMBODIA
Department of Fisheries, the Kingdom of Cambodia
INTRODUCTION
Marine habitats in Cambodia play a very important role in the national economy and the balance of
regional and global environment ecosystems. Marine habitats include coral reefs, inundated forests
(mangrove forests), and seagrass. In Cambodia, these habitats primarily fall under the management
of the Department of Fisheries with Article 1 of the Fishery Law stating that "Fishery resources
comprise of live animal and vegetable reproduced itself and abided in the fishery domain", and that
the "Marine fishery domain extends from the coastline to the seaward border of the outer economic
zone of the People’s Republic of Kampuchea" (DoF, 1990). This coastal zone is 55,600sq. km and
includes 69 islands and 28.065sq. km of coral reefs (DoF, 2004). Administratively, the coastal zone
includes the two provinces of Koh Kong and Kampot, and the two municipalities of Sihanoukville and
Kep.
From a functional perspective, Cambodia's coastal zone can be conceptualised as being made up of
two inter-related systems - ecological and socio-economic systems. The ecological system includes
the physical, chemical and biological environmental parameters that provide natural resources,
sequesters pollutants, and offers fundamental life-support functions (e.g. clean air and water) for
humans and other living organisms. The socio-economic system depends upon many functions and
products of complex ecological systems. Cambodia’s marine ecosystems are abundant in living
resources, but have limited capacity to provide fish, timber, coral reefs, seagrasses, clean water and
other goods and services to meet the demands of socio-economic development. Given that the
production capacity of the ecological systems is limited, it is not surprising that the final demands by
society, and new opportunities for multiple uses, are the source of increasing conflicts arising within
Cambodia's coastal zone.
Coral reefs, in particular, are critical habitats for a diverse range of resident and migratory species,
especially endangered and vulnerable species. The structure of a reef provides shelter and food for
many types of plants, fish and invertebrates (Nelson 1999). Many Cambodians are also reliant on
coral reefs for livelihood and nutrition, with much demand placed on the many commercially valuable
species dependent on these habitats. Additionally, these areas provide much potential for the
development of eco-tourism in the future. Until recently, little was known about the status of
Cambodia’s coral reefs due to minimal research and lack of monitoring in this region. However, our
knowledge is now increasing with studies carried out by the Danida funded project on Environmental
Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia implemented in the Provinces and Municipalities of Kep,
Sihanoukville, and Koh Kong Province (Nelson 1999), the National University of Singapore (Chou et
al. 2003), and through the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Due to limited research resources, information about the physical characteristics of Cambodia’s
marine environment is almost completely lacking. However, some general parameters have been
recorded such as sea surface and air temperature, depth, turbidity and/or visibility. Usually, visibility is
very low near the mainland and high adjacent to offshore islands. Visibility can reach up to 20m in
waters surrounding the offshore islands.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
Coral reefs in Cambodia are mostly distributed as fringing reefs along parts of the mainland,
particularly headlands, and around many islands (Figure 1). Corals near to shore are those adapted to
living in turbid environments, while further offshore a wider diversity of species is found (Nelson,
1999).
BIODIVERSITY
Coral reefs are some of the most biologically rich ecosystems on earth, however the exact number of
species found in Cambodian waters is yet to be determined due to limited research in this region. To
date, at least 70 species of corals in 33 genera and 11 families have been identified during a brief
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
12
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
survey at Koh Tang near Sihanoukville (Nelson, 1999). A review conducted by the Fisheries
Component of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project found 520 marine fish species from 202
genera and 97 families, with an estimated total stock of marine fish of 50,000 metric tonnes (Ing,
2003). The total number of coral reef associated species in Cambodia is largely unknown (Table 1).
Figure 1
Table 1
Map of Reef Distribution in Cambodia.
Estimated Number of Species for Major Groups of Marine Biota.
Marine Biota
Number of Species
References
Hard Corals
70
Nelson, 1999
Soft Corals
17
Nelson, 1999
Marine Fish
520
Ing, 2003
Echinoderms
21
Ing, 2003
Crustaceans
50
Ing, 2003
250
Ing, 2003
Molluscs
Marine Turtles
5
Ing, 2003
Marine Mammals
12
Ing, 2003
Seaweeds
16
Ing, 2003
Seagrass
9
CZM, 2002
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
13
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS
In 2003, the Department of Fisheries conducted a coral reef baseline survey in Cambodia using
standard methodologies as outlined by two global coral reef monitoring agencies, the Global Coral
Reef
Monitoring
Network
(GCRMN)
(http://www.gcrmn.org)
and
Reef
Check
(http://www.reefcheck.org.). These methods employ rapid assessment techniques, which enable quick
and reliable assessment of coral reef health. Reef Check was used for the survey of reef fish,
invertebrates, and general reef condition. The GCRMN Line Intercept Transect Method, which has
been widely used within the Asia-Pacific region to survey coral reefs, was used to provide detailed
quantitative benthos assessment. Seven sites including the Koh Kong Islands, Koh Sdach Islands
(Koh Kong Province); Koh Rong, Koh Rong Sanleom, and Koh Takiev Koh Tang island groups
(Sihanoukville); and the Koh Tunsay island group (Kampot Province and Kep Municipality) were
selected as monitoring sites. The data collected by monitoring activities provided a figure on coral reef
status in the coastal waters of Cambodia.
Status of Reef Benthos (especially corals)
Based on the GCRMN range, Cambodia’s coral reefs are in fair to good condition, with coral cover
ranging from 23.1% in the Koh Sdach island group of Koh Kong Province to 58.1% at Koh Takiev
island group of Sihanoukville. Dead coral was observed to range from 0% in Prek Ampil to 44.9% per
square meter at Koh Rong. However, this may not be a reflection of the status of all reefs in
Cambodia, as surveys were not carried out in areas of intensive seaweed farming. Reports from the
Koh Pouh area indicate that coral reefs have been heavily impacted on by seaweed farming activities
in that area, leaving most reefs in very poor condition (Mam 2001). Little other benthos was observed
at most of the sites, accounting for only 2.2% of total cover at the Koh Sdach island group. The
highest percentage of other benthos was observed in the Prek Ampil area of Kampot Province,
accounting for approximately 5.6% of total cover (Table 2).
Algal cover was not very dominant at most sites, and no algae was observed on the reefs of Koh
Takiev. The highest percentage cover of algae (17.5%) was observed on the reefs of the Koh Sdach
island group of Koh Kong Province. The coverage of sand and rock is considered high, accounting for
15.4% of total cover at the Koh Sdach island group and 40% at Prek Ampil (Table 2).
Table 2
Percentage cover of benthos types on selected coral reefs in Cambodia.
Benthos
Koh
Kong
Koh
Sdach
Koh
Rong
Koh
Takiev
Koh
Tang
Prek
Ampil
Koh
Pouh
Live Coral (%)
47.4
29.3
23.1
58.1
38.3
53.8
41.0
Dead Coral (%)
29.6
35.6
44.9
0.6
13.1
0.0
19.2
Other Benthos (%)
4.2
2.2
5.1
3.1
4.2
5.6
2.4
Algae (%)
1.6
17.5
0.6
0.0
0.6
0.6
10.1
Abiotic (%)
17.2
15.4
26.4
38.1
43.8
40.0
27.4
Only Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom of Sihanoukville have been monitored over time. The first survey
was conducted in 1998 by the Daninda funded Environmental Coastal Zone Management (CZM)
project (Nelson 1999). In 2001, the site was surveyed by Wetlands International and the CZM project
(Mam 2001). The two final surveys were conducted by the Department of Fisheries with the support of
the UNEP EAS/RCU3 in 2002 and 2003 for trainings on diving, reef check, and the GCRMN Line
Intercept Transect (LIT). ). Although no exact positions of the transects were plotted by GPS for the
last two monitoring programmes, it is believed that all surveys, including the last two, were conducted
at very similar locations, although at different times of the year.
The percentage of live coral cover did not change significantly from 1998 to 2003 (Figure 2). The
initial survey in 1998 found that live coral accounted for 20% of the total reef cover at this site. The
percentage cover was observed to increase slightly to 26.25% in 2002, before dropping to 23.12% in
2003. However, regular annual monitoring is needed in order to detect any trends over a larger
temporal scale.
3
East Asian Sea Regional Coordinating Unit.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
14
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
30
Coral Cover (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Year
Figure 2
Trend of Live Coral Cover in Koh Kok (Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom) of Sihanoukville.
Status of Reef Fish
Based on the ReefCheck method, about 17 groups of reef fishes and invertebrates have been
recorded at seven locations. They include butterfly fish, sweetlip, snapper, barramundi cod, grouper,
humphead wrasse, bumphead parrotfish, other parrotfish, moray eel, banded coral shrimp, pencil
urchin, sea urchin, sea cucumber, crown-of-thorn star fish, giant clam, triton shell, and lobster. The
following table shows the number of each animal group per 100 square metres. Reef fish indocators
are found at nearly all sites except Koh Pouh of Kep Municipality. Sweetlip, barramundi cod, moray
eels, lobster, triton shell, and banded coral shrimp were rarely present at any of the sites. The lack of
banded coral shrimp may not be a true reflection of their actual numbers, but a consequence of their
small body not seen by researchers (Table 3).
Table 3
Site Summaries of Major Fish Groups per 100m2.
Major Fish Group
Koh
Kong
Koh
Sdach
Koh
Rong
Koh
Takiev
Koh
Tang
Prek
Ampil
Koh
Pouh
Butterflyfish
Sweetlips (Haemulidae)
1.63
0
0.47
0.33
1.75
0
0.75
0
1.25
0
7.00
0
0
0
Snapper (Lutjanidae)
0.13
0.10
6.50
1.75
0.42
0
0
0
0.07
0
0
0
0
0
2.63
0.23
2.25
0.25
1.67
0
0
0.33
0
0
0
0
Barramundi Cod (Cromileptes)
Grouper
Humphead Wrasse
0.47
Bumphead Parrotfish
0.13
0.07
Other Parrotfish
4.38
2.37
1.25
0.75
2.00
Moray Eel
Banded coral shrimp (Stenopus hispidus)
15.33
0
0
0.08
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.0
17.0
213.0
17.0
129.8
7.0
4.3
Pencil urchin (Heterocentrotus mammilatus)
0
0.4
0
0
0.1
0
0
Sea cucumber (edible only)
0
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
0.8
1.2
0.3
Diadema urchins
Crown-of-thorns star (Acanthaster)
Giant clam (Tridacna)
Triton shell (Charonia tritonis)
2.0
0.3
0.2
Lobster
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
15
THREATS
There are many anthropogenic impacts causing damage to the coral reefs of Cambodia. These
include destruction of coral from anchors, dynamite fishing, discarded fishing gear, and seaweed
farming. Monitoring data indicates the status of damage to coral reefs at the site level (Table 4).
Table 4
Anthropogenic damages to the coral reefs in Cambodia.
(General reef condition: None=0, Low=1, Medium=2, High=3)
Location
Koh
Kong
Koh
Sdach
Koh
Rong
Koh
Takiev
Koh
Tang
Prek
Ampil
Koh
Pouh
Coral damage: Anchor
0.9
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.0
0.3
Coral damage: Dynamite
1.8
0.7
0.0
0.0
2.4
0.0
1.3
Coral damage: Others
0.5
0.7
0.0
0.3
1.2
0.0
0.3
Trash: Fishing gear
0.4
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.7
0.0
0.8
Trash: Others
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.3
Destructive Fishing Methods
There is little data on over-fishing and destructive fishing practices. Data from ReefCheck surveys and
other studies indicate however, that dynamite fishing is a major threat to coral reefs in Cambodia
(CZM 1999). Only one interviewee admitted to using dynamite, and claimed that a profit of up to 14.7
million riel per day was possible (CZM 1999). Information about cyanide fishing is equally lacking but
thought to be practiced using cheap chemicals from Viet Nam (US$36/kg). It has been reported that
groupers and cod are caught using this method for grow-out in cages at Tumnup Rolork and Stoeng
Hav (CZM 1999).
Coral collection, an important threat from 1995 to 1997, is declining because the Fisheries
Department has tightened controls and confiscated coral from vendors. More recently, there has been
a reduction in the collection of coral due to the prohibition of this activity by the Provincial Government
and the declining value of coral for use in the curio trade.
Anchor and Trawler Damage, Others Kind of Damage (divers, trampling, etc)
Anchor damage is apparent on most reefs in Cambodia, largely as a consequence of a lack of
mooring buoys and low-level awareness amongst fishermen of the damage boat anchors do to reefs.
Tourism based on Cambodia’s coral reefs is limited, such that the impacts from tourist boats, divers
and trampling are limited. However, this could be a potential threat in the future with the development
of the tourism industry.
The introduction of seaweed cultivation to Cambodia in 1999 is also contributing to the destruction of
once healthy corals. Seaweed cultivation is a lucrative business attracting significant foreign
investment in Cambodia. This activity is particularly prevalent in Kampot Province. The destruction of
corals associated with seaweed culture is a consequence of local people cultivating seaweed directly
on reefs, with damage caused by trampling or discarded trash. In some areas, corals are now under
severe threat from seaweed farming and are disappearing from many sites. The majority of coral
communities on Koh Pouh where intensive seaweed farming takes place have been converted to
rubble due to unsustainable farming practices (Mam 2001).
Development Impacts (ports, airports, dredging, etc)
There are many construction activities taking place in the coastal areas of Cambodia, but their
impacts on coral reefs are largely unknown. Construction activities, including commercial port
expansion, five-star hotel construction, and golf course development are particularly prevalent in
Sihanoukville municipality. Even with the Government’s policy of conducting Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIAs), no EIAs were conducted prior to recent development activities in this important
coastal municipality.
Coastal agriculture and development have contributed to the damage of coral reefs in Cambodia as a
result of increased sedimentation and land-based pollution. Without any prompt mitigation, large
quantities of agricultural run-off and soil will continue to be discharged from coastal rivers to areas of
Cambodia’s coral reefs each year. The sediment and nutrient loads of Cambodia’s coastal rivers are
largely unknown, but increased turbidity has been reported for most coastal water areas.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
16
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
Coral Bleaching
There is little data available on coral bleaching in Cambodian waters. However, similar to other places
in the region, coral bleaching did occur in 1998. Bleaching from the 1997-1998 event affected
Cambodian reefs, with one survey indicating that 80% of corals in Sihanoukville bleached during 1998
(Burke et al. 2002). Nelson (1999) also noted that bleaching occurred elsewhere in Cambodia,
including other sites on Koh Rong Sanleom, Koh Rong, Koh Tang, Koh Damlong, and Koh Thas.
Outbreaking or Invasive Organisms
Crown-of-thorns starfish were abundant in 1998. At one site on Koh Tang, crown-of-thorns starfish
were abundant, with more than 20 large starfish observed per 100m2 (CZM, 1999). However, recent
surveys have reported low densities, with only one animal observed at some sites and none found in
2
others. Of more concern are the numbers of Diadema setosum, with 218 observed per 100m in Koh
Rong and Rong Sanleom.
Potential threats to coral reefs
There are many potential threats to coral reefs in Cambodia. Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia
indicated that the main threats are from coastal development, marine-based pollution, sedimentation,
over-fishing, and destructive fishing (Burke et al. 2002). Over-fishing is major threat to all reefs in
Cambodia, and while destructive fishing is also a potential threat, it is unknown how many reefs are at
risk.
Coastal Development
At present, coastal development is only a high threat to a relatively small percentage of reefs in
Cambodia. However, in the future, as the amount of development along the coastline increases, the
percentage of reefs at risk from this potential threat will also increase if strict environmental impact
assessments and mitigation are not carried out.
Marine-Based Pollution
The majority of reefs are considered to be only at medium to low threat from marine-based pollution.
However, many reefs would be at high risk in the case of a catastrophic event such as an oil spill, as
the government is insufficiently prepared for such events.
Sedimentation and Nutrient Inputs
Burke et al (2002) considered the threat to coral reefs from sedimentation to be low. However, much
land clearing, for both timber and agricultural purposes, occurs upstream of rivers and estuaries, and
as this continues in the future, the threat of sedimentation to coral reefs may increase.
Over-fishing
Over-fishing is considered one of the greatest threats to coral reefs in Cambodia, with all reefs at high
risk. It is thought some reef fish and invertebrates are now locally extinct, while populations of others
have been reduced significantly. While exact figures are unavailable, it is certain that increasing
populations in coastal areas are placing increasing demand on fisheries resources, due to a high level
dependence on them for food and income.
SOCIO-ECONOMY AND RESOURCE USES
Socio-economic status
Population
A population census conducted in March 1998 showed a population of 11.4 million, with
approximately 85% living in rural areas. In coastal areas, populations ranged from 28,677 in Kep to
527,904 in Kampot Province (Table 5). The average household size ranged from 5.0 people in
Kampot province to 5.5 people in Sihanoukville, with females heading 24.8% of households in coastal
areas (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Table 5
Population size and density of Cambodia and its coastal areas.
Location
Cambodia
Kampot
Koh Kong
Sihanoukville
Kep
Areas
2
(km )
181,035
4873
11160
868
336
Population
11,426,223
527,904
131,912
155,376
28,677
Women
(% total)
51.8
52.1
48.7
50.5
51.0
Density
2
(/km )
64
108
12
179
85
Source: Ministry of Planning - General Population Census of Cambodia, 1999.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
17
Cambodia’s population is growing at an estimated annual rate of 2.4% (Ministry of Planning 1999).
The population is mostly comprised of people of Khmer decent (90%). The main ethnic groups are the
Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese (also sometimes called Khmer-Chinese), and others from different hill
tribe groups. It is estimated that 95% of the population speak the Khmer language. The main religion
in Cambodia is Theravada Buddhism, while the Cham are Muslims. There are no estimates of the
distribution of ethnic groups in coastal areas, however, the proportion of Cham people on at least part
of the coastline is relatively high (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Occupations
There is a scarcity of clear information about the occupations of Cambodia’s coastal people. However,
studies suggest that while most households depend on several occupations and sources of income,
fishing is dominant, being the main occupation in six villages of Sihanoukville, six villages of Kampot,
five villages of Koh Kong, and three villages of Kep. (Carl Bro International a/s 1999).
Migration
There was considerable rural to urban migration in the years immediately following the 1993 elections,
as villagers searched for better employment opportunities in the largely urban private sector
generated by the influx of international development assistance (UNICEF 1996). Coastal migration is
still occurring with 29.6% of men and 15.6% of women relocating in search of employment (Table 6).
There has been substantial migration into the coastal areas, particularly Koh Kong province, over the
last 20 years. Table 6 highlights the percentage of distribution of migrants by reason for migration and
gender.
Table 6
Migration into Cambodia’s coastal zone by reason and gender.
Reason for migration
Total
Transfer work
To search for employment
Education
Married
Family moved
Natural calamities
Return after replacement
Other reasons
Both Sex (%)
100
11.0
31.0
2.5
11.4
53.9
2.7
6.0
5.2
Males (%)
100
15.2
29.6
2.8
12.2
28.9
2.6
5.3
3.6
Females (%)
100
3.2
15.6
1.6
9.3
56.2
3.0
6.1
5.1
Source: Ministry of Planning (1999).
Education
According to the 1998 Census, 61.2% of Cambodia’s literate population had not completed the
primary level of education. In Kampot, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, and Kep, the percentage of the
population yet to have completed education at a primary level was 65.9%, 58%, 56% and 68%,
respectively. A small percentage (1.45%) of Cambodia’s literate coastal population had acquired
literacy without passing any grade or class (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Gender disparity is greatest among the poor, but it is also significant among the richest 20% of the
population. Boys and girls have fairly similar school enrolment rates until the age of 10. By 15 years of
age, male enrolment is 50% greater than that of girls, and by 18 years of age, male enrolment rates
are nearly three times as large as female enrolment rates. This means that initially, parents send both
their sons and daughters to school, but take the girls out of school after a couple of years. Household
survey data suggest that more than 60% of children drop out of school because they have to help the
family with household and market work. Furthermore, parents are often reluctant to send their girls to
secondary school as they would be required to travel long distances or stay away from home (Ministry
of Planning 1999).
Income level
The average per capita income of Cambodia in 1998 was 79,355 Riels or US$20.80 per month. In
coastal zones it is slightly less, with the average income per person per month reported at US$19.50.
This level was higher than that in the Tonle Sap zone (US$17.80) and mountain zone (US$18.21), but
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
lower than in the plain (US$23.09) (Ministry of Planning 1999). General problems faced by some local
communities include lack of rice and food, lack of water during dry season, lack of schools and health
facilities, lack of capital for productive use, and decline in fish catch.
Fishing conflicts
Small-scale, trawl, and motorised push-net fishers are in conflict over access to inshore areas and fish
resources. Trawls often destroy small-scale fishing gear and large commercial operators typically do
not pay compensation to local fishers. Small-scale fishers cannot claim compensation as trawling is
banned in most inshore areas and the crews of such vessels are usually under the protection of highranking military, police, or government officials. There have also been reports of significant variations
in the types and levels of taxes and other fees paid by local fishermen. In Koh Kong it has been
reported that many fishermen had to pay a monthly fee ranging from R50,000 – 80,000 to the police,
army, fisheries officers and village guard, in addition to the annual tax to the Fisheries Office. There
are also reports of fishing equipment being confiscated if fishermen did not pay around R50,000 per
month to people whose task it was to prevent violation of fishing regulations (Carl Bros International
A/S 1999).
Resource uses
The development of Cambodia’s coastal zone continues to occur at a rapid pace. While the coastal
areas of Cambodia are a prime location for foreign and domestic tourism investment, due to pristine
beaches along the coastline and the offshore islands, the primary economic benefit comes from
extractive use of its resources. As a consequence, the coastal area is experiencing high immigration
rates, second only to Phnom Penh. Concern exists about the unsustainable use of natural resources,
particularly those located near the coastline, and the detrimental effect that loss of value would have
on many local communities.
Marine resources are vital to the livelihood of many inhabitants of coastal villages, with many people
reliant on fishing for their primary source of income. Most fishermen catch fish, shrimp, crab and squid
around different islands and headlands, some fishing up to 15km from the village. Much shrimp, crab,
crab meat and expensive fish is sold to traders both locally and internationally, with villagers in Koh
Kong selling most of the sea products in Thailand. There is seasonal variation in prices which traders
are willing to pay for the products, with villagers having no other option but to sell their products to the
traders (Carl Bros International A/S 1999).
Many people feel there has been a decline in their standard of living over recent years, with loss of
value of marine resources due to significant reduction in fish stocks and declines in fish catch. Many
fishermen are dissatisfied or angry about the use of trawling and pushing nets and boats using lights
in shallow water because it can damage local fishermen’s equipment and also takes away all the
small fish and other marine resources (Carl Bros International A/S 1999).
Reef Fish and Fisheries
The most direct use of the coral reef ecosystem is marine fisheries with the Department of Fisheries
reporting 42,000 to 45,000 metric tons of non-reef fish and reef fish collected every year (Ing 2003).
However, these figures are unreliable and it has been estimated that it could be much larger than the
official figure. It is also hard to determine how much of these resources have come from coral reefs.
With increasing population growth in coastal areas, increasing demands are being placed on this
resource with more people dependent on fish for their livelihoods and nutrition. Reef fish are the most
valuable species in both domestic and international markets, and therefore the most targeted species
by both legal and illegal fishers.
Reef fish, such as Sweetlips (Haemulidae), Snapper (Lutjanidae), Barramundi Cod (Cromileptes),
Grouper, Humphead Wrasse and Parrotfish, are the most valuable and targeted marine species.
Though, at present, there are no statistical records of these fish. Traditionally fishers catch these
species by using trap, gillnet, and hook and lines. These species are collected in all sizes including
juveniles. The juveniles and pre-adult fish are collected and ranched in cages along the coast, to be
then sold alive to both local restaurants and international markets in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan
when they reached commercial sizes.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
19
Tourism
Tourism related to coral reefs seems is limited in terms of infrastructure and activities. Cambodia has
very limited resources to develop the marine tourism sector. However, compared to the last few years,
more and more tourists are coming to Sihanoukville to see the coral reefs of Koh Thas, Koh Rong and
Rong Salem, and even Koh Tang. Diving and snorkelling by foreign tourists in Sihanoukville is also
becoming more popular and expected to increase in the future with much potential for further
development of eco-tourism in the region. Currently there are three private SCUBA diving centers in
Sihanoukville, namely, ECO-SEA, Chez Claude, and SCUBA NATION. Each centre brings about 3040 divers per month. It is anticipated that the number of divers will increase in the near future when
infrastructure and equipment are put in place.
Other Uses
Apart from fisheries and tourism, coral reef resources may play another very important role in
scientific research for medical purposes and socio-economic use. However, in Cambodia very limited
scientific research has been carried out for medicines or other purposes. In terms of socio-economic
use however, most local people who live nearby the reef areas are making their living from the reefs.
Most of them are fishers, but some are gaining indirect benefits from the reefs by selling fishing gear
and fishing boats.
Collection of corals for souvenirs has also been popular for many years, and even now, though illegal,
is still continuing. The main types of corals collected include table corals (Acropora spp.), elephant ear
corals (Turbinaria spp.), deer horn corals (Porites spp.). Previously, large amounts of dead corals
were collected by high rank military officers for use in the construction of their homes.
MANAGEMENT
Legislations
Existing laws and regulations for coral reef management in Cambodia are insufficient, especially
considering the increasing threats to coral reefs in the country. There is no law that explicitly relates to
coral reef management, although Cambodia’s fisheries law notes the requirement to protect
Cambodia’s rich marine living resources. Most laws relate to the protection of fisheries rather than
coral reefs and there is still a lack of clear policies and regulations for the management of these
important resources. The weaknesses in the current system need to be identified and laws amended
to provide a sound legislative basis for the protection of coral reefs, while facilitating the development
of a transparent legal framework and procedures. Transparency is imperative to reducing the current
levels of misuse of authority within the system and ensuring the protection of coral reefs.
Currently, two new legislative tools are being proposed by the Department of Fisheries. These are:
ƒ
Royal Decree on the establishment of protected aresa and the conservation of coral reefs and
seagrass in Koh Rong and Koh Sdach Group of Islands.
ƒ
Sub-Decree on the management of Marine Protected Areas covering coral reefs and
seagrass areas.
At the time of writing, the Royal Decree had been submitted to the Consul Minister and was awaiting
approval, while the Sub-Decree submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is still
in draft form. It is uncertain as to when these legislative tools will be implemented.
It must be recognised that these amendments will remain ineffective unless qualified law enforcement
officials, at the local and national level, ensure compliance. Ultimate success is dependent on the
awareness of local communities and resource users of laws and regulations and their compliance to
the system. Only then will coral reefs be effectively protected by law.
Institutional framework
The institutional framework for the conservation of coral reefs in Cambodia is still rudimentary,
possibly as a consequence of little understanding and awareness of the significance and benefits of
this habitat amongst stakeholders. Day-to-day management of natural resources and resource use on
the coast is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF),
particularly the Department of Fisheries. There are fisheries staff at district and provincial levels
responsible for the patrolling and management of commercial and medium-scale marine fisheries, and
the protections of critical fisheries habitats such as mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
However, there are overlaps of responsibilities among concerned government agencies, particularly
Ministry of Environment and Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, and between the national and provincial level agencies and departments. The Ministry of
Environment is responsible for the management of protected areas and for overseeing environmental
protection. This includes the protection of coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves, particularly when
they are in a protected area. This overlap does not seem to be problematic for managers on the
ground, but needs to be clarified legally. As coral reef management is a shared responsibility between
many departments, including the Department of Fisheries, the Provincial Government, and District
Government, there are many potential sources of institutional conflict (Chou et al. 2002).
Existing institutional frameworks for coral reef management in Cambodia should be reformed to
ensure the protection of coral reefs from the national down to the local level. In compliance with the
Fisheries Master Plan, empowerment of local communities is required to enable community
participation in management. Providing resource users with an opportunity to contribute to
management decisions, gives the community greater ownership over, and responsibility for, marine
areas and resources. With the rapid development of most coastal areas, it is important that local
communities have a sound knowledge of the importance of coral reef areas and the potential impacts
of economic activities, particularly tourism.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
Legally, only one marine protected area has been established, namely the Ream National Park.
Originally, it was designed to protect mangrove forests, with no consideration of adjacent coral reef
areas. However, the park was later extended to include some coral reef area. The first project was
community-based fisheries management at Ream National Park, which was a demonstration project
funded by ADB in 1999. This project involved the development of community participation in fisheries
resources management at the site. Regulations at the community level were developed, and
participatory enforcement was initiated.
Currently, the Department of Fisheries is proposing to establish another MPA around two groups of
islands, specifically the Koh Kong island group and Koh Sdach. The area of this proposed MPA is 712
km2. The Department of Fisheries realises the importance of establishing these areas and their
significance to the sustainable management of marine fisheries in Cambodia.
Monitoring
The Government of Cambodia is committed to ensuring the effective management and conservation
of the countries marine resources. Therefore, information on the extent and present health of coastal
and marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, is needed to provide the basis for a long-term
management strategy. Monitoring and assessment is a critical element of marine resource
management aimed at achieving the sustainable use of Cambodia’s coral reefs and associated
resources. In the past there has been no coral reef monitoring programmes in Cambodia due to a lack
of funding and resources. However, several organisations/programmess have supported coral reef
survey activities in Cambodia since 1998. These include:
ƒ
Environmental Coastal Zone of Cambodia (CZM)
This programme, financially supported by DANIDA, focused on coastal zone and resource
management and conservation. The project started in November 1998, undertaking the first
coral reef baseline surveys in some areas, particularly around Sihanoukville.
ƒ
Wetland International Asia-Pacific and Lower Mekong Basin Programme
In 2001, a team from the Ministry of Environment, Wetlands International Asia-Pacific, and
Lower Mekong Basin Programme conducted field surveys of Cambodia’s coral reefs and
seagrass areas.
ƒ
National University of Singapore (NUS) Project
In 2002, The National University of Singapore, with support from the Singapore International
Foundation (SIF) and Youth Expeditions Projects (YEP), organised three expeditions to
assess the marine biodiversity of the reefs off Koh Kong Province, Cambodia. Data was
collected from the Koh Sdach group of islands, using the methods of Reef Check and Line
Intercept Transect (LIT).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
21
ƒ
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/International Coral Reef Action Network
(ICRAN)
In 2002, UNEP/ICRAN supported staff from the Department of Fisheries in SCUBA diving,
Reefcheck and LIT Training courses through the implementation of the project entitled
“Proposed Marine Protected Areas in Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom”.
ƒ
United Nations Environment Programme/Global Environment Facility/South China Sea
Project (UNEP/GEF/SCS)
The Department of Fisheries is currently implementing the coral reef and seagrass
component of the UNEP/GEF project entitled “Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends
in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea”. This project determined the general distribution
of coral reefs within Cambodia’s marine waters, and conducted baseline surveys to determine
the abundance and distribution of coral reef benthos, reef fish, and invertebrates. The general
condition of coral reefs was investigated by identifying visible impacts. The project also
supports the development of the National Action Plan for Coral Reef and Seagrass
Management in Cambodia.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Due to the fact that Cambodia had a very long period of civil war, limited research has been carried
out on coral reefs and the marine environment. As a result, information regarding the status of coral
reefs is scarce. Recent surveys indicate that coral reefs cover a total area of 28.065km2, including 70
species of coral in 33 genera and 11 families. Live coral cover at coral reef sites in Cambodia has
been observed to range mainly from 23%-58%. However, there have been reports of much damage
and destruction of reefs as a result of destructive fishing methods and seaweed farming. In general,
near shore reefs are in poor condition with turbid conditions, while healthy reefs are found further
offshore, away from human impacts.
Policies and plans for the long-term management of coral reefs in Cambodia are not yet in place.
Existing laws focus on fisheries only. This situation, in conjunction with ineffective law enforcement, is
not conducive for the effective management of coral reefs and their resources. There are also
overlaps in responsibilities among concerned government agencies, which have the potential for
conflict in the future. In addition, the Cambodian government has limited capacity, infrastructure, and
finances to conduct regular scientific research and monitoring. Greater awareness of the ecological
and economical value of coral reefs is needed from all stakeholders at all levels to promote the
protection of these areas. With the increase in demand for these resources, increasing populations in
coastal areas, as well as the potential for development in the future, there is a need to establish
effective management strategies for the long-term sustainable use of coral reefs in Cambodia.
Therefore the development of a National Action Plan for coral reef management in Cambodia,
coupled with: improvements to legislation, administrative frameworks and enforcement; establishment
of management models; research and regular monitoring; capacity building and maintenance;
increasing public awareness and participation; and financial sustainability, is urgently needed to
ensure sustainable use and reduce the degradation of this important resource.
Recommendations:
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Implement a National Action Plan for coral reef management to ensure conservation and
sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems.
Implement a national policy, legal and administrative framework applicable to coral reef
management and conservation with the aim of reducing the degradation of coral reefs and
maintaining their multiple benefits and uses.
Establish management models to ensure sustainable use of coral reefs according to their
different ecological and economic values in order to maintain a balance of uses.
Establish research and monitoring facilities to monitor the status of coral reefs and to support
conservation and management.
Build cross-sectorial capacity for sustainable coral reef management at national and local
levels.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
ƒ
ƒ
Increase awareness of managers and communities on the ecological roles and economic
values of coral reefs to promote the balance between utilisation and conservation of these
resources.
Create financial sustainability and improve economic status of coastal communities.
REFERENCES
Burke, L., Selig, E., Spalding, M. (2002). Reefs at Risk in South East Asia. World Resource Institute. 10 Street,
NE Washington, DC 20002, USA.
Carl Bro International a/s (1999). Cambodian Socio-economist and International Sociologist: Socio-economic and
Natural resources studies in three villages in Koh Kong Province. DANIDA Ref.
No.104.Camb.1.MIKA.3. Cambodia.
Chou, L.M., Loh, T.L., Tun, K.P.P., (2003). Status of Coral Reef of the Koh Sdach Group of Islands, Koh Kong
Province, Cambodia, Part II. Marine Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences. National
University of Singapore. Blk S1, 14 Science Drive 4. Singapore 1175 43.
Chou, L.M., Tun, K.P.P., Chan, T.C., (2002). Status of Coral Reef and Socio-economic Evaluation of the Koh
Sdach Group of Islands, Koh Kong Province, Cambodia. Marine Biology Laboratory, Department of
Biological Sciences. National University of Singapore. Blk S1, 14 Science Drive 4. Singapore 1175 43.
CZM (2002). National Report of Coastal Resources in Cambodia. Environmental Coastal Zone Management in
Cambodia. Danida/Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
CZM, (1999). Case Study: Coral Reefs of Sihanoukville, Destruction by Dynamite and Coral Collection.
Environmental Coastal Zone in Cambodia. Danida/Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
DoF (1990). Compiled Theme of Fishery Laws. Department of Fisheries. Phnom Penh.
DoF (2004). Map of Seagrass Distribution in Cambodia. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ing, T. (2003). National Report on Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global and Transboundary Significance
in the South China Sea, Cambodia. The Cambodian Fishery Component of Reversing Environmental
Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Department of Fisheries. Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Mam, K. (2001). Coral Reef and Seagrass Survey in Cambodia. Lower Mekong Basin Program of Wetlands
International Asia Pacific. Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh.
Ministry of Planning (1999) General Population Census of Cambodia 1998. Final Census Results. National
Institutes of Statistics. Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh.
Nelson, V. (1999). State of Coral Reefs Cambodia. Environment Coastal Zone Project, MoE/Danida, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
UNEP, (2003). Report of the Training Programme in SCUBA Diving and ReefCheck Technique in Cambodia
(30 pages), and Report of the Training Programme in Coral Reef Survey Using Line Intercept Transect
th
(LIT) Method (24 pages). United Nations Environmental Program, UN Building, 9 Floor Block A,
Rajdamnern Avenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
UNICEF (1996). Towards a Better Future: An Analysis of Situation of Children and Women in Cambodia.
UNICEF, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
INDONESIA
Dr. Suharsono
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Puslit OSEANOGRAFI–LIPI
Research Center for Oceanography - LIPI
Pasir Putih 1 Ancol Timur, Jakarta UTARA, Indonesia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
23
INDONESIA
Suharsono
Research Centre for Oceanography - LIPI
INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea coast of Indonesia is comprised of four provinces, namely Riau, Jambi, West
Kalimantan and Bangka-Belitung, stretching roughly from the Malaka Strait to the Natuna and Java
Seas. The Natuna Sea is the northern boundary while the Java Sea is the southern limit. This region
belongs to the shallow Sunda shelf and consists of more than 3,500 islands surrounded by welldeveloped fringing reefs. This vast area offers a variety of environments for reef development and
therefore the diversity of fringing reef types are high. The northern coastline of Natuna and Anambas
Islands faces the winter swell of the South China Sea, while fringing reefs along the east coast of
Sumatra, the west coast of Kalimantan, and the northwest coast of Java enjoy in the relatively calm
intra-archipelagic seas.
Riau Province has the largest bordering the South China Sea, with 3,214 islands and 235,306 square
km of territorial waters or almost 71.3% of Riau as a whole. In addition, Riau’s coastal zone is the
centre of various economic sectors including the shipping industry, agribusiness, tourism, residential
development, and waste disposal. The dominant economic activity in the area is the development of
industrial areas on the Batam, Rempang and Galang Islands, and the development of tourism and
industry on Bintan Island.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Tide and current
The tide along the South China Sea coast of Indonesia is diurnal with a range of 1.2-2.3m. The
amplitude of the tide varies depending on the location of the islands and the weather. Current patterns
in the area are very complex due to the physiography of the group of islands and due to its position at
the equatorial zone. Reversal of monsoon seasons has significant effects on currents. The group of
islands stretches mainly in southeast-northwest direction. This controls the current in the straits. The
tide and the physical change of seawater mass with the South China Sea also affects the current
pattern in this area. In general, the North monsoon causes the current to flow in a southeast direction.
During the East monsoon, currents generally flow from the northeast to the southwest. The tidal
current in the inner side of the islands is characterised by an alternating current, parallel with the
islands axis running in southeast-northwest direction. The speed of surface currents ranges from 5 to
30m/second. Tidal currents reach peak velocity at times of spring tides during the North monsoon.
The dominant physical factor influencing the development of coral reefs along the South China Sea
coast of Indonesia are the monsoon seasons and the and reversal of currents associated with shifting
monsoons.
The physical properties of coastal waters in the area are influenced significantly by the South China
Sea. During the easterly monsoon, coastal waters are influenced by the movements of three water
masses, i.e. water of low temperature and high salinity from the north and south; water of high
temperature and low salinity from the Malaka Strait; and fresh river water from Sumatra (Musi River)
and Kalimantan (Kapuas River). Results of research activities indicate that the influence of rivers from
West Kalimantan is stronger than that of rivers from Sumatra.
Surface water temperature of the easterly monsoon ranges between 28.87°-30.86°C, with an average
of 30.78°C. In general, coastal water temperatures are higher than those offshore, and water
temperature in the deeper layer is lower than that of the surface. Salinity in the surface layer varies
significantly, and is typically lower than those at greater depths. Low salinity conditions are commonly
found close to the land and reflect the occurrence of big rivers, such as the Kapuas and Musi Rivers,
which have greatest impact in the Natuna Sea.
The impact of the Kapuas River extends some 30 miles offshore and affects the entire coastal water
body. In September-October 2001, the impact was noted to reach 120 miles from the coast. During
the beginning of the easterly season of 2002, the flow pattern of the water mass in the Natuna Sea
showed water movement toward the southeast and southwest at times of high tide, and to the north
and northeast during low tide. Based on water mass circulation, it is concluded that this forms the
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
entry point of the water mass from the South China Sea to the Java Sea. Coral reefs are found in the
western and southern parts of the Natuna Sea where the seawater is relatively clear, i.e., in the
waters of Belitung Island, east of Bangka Island, and the Karimata Islands.
Rainfall
The most important climate factor affecting natural resources management is rainfall. The average
yearly rainfall is 2,214mm with an average of 110 rainy days between the period of October to
February.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
In the framework of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project, a coral reef base map was developed
based on the interpretation of Landsat 7 data. This map was not groundtruthed. The accuracy of the
map depends on the skills of the interpreter and the cloud cover on the image. Assuming that the
interpreter is an expert, it can be said that the map accuracy is only related to the percentage of cloud
cover on the source image. Therefore, since the average cloud cover on the images used to derive
the maps is around 20%, the reef base map accuracy is more or less 80%. Consequently, all
information derived from the map such as perimeter and area only has a maximum validity of 80%.
Initially the coral reef base map represents five classes of substrate (i.e. coral reef, sand flat, mud flat,
land, and other). These were subsequently reclassified into three classes, namely coral reefs, land,
and other areas including sand and mud flats. Figure 1 and Table 1 highlight coral reefs sites of
interest in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
Figure 1
Distribution of coral reef sites of interest in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
Natuna Islands
The Natuna Islands, Tambelan Islands, and Anambas Islands are island groups situated in the
Natuna Sea (southwestern waters of the South China Sea). The island groups have several types of
fringing reefs and they are affected less by terrestrial processes. Natuna District covers an area of
2,776km, with a total coastline of 2,109km. The total area of coral reef in the district is estimated to be
159km2. The development of fringing reefs in the area is largely influenced by the reversing wind and
current regimes associated with the monsoon seasons.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
Table 1
25
Approximate area of main coral reef sites located in Indonesian waters of the South
China Sea based on Landsat 7 data. (approximate 20% error)
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Site
Natuna Islands
Anambas Islands
Batam, Rempang, Galang and Bintan
Senayang and Lingga
Karimata Island and Surroundings
Bangka Island and Surroundings
Belitung Island and Surroundings
Total
Area (km2)
159.05
62.55
61.45
47.32
10.41
29.34
11.61
381.73
The reef flats of the Natuna Islands are mostly narrow with steep reef slopes along the western and
eastern parts of the island. The inner reef flat is dominated by seagrass, particularly Thallassia sp.
and Enhalus sp., and the seaweeds Sargassum sp. and Padina sp.. The outer reef flat is dominated
by Montipora digitata, Seriatopora hystrix, and Favia chinensis, while the upper reef slopes are
typically dominated by Acropora humilis and A. hyacinthus. In general, the percentage coral cover on
the reef slope increases with depth and attains its maximum at 5 to 10 meters. At depths of more than
10 metres, coral cover is observed to decline rapidly and corals are scarce at depths of 25 metres.
Live coral cover varies between sites, and is largely dependent upon the degree of exposure. Reef
slopes are dominated by foliose corals such as Pachyseris speciosa and Echinophora sp. The degree
of exposure also influences the dominant coral species on reef slopes, with the massive corals such
as Porites lutea and Porites lobata more typically observed on sheltered reefs to the west of the
islands.
A total of 182 species from 63 genera of hard corals have been recorded in the area of the Natuna
Islands. A total of 190 species of coral reef fish from 30 families, and 71 pelagic fish species from 16
families, were during surveys using visual census techniques at the island group. These surveys
identified that fish diversity and abundance at the Natuna Island group remains high, with a diversity
of size ranges of fish present on the reefs.
Barelang (Batam-Rempang –Galang) - Bintan
The reef flat in this area varies, but is mostly wide and covered by seagrass. The coral species
observed on the reef flats and upper reef slopes include massive corals such as Goniastrea retiformis
and Porites lutea and branching coral such as Porites cylindrica and Porites nigrescens. Coral reefs
are not observed at depths greater than 7 metres in this area. The reef slopes in the area are gently
sloping and dominated by massive corals and encrusting coral species. Branching coral species are
observed on the upper reef slopes. Percentage coral cover ranges between 20-69% at different sites.
The exposed reefs to the east of the island group exhibit great percentage coral cover than the reefs
on the sheltered western coasts of the islands. Percentage coral cover exhibited distinct trends of
greater percentage coral cover occurring at the exposed eastern reef and lower percentage coral
cover on the sheltered western reefs. A total of 169 species of stony corals belonging to 62 genera
have been observed on reefs of this group of islands.
Senayang - Lingga
The Senayang-Lingga Island area is located approximately 130km southeast of Singapore, consisting
of 453 islands and covering an area of 129.411km2. Lingga Island is the largest island, with a land
2
area of 81,669km . The coastal waters of the area are comprised of patch reefs, fringing reef, and
extensive mangrove forests (9.158km2). The bathymetry of coastal waters at the Senayang - Lingga
Islands is very complex, with most corals occurring at depths of less than 10m. The physical
environment of Senayang - Lingga consists of a high level of suspended sediments in the water
column. Strong water currents and shallow waters in the area strongly influence the composition of
the reef edge benthos.
The reefs in the area are dominated by mushroom corals Fungia spp, Polyphyllia talpina, Ctenactis
crassa, and non-Acropora species adapted to living in the turbid environment. Reef flats are typically
wide and dominated by seagrass species such as Thallasia sp.and Enhalus sp.. The reef slopes in
the area are gently sloping, and there is an abundance of corals on the upper reef slopes (<7m) of
most sites. The dominant species are the foliose corals including Pectinia lactuca, Pachyseris
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
speciosa and Turbinaria sp. Areas of soft sediments are dominated by species adapted to turbid
water conditions, including Trachyphyllia geoforyi and Goniopora sp. Percentage live coral cover
ranges between 19 and 67% at individual sites, and Acropora contributes to less than 7% of coral
cover at most sites.
A total of 217 species of stony corals belonging to 64 genera have been observed at coral reef sites in
this area. An underwater visual census conducted at 102 stations within 12 locations in the area
identified 117 species of coral reef fish belonging to 31 families. The dominant species were fusiler
fish (Caesionids), followed by Pomacentrids, Chaetodontidae, Lutjannidae, Serranidae, Labridae,
Pomacanthidae, and Scaridae.
Belitung
Coral reef ecosystems observed in the western waters of Belitung Island are categorised as being in
good condition (Wouthuyzen, personal communication). Reefs have significant potential for
supporting a variety of uses, both direct and indirect, that benefit the coastal community. The coral
reef fishery in the area is highly productive, supporting yields of 5 tonnes/km2.
The reefs adjacent to the small islands west of Belitung Island, such as Mendanau Island and Batu
Dinding Island, are characterised by extensive gentling sloping reefs on sandy substrate. Coral
communities develop near the reef slope down to a depth of 7 m, and are dominated by sub-massive
types such as Porites rus, Galaxea fascicularis and Acropora palifera. Altogether 30 coral reef sites in
the area have been surveyed, with an average coral cover of less than 25% observed in the area.
This value indicates that the coral colonies of the Belitung area are in poor condition. Of the 30 sites
surveyed, 20 sites were characterised by a percentage cover of less than 25%. Five sites had a
percentage live coral cover between 25-50%, whilst 3 sites had a percentage cover greater than 50%
(excellent condition). Two sites had zero percentage cover, since the sites were dominated by dead
corals covered with algae
Research conducyed by the Research Centre for Oceanography in 2002 (P2O-LIPI, 2002a) identified
187 species of corals belonging to 74 genera and 14 families at Belitung Islands. Observations of
coral fish identified 218 species belonging to 85 genera and 36 families, 105 species of molluscs, 35
species of crustaceans, 36 species of echinoderms, 20 species of mangroves, 8 species of seagrass,
and 3 endangered species. Fisheries resources in this region are still productive, although action is
required to ensure the prevention of over-fishing. Fishermen report a gradual decline in the size of
economically important species harvested from Belitung’s coral reefs, suggesting that stocks of these
species may be over-fished.
Anambas
The Anambas Island group, including several small islands, is located in the south westernmost part
of Natuna islands. The typical reef flats in these islands are narrow and steeply sloping. The depth
contours of the fringing reef range between 1–30m with an average cross sectional slope of 30o. A
survey conducted in several small islands indicates that the reef flat is covered by seagrass and
algae, as well as some corals including Montipora digitata and Serriatopora hystrix. The percentage
live coral cover ranges between 21.72 – 82.72% at different sites. A total of 206 species of hard corals
from 62 genera have been recorded in the area (P2O-LIPI, 2002b). Surveys in the area have also
identified 26 species of algae from 17 genera. With regard to macro-benthic fauna at the sites, 85
species of 53 genera of molluscs, 24 species of 14 genera of crustacean, and 25 species of 18
genera of echinoderm have been recorded. Visual census surveys conducted at six islands of the
island group identified a total of 128 species of fish from 54 genera. Fish diversity and abundance is
relatively high at this group.
Karimata
The Karimata Islands are located in the southeasternmost part of the Natuna Sea, adjacent to West
Kalimantan Province. A Marine Nature Reserve (209.635ha) has been established for the
conservation of corals and associated organisms at the islands. The two main islands in the area are
Karimata and Serutu Island, as well as a number of smaller islands. The reef flats of the small islands
are considerably wider than those of the two large islands. The clear water in the area is favourable
for coral development. Large colonies of Acropora spp. dominate the reef flats in the area. The gently
sloping reef of Busung Island is covered with large colonies of Acropora hyacinthus down to depths of
20m (P2O-LIPI, 2002a). In comparison, no Acropora was observed during surveys conducted at
Tanjung Barat Island. Reefs at this island are dominated by non-Acropora coral species, including
Diploastrea heliopora (with diameters up to 380cm) and the soft coral Sarcophyton spp. The
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
27
percentage live coral cover ranges from 31.28-76.2%. The total number of hard coral species
observed at the group is 192 species from 42 genera.
Alga is dominated by Sargassum sp. with a total percentage cover of algae ranging betwen 30.38–
44%. Macro-benthic fauna at the group is comprised of 60 species of 42 genera of molluscs, 15
species of 11 genera of crustacean, and 15 species of 12 genera of echinoderm. A total of 200
species belonging to 75 genera of reef fishes were recorded during fish visual census surveys
conducted on reefs in the area.
Bangka
Bangka Island is located in Klabat Bay and faces the Natuna Sea, and the area is characterised by
moderately turbid waters. Coral reefs observed on outer parts of the island are generally in good
condition, whilst those inshore are deteriorating rapidly due to highly turbid water conditions. A total of
126 species of hard coral from 37 genera have been recorded in the survey area. Tabulate Acropora
dominates reef flats down to the slope. Other dominant species include Porites lutea, Diploastrea
heliopora, and Gonipora columna. The percentage cover of hard coral ranges from 28 to 52%
between different coral reef sites in the area.
The percent cover of alga ranges between 6.67-52.57% and is dominated by Laurencia sp. Surveys
of macro-benthic fauna in the area have identified 60 species of molluscs from 43 genera, 25 species
of crustaceans from 19 genera, and 23 species of echinoderm from 19 genera. A total of 169 species
of coral reef fish from 67 genera have been observed to utilise the coral reefs of the area.
THREATS
Destructive fishing methods
A large number of the practices used by Indonesian fishers may be regarded as destructive either
through the damage they do to the environment, particularly corals, or through indiscriminate targeting
and over-fishing. The practices and their effects have been widely described (e.g. Cesar, 1996; PetSoede et al. 1999). Many of the methods have been used for at least 50 years and are firmly
entrenched in the practices of the region. Some are are regarded locally as ‘traditional’ fishing
methods. Destructive fishing methods are more commonly employed in remote areas of Indonesia’s
EEZ, and have been observed in protected areas such as the Komodo Islands (Pet and Djohani,
1999). Fishing methods regarded as destructive include blast fishing, poison fishing, muroami, fish
trap, gill net, weir, beam trawl, gleaning and collecting.
Blast Fishing
Bombs, originally made from World War II explosives, are now made with artificial fertiliser
(ammonium or potassium nitrate). This fertiliser is typically used by palm plantations. Schooling reef
fish (fusilers, surgeon fish, rabbit fish and snappers) are targeted. Divers often use “hookah”
equipment for collecting dead and stunned fishes after blasts. Given that blast fishing is illegal,
fishermen often bribe officials or detonate bombs when aircraft are landing or taking off to avoid
detection (Cesar, 1996). Blast fishing is popular amongst fishers from Bugis, Bajau, Makassarese,
and Maduran. Fish landings per blast fishing event is estimated to be 30kg from productive, previously
“unbombed” reefs, and 7.5kg on regularly bombed areas (Cesar, 1996).
Fish harvested by blast fishing method are often damaged, with average per kilogram prices for fish
caught by this methods being one third lower than fish caught by other methods. As such, fish caught
by this method are almost all sold only on the local market. In East Nusa Tenggara, and probably
elsewhere, the practice is most common during the inter-monsoon seasons (April - May, and October
- November) with records of 20 to 30 explosions heard daily in this area. Individual boats may explode
1 to 3 bombs a day, but larger vessels may stay at sea for up to 10 days and return with two tonnes of
fish caught by the blast fishing method (Pet-Soede et al., 2000). Damage to coral reefs by this fishing
method is catastrophic. A single beer bottle bomb can destroy an area of 5m2, a larger ‘gallon’
container up to 20m2. Coral mortality may be 50% to 80% on regularly bombed reefs.
Poison Fishing
The use of poisons to stun or kill fish is common in Indonesia. The early Dutch Naturalist, Rumphius,
commented on this practice in the seventeenth century when crushed roots and stems containing
rotenone were used (Cesar, 1996). However, since the 1960s the use of sodium or potassium
cyanide has become very common, as it has throughout the ASEAN region (Johannes and Riepen,
1995). This technique is used on coral reefs for the:
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
•
•
•
Live fish food industry, almost entirely developed since 1990;
Ornamental aquarium fish industry; and,
Collection of rock lobsters (Panulirus sp.).
The effects of cyanide fishing are multiple. Corals are broken during retrieving fish, and the poisons
contribute to significant mortalities of larvae and juvenile fish. Corals are also bleached by the use of
cyanide, at concentrations far below those used. Pocillopora damicornis exposed to 4% of cyanide for
only 10 minutes bleached within four hours and nine out of 10 specimens died within four days
(Johannes and Riepen, 1995).
The economic loss to Indonesia of this damage is high, quantified at US$46 million with the industry
collapsing within 4 years by the maintenance of current catch levels. Conversely a sustainable hook
and line fisheries option could create net benefits of US$321.8 million (Llewellyn, unpublished).
However, with prices in Hong Kong for live Napolean wrasse reaching US$60 to US$80 per kg, the
incentives are high to maintain this destructive fishing practice. Demand from Hong Kong, mainland
China, Taiwan and Singapore continues to control supply, even as catches decline in size and quality.
Muroami
Muroami is a fishing technique involving teams of people using scarelines, palm fronds, sticks, hollow
metal pipes, or compressed air to drive small reef fish into traps in shallow reef flats. It is generally
regarded as damaging to coral reefs because of the mechanical damage to corals by the implements
and by trampling, and because there is a large discarded by-catch. This fishing method is practiced by
fishers in Bugis, Bajau and Makassarese, but is much more common in waters of Riau Province and
the Seribu Islands.
Fish trap (bubu)
Fish traps are a static fishing gear. They are typically constructed with a wire net fixed on a rattan
frame and furnished with inward-turned spikes which allow entrance but make egress impossible.
Traps are set on the seafloor and on coral reefs, and are usually ballasted with blocks of corals.
Fishers occasionally use live corals for trap ballast, and both dead and live corals are attached to
traps as “camouflage”. The use of bamboo mesh traps known as ‘bubu’ is widespread and increasing,
largely due to their effectiveness in catching large live reef fish. These traps are also often used in
conjunction with cyanide tainted baits.
Trap fishing can cause physical damage to corals, particularly branching and folioise corals. The
intensive deployment of heavily ballasted traps onto coral reefs from fishing vessels can lead to
significant coral mortalities. Traps set by ‘hookah’ divers are less damaging that those lowered on
buoyed ropes. Heavy wooden runners also cause considerable damage of reefs.
Gillnet
This gear is commonly operated on and adjacent to coral reefs. The collection of live coral for use as
gillnet ballast causes direct damage to reefs, and lost or discarded nets may cause large mortalities
and waste of fish as a result of “ghost fishing”.
Weir (Kelong)
The setting up weirs in the vicinity of coral reefs degrade nearby coral communities.
Beam trawl
The use of demersal trawl gear in coral reef areas is particularly destructive of coral reef habitat.
Research indicates that one tow of a beam trawl over a coral reef destroyed 66.67% of the coral
community. As fishing nets are typically damaged by reefs, fishermen avoid using this fishing gear in
coral reef areas where possible.
Gleaning and Collecting
The gleaning and collection of marine organisms from reef flats and shallow reef fronts accessible by
free diving also has a significant impact on reef communities, as many of the target species are easily
collected and vulnerable to local extinction. Traditional management in the past has helped to protect
such species but this is now breaking down in many areas as the result of economic and population
pressures (Nikijuluw, 1998). For example, Thorburn (1998) describes the traditional management of
the trochus fishery (lola or Trochus niloticus) in the Kei Islands of Maluku. This included three-year
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
29
closures of areas to coincide with the time required for the growth of commercially mature shells, and
restrictions on the types of gear used. In many islands such traditional management or sasi has
broken down because of the pressures from outside fishers, such as the Bugis and Bajau, which are
organised on a commercial rather than artisinal basis (Nikijuluw, 1998). Short-lived high profit in these
situations may be followed by a complete collapse of the fishery as in the example of the tripang
fishery in West Nusa Tenggara. Most of reef species which have are collected by gleaning are
protected by law but may now be locally extinct including:
• All giant clams (Tridacna spp. and Hippopus spp.)
• Black lip and gold lip pearl oysters (Pinctada margaritifera and P. maxima)
• Triton (Charonis tritonis)
• Green snail (Turbo marmoratus)
• Giant helmet shell (Cassis cornuta).
Sedimentation
The rivers of Indonesia have always carried freshwater and sediments to the sea and have been at
least in part responsible for the distribution of inshore coral reefs. However, human interference to the
hydrological cycle, producing more rapid run-off and increased sediment yield has pushed many
coastal reefs beyond thresholds at which they can survive. Deforestation, inappropriate agricultural
practices, urbanisation, and construction processes along the coastline can all have serious effects on
sedimentation rates. These practices may be long standing. For example, Pollnac et al. (1997)
describes the many uses for which timber cut from steep hill slopes is used as part of the local
subsistence economy in Banten (boat construction, firewood, fish smoking). However, with increasing
population the clearing is becoming more widespread in many areas (e.g. Riau Islands), and has led
to an increase in both freshwater run-off and sediment yield to the coast. Forest fires in dry El Nino
years also contribute to the removal of the protective vegetation cover.
Sewage and other land-based pollutants
Severe water pollution, sufficient to cause massive fish kills, harvest failure in aquaculture ponds and
threats to human health is found in virtually all populated or highly industrialised areas of Indonesia
(Dahuri, 1998). Point sources include rivers and discharge pipes but more widespread pollution also
comes from groundwater. No sewage treatment plant is available for any major coastal city in
Indonesia (Edinger et al. 1999). The problem is aggravated by recent increased intensity of rice
cultivation and application of chemical fertilisers.
The effects on coral reefs are highly detrimental and include:
•
The rapid growth of industries in some Indonesian territory has brought about not only
positive impact on the economic development but also a negative impact in the form of
increased pollution of the surrounding sea. Take for example Pancur Bay (Senayang Lingga,
Riau) where there are a number of companies engaging in logging activities. Sawdust
resulting from the sawing activities that entered the nearby sea caused the seawaters in the
vicinity to become reddish, turbid and anoxic. Industrial growth in Batam (Riau Province) has
also contributed indirectly to marine pollution in the area. Batam with an area of 1,647.83km2
(1,035.30km2 of sea and 612.53km2 of dry land) has enjoyed a vast and high investment
growth. The investment that in the early years amounted to approximately US$201,350,307
has grown up to US$8,010,000,000. Even when the national economic growth was 4.8%, the
economic growth of Batam was 7.6%, or an increase from the previous year of 6.38%.
•
The rapid growth of industries was followed by increasing population. The rapidly increasing
human population and the high rate of urbanization in Riau Province have an inevitable
impact on the environment, namely in the form of increasing accumulation of domestic waste.
This domestic waste, which consists of a variety of materials contribute to pollution of the
marine environment. This is mainly due to the lack of awareness of the population in
managing domestic waste properly.
•
The clearing of forests for factory/industrial developments, human settlement and agriculture,
has reduced the capability of the soil to absorb and maintain ground water. This has led to
increased run-off to coastal water bodies during high rainfall events. This has led to
increasingly turbid coastal waters, which are not conducive for the growth of corals and
seagrass.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
30
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
Oil Production and shipping
Coral reefs are highly sensitive to oil spill damage. In Indonesian waters oil pollution comes from two
sources: spills at the well head and from shipping. Indonesia is one of the world’s major oil producers,
producing 1.36 million barrels per day in 1997 from 8535 wells (Edinger and Browne, in press). The
major oil producing area is along the coast of East Sumatra. Natuna Islands is a major producer of
liquid natural gas and oil.
There is chronic pollution from production facilities and oil refineries in Indonesia. Hot water
discharges from the plant have killed corals adjacent to fringing reefs. The Natuna Sea and Karimata
Strait are a major shipping line from Singapore, Batam and Jakarta and the area is at high risk of oil
spill.
Most production is exported and tanker traffic is concentrated in the Malacca and Sundra Straits.
Large volumes of domestic oil are shipped through the Sunda Strait to refineries in Java. Between
1974 and 1994, 36 major tanker spills were reported in Indonesian waters, 66% of which were in the
Malacca Strait.
Sand mining
Sand mining in the coastal waters of the Natuna Sea and its surroundings (especially Riau Province)
is taking a heavy toll on the marine environment and the people who depend on it. The majority of the
demand for sand comes from Singapore. Companies, backed by Singaporean buyers, use dredges to
excavate sand at a rate of 6,000 cubic meters a day. The sand is then transported to Singapore to be
used in the construction industry and coastal reclamation projects. Singapore is said to require a
further 1.8 billion cubic meters of sand over the next 7-8 years for these projects, which are aimed at
expanding the country's land area and providing living space for its growing population.
According to the Indonesian Center for Forestry Studies, some 400,000 hectares of seabed and an
extensive area of coral reefs have been damaged by mining at Riau Islands. The dredging,
sometimes conducted within meters of the shore, has caused coastline erosion, destruction of fishing
grounds and important fisheries habitats.
Illegal sand mining takes place and is allegedly controlled by a cartel of three Singaporean-backed
companies. Around 400 million cubic meters of sand are illegally exported per year, with losses to the
state amounting to millions of dollars in the form of uncollected taxes and royalties. Data from the
Department of Industry and Trade indicates that 60% of all sea sand exported to Singapore and other
countries has been dredged illegally. The economic losses associated with these illegal activities are
simply calculated, but the costs to the environment are largely unknown.
Regional and central government have initiated efforts to prevent the illegal dredging of sea sands,
including the issuance of a decree that prohibits the activity. Efforts to stop illegal sand mining have
been supported by many groups including NGO’s and environmentalists. A Joint Ministerial Decree
regarding the prevention of illegal sea sand mining was signed on 14th February 2002 and has been in
effect since 18th February 2002. Based on this Decree, the President instructed all Governors and city
Mayors to stop the mining and export of sea sand. The President also urged provincial authorities not
to issue any additional permits.
Mining of material rocks for construction
The mining of coral reefs presents a significant threat to the sustainability of these ecosystems in
Indonesia. In many areas, dead corals are collected for use in the manufacture of concrete for houses
and roads. The removal of dead corals can increase turbidity and decrease the resilience of reefs and
live corals to the effects of waves during storm events. Often live corals are removed in order to
provide access to dead corals. A large number of new house constructions in the area of Senayang
have used corals as raw materials. The healthy-housing campaign, which promotes the construction
of houses on a soil base, has been undermined by the large-scale use of corals for several building
constructions in the area.
The excavation of soil and rock from coastal catchments is also increasing in support of the rapid
industrial development observed on many of the islands. This has led to an increase in the quantity of
sediments entering coastal water bodies via coastal streams and rivers, and contributes to the
increasingly turbid conditions of waters nearby most islands. This presents a significant risk to both
coral reef and seagrass communities in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
31
Metal mineral mining
The mining of minerals from the Senayang-Lingga and Singkep areas has been conducted for many
years. Mining of bauxite ore is common on the islands of Batam and Bintan. Mining takes place at
some islands and around Bintan. The key threat to coral reefs from mining activities is increased
sedimentation of coastal water bodies.
Tourism
In some coral reef areas of the world where management plans are in place and reasonable
protection is given, tourism is seen as potentially a major impact on the reefs. In Indonesia, the
attraction of high species diversity of both corals and fish, easy accessibility and low prices contribute
to making the archipelago an attractive destination for marine tourism. Undoubtedly, the industry is
having some impact on the coral reefs. But in comparison to some of the stresses described above,
the detrimental effects are minimal. Indeed, dive operators and others in the tourist industry have
vested interests in monitoring reef quality and have instigated preliminary measures to minimise
impacts. Further, local people may be employed and diverted from other damaging practices, such as
destructive fishing.
The impacts come at two stages in the development of the industry. The early construction phase
may employ damaging techniques of land clearing and even quarrying of reefs for resort construction.
Following the establishment of resorts, damage may result from sewage disposal, anchor damage at
dive sites (mooring facilities are not normally installed) and breakage of corals by inexperienced
divers and snorkellers (but operators are not trained to give environmental advice to the tourists).
There are several tourist resorts in Tanjung Pinang such as Trikora Beach, Mapor Islands, and in
Batam Islands.
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES
Coral reefs play an important role in the ecology, economy and aesthetics of Indonesia. Ecologically
this system protects the beach, and supports significant marine communities. From an economic
view, coral reefs serve as a source of food and income for coastal communities. They are also an
important source of foreign exchange via the international trade in live coral reef fish and tourism.
Regrettably, fishers continue to employ destructive fishing gear and practices to catch fish and other
coral reef associated species. Fishing techniques including fish traps (bubu), beam trawls, weirs,
gillnets, poisons, and explosives are still common in coral reef areas. The result is a continuous
degradation of coral reefs. According to research conducted by the Research Center for
Oceanography (LIPI), only 6.69% of Indonesian reefs were in excellent condition in 2003.
McAllister (1988, in Cesar 1996) stated that the sustainable potency of coral reefs in excellent
condition is 18 tonnes/km2/year, those in good condition 13 tonnes/km2/year, and those of fair
condition 8 tonnes/km2/year. Multiplying the foregoing values with the area of the Indonesian coral
reefs, the total coral fish production was estimated as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Coral reef fish production estimated for Indonesia.
Category
Coral Reef Area (km2)
Excellent
Good
Fair
6.69 % x 50,000
26,59 %x 50,000
37,56 % x 50,000
Production
m.tonnes/km2/year
18
13
8
Total Production
(m.tonnes/year)
60,210
172,835
150,240
However, it should be noted that the values stated above are to be treated with caution, considering
that excluded the depth factor. Cesar (1996) pointed out that at the depth of 30 m the sustainable
2
potency of coral reefs varies between 10-20m.tonnes/km /year or an average of
2
15m.tonnes/km /year. He further stated that finfish make up two-thirds of the sustainable potency,
while various invertebrates make up the rest (1/3). It should be noted, however, that the above values
are used only when the area is composed of 50% reef edge and 50% reef flat. If the finding of Cesar
(1996) is incorporated with that of the sustainable potency of Indonesian coral reefs, values as in
Table 3 will be obtained.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
Table 3
Fisheries production estimation including depth factor. (Cesar, 1996)
Excellent
Category
Total Potency
Finfish
Invertebrates
Area of Coral Reef
(km2)
6.69 % x 50,000
6.69 % x 50,000
6.69 % x 50,000
Production
m.tonnes/km2/year
15
10
5
Total production
m.tonnes/year
50,175
33,450
16,725
Assumption: All areas consists 50% of reef edge and 50% of reef flat.
Basically, the calculation of the Total Economic Value (TEV) of a given coral reef site can be
approached by determining the economic value of goods and services on per hectare value. There
are some techniques used in Indonesia to evaluate the economic value of coral reef ecosystems. The
most common techniques used for valuing the goods and services of coral reef ecosystems are
derived from three different ways:
ƒ
Directly to obtain information about the value of the given goods and services or of direct
expenditures.
ƒ
Potentially applicable techniques, which use the market indirectly to obtain information
about values and expenditures.
ƒ
Survey based methods, which use hypothetical market and situation through, for
instance, questionnaire surveys such as the contingent valuation method (CVM).
An application of this approach provided a figure of economic valuation of coral reef in Barelang
(Batam, Rempang, Galang) and Bintan Islands (Table 4).
Meanwhile, Cesar (1996) attempted to analyse the economic value of Indonesian coral reefs on the
basis of their utilisation, which was differentiated in three aspects, i.e. fisheries, tourism and coastal
protection. Information relating to fisheries aspect was further split up into 8 variables, including: Type
of fish or other resources, productivity, fishing effort, fish price, cost, reef reduction, condition of reefs
and recovery.
Table 4
Use
The result of economic value calculation of coral reefs in Barelang (Batam, Rempang,
Galang) and Bintan Islands.
Category
Coral Fishery
Preventing erosion
Value USD/ha/Year
4,464.44
34,871.75
Constant/year
Researches
91.08
Constant/ha
Carbon stock
240.00
Constant/year
Biodiversity
Total Uses
15.00
Budget
Investment
Operational
Constant yearly
Rehabilitation
Total Budget
TEV Coral Reef Ecosystem:
Assumption
Reference
Constant/year
Hiew &Lim in
Kusumastanto et al.
1998
Kusumastanto et al
1998
Kusumastanto et al
1998
Ruitenbeek, 1991
Constant /10year
Constant/year
Constant/year
Constant
Saragih, 1993
Saragih 1993
Saragih 1993
PKSPL-IPB, 1999
39,682.27
8,320.00
1,019.04
3,352.52
5.75
12,697.31
52,379.58
Source: Dahuri, 1998.
From a tourism stand point, location, accessibility, and prospect of future development are of primary
importance. For that reasoning, three types of areas are distinguished:
1)
2)
3)
Remote and sparsely populated areas with no current tourism nor future potential
Less remote areas with some present tourism and /or future tourism potential
Areas with major tourism activities/potential
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
33
On the basis of the valuation of the three types of areas, two scenarios are envisaged: LOW and
HIGH scenarios. The LOW scenario reflects a situation representing condition between area type 1
and area type 2; while HIGH scenario represents a situation between area type 2 and area type 3.
Results of calculation indicated that area type 1 has no economic value, area type 2 has a net present
value of US$6,000 per km2 of coastline, area type 3 has a net present value of US$1 million per km2
of coastline.
Generally, tourism areas commonly suffer various degradation due to haphazard anchoring, waste
disposal, and the breaking of corals. After all these degradation factors are taken into account, a net
present value of US$3,000 per km2 for the low scenario and US$503,000 per km2 of coastline for the
high scenario are obtained.
Similar to the case for tourism, coastal protection can likewise be distinguished by three area types
and two scenarios. Calculation gives the following results:
¾
¾
¾
¾
¾
US$820/km2 coastline for remote area
US$50,000/km2 coastline for less remote area
US$1,000,000/km2 coastline for area with major infrastructure
US$25,410/km2 coastline for low scenario
US$550,000/km2 coastline for high scenario
MANAGEMENT
The Indonesian Constitution contains regulations with regard to the natural wealth of the people of
Indonesia. Decisions of the House of the People's Consultative Assembly and Law provide detailed
guidance with regard to the use and management of Indonesia’s natural resources. This guidance is
incorporated into detailed regulations that are part of Laws and Acts pertaining to natural resource
management.
In maintaining the system of laws and regulation it is important for each institutions to follow
Presidential Decree No. 188 of 1998 (former Presidential Instruction No. 15 of 1970) containing
disciplines or procedures for the establishment of Laws and other lower regulations. Each type of
regulation appears in each chapter explaining the function and relevant rights and duties within the
scope of that regulation. Lower regulations that are derived from higher legal instruments should
reflect the substance or scope of the given instrument. Provisions beyond the scope of higher
regulations may cause overlapping rights and management responsibilities.
Hierarchical legal system in Indonesia consists of:
1. The basic constitution
2. General assembly decrees
3. Laws and act.
4. Government regulations
5. Presidential decrees
6. Ministerial decrees
7. Provincial government regulations
8. District or city regulations
Indonesia has also recognised its obligations under several international environment instruments.
The purpose of this section of the report is to review the basis for environmental and natural resource
law in Indonesia. The main laws, Government Regulations, Presidential Decrees, Ministerial
Regulations, Regional Government Decrees, City and District Decrees, and traditional fishing rights
and mutual agreements relating to coral reef management along Indonesia’s South China Sea Coast
will also be reviewed.
Substantive instruments for marine environment
Laws related to fisheries and coral reefs conservation
1) Law No. 31 of 2004 is related to the management and use of fish resources (Art.1 part 1). There is
no regulation explicitly mentioning about coral reefs management in the provision of the Fishery Law,
even with certain fish, which depend on coral reefs. With the wording “Coral Reef implant” of the
authentic clarification of Art.7 part 1 it is recognised that coral reef related fishery was included in the
law. This authentic clarification would be a basis for the management of related coral reefs fish.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
2) Law No.5 of 1990 concerning Conservation of Living Resources and their Ecosystem consist of
three main issues:
•
Protection of living buffer system within protected zones (Art.6 to Art.10)
•
Preservation of plants and animals diversity and their ecosystems contained in Art.20 to
Art.25 concerning prohibitions of protected plants and animals
•
Zoning system of exploitation (Art.26 to Art.28).
3) Law No. 23 of 1997 concerning Management of Living Environment does not directly link with
operational activities on coral reefs. However, this law has an important function related with the
procedure of management of living environment.
4) Law No. 32 of 2004 concerning Regional Government concerns right of Regional Government,
containing also conservation and preservation. Art. 18 of the Regional Government stipulates that
regional Government has the right to manage natural resources in their own territory and is
responsible for the maintaining preservation of the marine environment according to laws and
regulations.
Rights of Regional Government are in relation with the sea stipulated in article 3 consist of:
exploration, exploitation, conservation, and sea resources management over relevant sea zones;
establishment of administration; establishment of space settlements; law enforcement related to
regional and central regulations; and security and defence support.
Ministerial regulations related to coral reefs conservation
Several kinds of Ministerial regulations considering directly with coral reefs related fisheries are listed
below:
1. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No.923/Kpts/Um/12/82 concerning Sea Park of island
Weh.
2. Minister of Forestry Decree (MFD), No.328/Kpts-II/1986 concerning Sea Protection Park of
Bunaken.
3. Minister of Forestry Decree (MFD, No.12/Kpts-II/1987 concerning the Protection of certain
Coral Reefs Bio-organisms (Antiphates spp., Tridacna gigas etc).
4. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No. 700/Kpts/IK.120/10/1898, 6 October 1989
concerning export of Penaeidae shrimp from Indonesia.
5. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No.375/Kpts/IK.250/5/95, 16 July 1995 concerning
prohibition to catch Napoleon Wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus).
6. Minister of Forestry Decree, No.280/Kpts-II/92, 26 February 1992 concerning National Park
Taka Bone Rate (Include sea area and coral reefs).
The above-mentioned Ministerial Decrees show that regulations concerning fisheries, coral reefs
organisms, or marine parks may be born by Minister of Forestry Decrees. This causes overlapping
rights with fishery sector under Ministry of Agriculture. A memorandum of understanding should be
made between two ministries to overcome this problem.
Analysis and discussion
There are many agencies governing the use and management of marine and coastal areas in
Indonesia. Their actions are typically not well co-ordinated. Many resource management issues have
been addressed via ministerial decrees, which cover only part of the solution because the Ministry
concerned had limited jurisdiction. Often these ministerial decrees concerning marine resources were
inconsistent with one another, and as such, were difficult to implement. Institutional weaknesses and
lack of political will have also failed to institutionalise the spatial planning concept in managing marine
and terrestrial resources. Law enforcement and regulations is weak largely because of lack of
transparency and weak institutional capability. Many resources allocation and resource use decisions
were taken at high level of government without considering resource sustainability and adherence to
legal provisions. Such decisions were frequently made without adequate consultation with local
governments and the affected communities. Some problems exist with the legal instruments
concerned with the utilisation and management of marine resources in many parts of Indonesia.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
35
Law Effectiveness/coverage
Not all districts and towns in Indonesia are currently equipped with local regulations regarding the
utilisation and management of marine resources. Law enforcement in many districts and towns has
not been very effective on account that so far all local regulations still refer to the one issued by the
central government. Enactment of the Act on Regional Autonomy (Act No. 32 of 2004) gives the local
governments (districts and towns) the opportunity to develop regulations relating to the utilisation and
management of marine resources that are in line with the existing problems faced by each local
government. The Act aims to decentralise most government services and devolve the planning and
management functions and responsibilities of marine and coastal resources within Indonesia’s
territorial waters to the provincial and district governments. The Act provides incentives to local
government for sustainable management of natural resources within their respective jurisdictions and
requires a revision of some existing laws and regulations. Implementation of local regulations in
combination with national regulations will therefore be more effective since they have been so
designed as to match the problems faced at the provincial level.
Socialisation of some other laws and regulations relevant to the utilisation and sustainability of the
marine resources has not been optimally done. In some areas, there is the tendency that
communities, legal officers and decision makers have limited understanding and knowledge on the
regulations relevant to the utilisation and management of marine resources. Several cases of
violations occur due to the fact that most coastal communities are unaware of the various prohibitions
that are stipulated in the existing legal instruments.
Another aspect that impedes the effectiveness of some regulations concerning the utilisation and
management of marine resources is the vast expanse of the Indonesian territorial waters to be
supervised. The manpower available for surveillance is far from adequate as compared to the area to
be monitored. This situation leaves some violations unnoticed and unattended. Beside the limited
human resources available, supporting equipment like patrol boats are also limited in terms of quantity
and technology. The existing patrol boats are mostly of low capacity, hence are no match to those of
the law breakers.
Conflicts – Harmonization
Implementation of regulations in the field quite often brings about some conflict. It can happen
internally between various legal authorities, as well as between legal authorities and communities.
Internal conflicts have most commonly been due to struggles for power or authority. For example in
one district in Southeast Sulawesi, conflicts regarding authority occurred between Marine Police and
Air Police, as well as between Sectoral Police and Gurads of the National Park. In this case, the
conflict was in part due to an inadequate understanding on behalf of each legal authority regarding
their primary task and function. Conflicts between legal authorities and local communities are usually
triggered by inconsistent use of legal authority in the field. Resolving problems with corruption and
bribery of surveillance officers and law enforcement officials is critical towards resolving such conflicts.
Compliance and enforcement
To enhance law enforcement, some communication strategies that have been and will be
implemented, include the socialisation and dissemination of information concerning a variety of
regulations relevant to the utilisation and management of marine resources to stakeholders, namely
legal authorities, decision makers, and the general public (including fishermen). The method of
dissemination has depended on the stakeholders. For example, for legal authorities and policy
makers, the socialisation process has been done through workshops, seminars, lobbying, advocacy,
dialogues, and other informal meetings (morning tea). For the general public and fishermen,
socialisation of information has been done not only using multi-media materials (film, radio, VCD,
brochures, leaflets, posters, and billboards) but also by way of direct contact, e.g., through village
meetings, fisherman associations, and various religious activities.
With regard to the enhancement of law enforcement, various programmes and activities have been
conducted. For instance, surveillance and law enforcement has been carried out in some localities,
namely Taka Bonerate (Selayar District, South Sulawesi Province) and in Biak Islands (Papua
Province) through COREMAP (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programme). A moderate
patrol boat has been granted to each of these provinces. Financial support for staff and the operation
of the patrol boats comes from COREMAP. They are assigned to carry out surveillance activities in
the Taka Bonerate and Biak waters to prevent violation against existing regulations, such as fishing
with explosives or poison. In carrying out the task, the security force is supported by a number of reef
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
watchers, including some local villagers and fishermen. The basic idea is to promote the participation
of the local community in implementing surveillance and law enforcement.
Strength and weaknesses of present enforcement mechanisms
Surveillance and law enforcement mechanisms involving local communities have some advantages.
One among them is the efficiency in terms of budget and time frame. In general, illegal fishing
activities are often conducted in waters that are difficult for patrol boats to reach. In such cases,
involvement of local communities and reef watchers will be of great advantage. Local villagers and
reef watchers should report any violation to patrolling force or may take action themselves directly.
Community participation over this matter is urgently needed, taking into account the limited manpower
and infrastructure currently available for carrying out the task, coupled with the great extent of the
area to be monitored.
On the other hand, surveillance mechanism involving the local community is very much dependent on
the level of community participation as well as on the consistency of law enforcement. In some rare
cases, the local community protects the violators instead of assisting monitoring activities. Apart from
that, the inconsistency in law enforcement coupled with the implementation weakness give result to
apathetic attitude in the part of the community to participate in the monitoring activities. Very often the
community has done their job by reporting some violations, or they may even have arrested the
violators, yet no follow up action is taken by the law enforcers. The cases were not brought to justice,
rather the violators were in the end freed in a trade off deal.
REFERENCES
Cesar, H. 1996. The Economic Value of Indonesian Coral reefs. Agriculture Operations Division. CDIII, East Asia
and Pacific Region. Environment Department. The World Bank, 9p.
Dahuri, R. 1998. The Application of Carrying Capacity Concept for Sustainable Coastal Resources Development
in Indonesia. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 53-65
Edinger, E.N., J. Jompa, G.V. Limmon, and W. Widjatmoko. 1999. Reef degradation, coral biodiversity, and reef
management in Indonesia. Pesisir & Lautan 2(2): 1-16
Johannes, R.E. and M. Riepen. 1995. Environmental, Economic and Social Implications of live Reef Fish Trade
in Asia and the Western Pacific, TNC, Hawaii
Nikijuluw, V.P.H. 1998. Identification of Indigenous Coastal Fisheries Management (IFCM) System in Sulawesi,
Maluku and Irian Jaya. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 1-17.
Ohman, M. C. and Herman S.J. Cesar 2000. Cost and Benefit of Coral Mining. In : The economics of Coral Reefs
(Cesar, HSJ. Ed). CORDIO, Sweden : 85-93.
Pet-Soede, L.; H.SJ. Cesar and J.S. Pet-Soede, 2000. Blasting away : The economics of blast fishing on
Indonesia Coral Reefs. In : The economics of coral reefs (Cesar, HSJ. Ed.) CORDIO, Sweden : 77-84.
Pet-Soedo, J.S. and R.H. Djohani. 1999. Combatting destructive fishing practices in Komodo National Park: Ban
the hookah compressor. Pesisir & Lautan 2(1): 21-34.
Pet-Soede, L.; H.S.J. Cesar and J.S. Pet. 1999. An Economic Analysis of Blast Fishery on Indonesian Coral
Reefs. Environmental Conservation 26(2): 83-93.
Pollnac, R.B., F. Sondita, B. Crowford, E. Mantjoro, C. Rotinsulu, A. Siahaenenia 1997. Baseline assessment of
socioeconomic aspects of resource use in the coastal zone of Bentenan and Tumbak. Coastal
resources Center, Univ. of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI, USA, 79p.
P2O (Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi) - LIPI, 2002a. Report on Management and Development on Marine
Ecosystem Area of Bangka- Belitung and Karimata Islands), 87p. (in Indonesia).
P2O (Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi) - LIPI, 2002b. Report on Biological Feature of Anambas Waters. 56p.
(in Indonesia).
Thornburn, C.C. 1998. Sasi ‘Lola’ (Trochus niloticus) in the Kei Island, Moluccas: An Endangered Coastal
Resource Management Tradition. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 15-29.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
MALAYSIA
Mr. Abdul Rahim Bin Gor Yaman
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Marine Park Section, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Level 11, Lot 4G3, Precinct 4, Federal Government Administrative Centre
62574 Putrajaya, Selangor, Malaysia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
37
MALAYSIA
Zahaitun Mahani Zakariah, Ainul Raihan Ahmad, Tan Kim Hooi,
Mohd Nisam Barison and Nor Azlan Yusoff
Maritime Institute of Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia’s coral reefs extend from the renowned “Coral Triangle” connecting it with Indonesia,
Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. Coral reef types in Malaysia are mostly shallow
fringing reefs adjacent to the offshore islands. The rest are small patch reefs, atolls and barrier reefs.
The United Nations Environment Programme’s World Atlas of Coral Reefs prepared by the Coral Reef
Unit, estimated the size of Malaysia’s coral reef area at 3,600sq. km which is 1.27 percent of world
total coverage (Spalding et al., 2001).
Coral reefs support an abundance of economically important coral fishes including groupers,
parrotfishes, rabbit fishes, snappers and fusiliers. Coral fish species from Serranidae, Lutjanidae and
Lethrinidae contributed between 10 to 30 percent of marine catch in Malaysia (Wan Portiah, 1990). In
Sabah, coral reefs support artisanal fisheries but are adversely affected by unsustainable fishing
practices, including bombing and cyanide fishing. Almost 30 percent of Sabah’s marine fish catch
comes from coral reef areas (Department of Fisheries Sabah, 1997). However, landings in Sabah
have declined since the 1980s due to destructive fishing, particularly, blast fishing (Cabanban, 1999).
The supply of live reef fish from Sabah to Hong Kong is dependent on wild stocks. The Trade Record
Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) reported that Hong Kong is the largest importer
of live reef fish, consuming 25,000 tonnes annually and re-exporting another 5,000 tonnes to
mainland China (TRAFFIC, 1999). In 2001, the International Marine Life Alliance (IMA) recorded a
total of 3,212kg of Napoleon wrasse imported to China from Malaysia. According to IMA, this data
may represent under reporting of total catches from the area because many vessels operating in the
area are from Hong Kong and do not declare their landings. Cyanide fishing, which is hazardous to
coral reef ecosystems, is probably used in catching the live coral fish.
Coral reef related tourism provides revenue for the national and state governments in Malaysia.
A significant work force is engaged in this tourism sub-sector and associated activities such as hotels
and resorts. Marine recreational activities that consist of diving and snorkelling have great value in the
coral reef tourism industry. In 2003, a informal report estimated that Conservation Charges collected
for entrance to Malaysia’s Marine Parks amounted to RM1 million . The same report also revealed
that the marine parks attracted 778,482 foreign and 820,116 local tourists. Realising the potential
pitfalls of ecotourism, some marine parks such as the Sabah Parks applies the multiple-use concept
to attract tourism in marine parks. This concept promotes different uses of the marine park depending
on the environmental quality and tourist interest (Cabanban and Nais, 2003).
Fragile coral reefs are threatened by man-made and natural phenomenon. Sedimentation, pollution,
indiscriminate anchoring, and destructive fishing are the major anthropogenic causes of damage in
coral reef areas. In Malaysia, destructive fishing such as fish bombing and cyanide fishing are
rampant in Sabah. Trawling which is equally destructive to coral reef occurs in Mersing.
Natural causes of coral reef damage are diseases, predators and global climate change. To date, no
research has been carried out to determine the occurrence of coral diseases in Malaysia. However,
yellow and white band diseases have been observed respectively in Langkawi and Port Dickson (The
Star, 2005; Berita Harian 2005; Yang Amri, pers. com.). Another harmful biological agent is the
notorious coral predator, the crown-of-thorn starfish (Acanthaster planci), which is reported to have
caused significant damage to coral reefs in Pulau Redang in the late 1970s.
Global climate change has been identified as the most recent and significant threat to coral reef
ecosystems. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides data on coral reef status
linked to global climate change for research and monitoring purposes. It was reported that 16 percent
of the world’s coral reefs were affected by rising sea temperature during the extreme El Niňo Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) event between 1997 and 1998 (Wilkinson, 2002). Slight temperature anomalies of
1- 2◦C above or below the normal threshold can cause coral bleaching. During the 1998 ENSO, sea
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
surface temperature in the South China Sea increased by 2-3◦C above the normal threshold
(Wilkinson, 2002). Consequently, coral reef areas in Pulau Payar on the west coast of Peninsular
Malaysia, as well as coral reef areas in East Malaysia have been impacted by coral bleaching (Pilcher
and Cabanban, 2000).
This national coral report aims to review the status of coral conservation in Malaysia based on the
national coral reef meta-database, updated information, and management perspectives.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
Of the 3,600km2 of coral reefs area in Malaysia, important coral reefs are found in Sabah and the east
coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Almost all of the islands in southeast, central, northeast and western
Sabah have corals. Coral reefs are however limited in Sarawak where they are only found in the
offshore islands northeast and southeast of Sarawak. Coral reefs in the Straits of Malacca show very
poor development and are restricted to the northwest and southeast of the Peninsular. Coral diversity
is relatively low here due to high turbidity and muddy substrates (Chua and Charles, 1980).
Figure 1 and 2 shows all the islands and islets (or rocks) that are located adjacent to the South China
Sea where coral reefs can be found. Most of the islands within the States’ coastal waters are within
the marine parks. There are also many shoals and ocean reefs in the South China Sea that are rich in
corals but are not protected.
BIODIVERSITY
Coral species
Surveys conducted on 64 percent of Malaysia’s coral reefs since the 1980s show an overall live coral
cover of between 25 and 50 percent (Ridzwan, 1994). Veron estimated that 70 genera of coral may
be found in Malaysia (Veron, 1998). The UNEP World Atlas of Coral Reefs estimated that at least 346
species of scleractinian corals may be found in Malaysian waters (Spalding et al. 2001). Data
obtained in Malaysia shows the lists of 519 coral species that can be found in waters of Terengganu
(Pulau Redang), Pahang (Pulau Tioman), Johor (Pulau Tinggi), Sabah (Taman Tunku Abdul Rahman,
Turtle Island Park and Barvey Bay), Sarawak (Sibuti Reef and Miri Reef) and Pulau Layang Layang
which were recorded between 1980 to 2000.
The acroporids are commonly found adjacent to most islands in Malaysian waters and are dominant
along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The coral species in the family Acroporidae consists of
71 species of genus Acropora, 3 species of genus Anacropora whereas massive coral species from
the family Poritidae, Mussidae and Faviidae typically make-up coral reefs on the west coast of
Peninsular Malaysia.
Associated marine biota
Estimates of number of coral reef fishes in Malaysia is 909 species (Allen, 2004). Pristine coral reefs
may show a higher number of fish species. For example, research in the 1980s showed that coral fish
diversity in a pristine area like Pulau Layang-Layang was higher than along Peninsular Malaysia. The
number of coral reef fish species recorded in research conducted between 1980s-2000s are 210 at
Redang, 219 at Tinggi, 355 at Taman Tunku Abdul Rahman, and 263 at Miri Reef (Wood, 1986; Allen,
1992; Department of Fisheries, 2003). Of all the coral reefs surveyed, Tunku Abdul Rahman Park
showed the highest number of fish species.
Fish from the Chaetodonidae family are typically associated with coral reef environments. A
comparative study conducted at Pulau Payar Marine Park and Pulau Singa located on the west coast
of Peninsular Malaysia showed that the former had high numbers of Chaetodonidae (butterflyfish). . It
has been hypothesised that butterflyfish can be a bio-indicator for coral health (Reese, 1981). Hence,
decreased numbers of butterflyfish could be caused by coral reef degradation (Sano et al., 1987).
Of the nine giant clam species, seven from the genera Tridacna and Hippopus, exist in waters
surrounding the islands of Malaysia. A total of four species have been observed on the east coast of
Peninsular Malaysian, whilst seven species have been observed in Sabah (Tan and Zulfigar, 1995;
Tan and Zulfigar, 1996; Tan et al., 1998). Giant clams on the east coast Peninsular Malaysia, such as
adjacent to the islands of Terengganu, Pahang and Johor, include the species of T. squamosa, T.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
39
maxima, T. crocea and H. hippopus. Sipadan Island has all seven species including T. derasa, T.
gigas, and H. porcellanus. Despite giant clam being classified as an endangered marine species
under the Fisheries (Control of Endangered Species of Fish) Regulations 1999 of the Fisheries Act
1985, giant clam populations face over-exploitation, particularly in Sabah.
Figure 1
Distribution of coral reefs in Peninsular Malaysia.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
Figure 2
Distribution of coral reefs in Sabah and Sarawak.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
41
Research on the distribution of other coral reef associated species is still incomplete in Malaysia.
Therefore few publications exist, particularly relating to gorgonians, sponges, and nudibranchs.
Hence, identification of non-coral species such as sponges is difficult due to the scarcity of taxonomic
records (Zainuddin et. al., 2000) Intensive research has mainly focused on species of economic and
pharmaceutical importance, such as sea cucumber. Many research projects have been carried out on
sea cucumbers (Holothuridae and Stichopodidae) as they are used in traditional medicines. About 44
species of sea cucumber are recorded from coral reefs in Malaysia’s marine parks (Forbes et al.,
1999).
In Malaysia, Sabah is the only state to have extensively harvested coral reef products, including coral
reef fishes, sea cucumbers, and molluscs (Wood and Wood, 1978). Coral reef fish catches in Sabah
made-up between 7.26 and 22.63 percent of total fisheries landings during the period of 1980 to 1990
(Cabanban and Biusing, 2000). Hong Kong is the main importer of live reef fish for food from Sabah.
However, this is believed to be underestimated because of the underreporting of live reef fish capture
(Lau and Parry-Jones, 1999). This happens because licensed fishing vessels and licensed live fish
transporters in Hong Kong are exempted from declaring live reef food fish imports. Furthermore, the
Hong Kong Marine Fish (Marketing) Ordinance (Chapter 291) does not categorise live fish as ‘marine
fish’.
Marine endangered species
No reliable data regarding the use of Malaysia’s coral reefs by endangered marine mammal species
exists. Available information is largely from anecdotal sources and occasional sightings made by
researchers.
The Leatherback, Green, Hawksbill and Olive Ridley are the four turtle species that nest along
Malaysia’s coastal areas and islands (Figures 3 and 4). Of the four species, the hawksbill and green
are associated with islands and reefs. The highest concentration of green turtles can be found in the
islands of Pulau Redang, Pulau Perhentian, Sabah’s Turtle Island and Talang-Satang National Park
(Talang-Talang Besar, Talang-Talang Kechil and Satang Besar) (Ali et al., 2004). There are also
small numbers of green turtle nesting sites reported on the islands of Pulau Pinang, Pulau Telur
(Kedah), and groups of islands in the Johor Marine Park consisting of Pulau Mertang, Pulau Lima,
Pulau Pemanggil and Pulau Simbang (Mortimer, 1990).
Major hawksbill turtle nesting sites are located at Sabah Turtle Islands and Pulau Upeh (Malacca). In
Sarawak, nesting sites were reported at Pulau Satang Besar (Bali, 1998). Although records of
hawksbill turtle nesting on islands are occasional, this species has been observed to utilise waters of
islands in West Johor and Terengganu (Liew, 2002). Islands and reefs are the key habitats for turtles
to live and forage. Thus, turtles are regularly observed in coral reef areas around islands and coral
reef associated ecosystem such as seagrass. There are also several records indicating that the Olive
Ridley turtle utilise the islands of Sabah, Sarawak and Terengganu for nesting.
THREATS
Coral reefs throughout the world are facing unprecedented threats, particularly human induced
threats. Despite their worth, coral reefs are continuously being impacted on by human activities such
as pollution, coastal development, over-fishing, destructive fishing, and tourism related activities. Over
85% of the corals reefs in Malaysia are threatened and the type of threats facing Malaysian reefs
differ by location (Burke et al., 2002). Table 1 shows the type and scale of threats to coral reefs in
Malaysia.
Sedimentation
Coastal development often results in the destruction of corals due to increased sedimentation or
removal of coral reef substrate. Growing populations, expanding industrial economies, and emerging
tourism markets are the key factors in the increasing demand for coastal space and the construction
of infrastructure. The Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia (RRSEA) project estimated that 23 percent of
corals in Malaysia are affected by coastal development and sedimentation from upland sources. Coral
reefs that have been affected by coastal development are more prevalent along the coast of
Peninsular Malaysia, rather than in Sabah or Sarawak.
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42
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
In East Malaysia, the reefs of Sarawak are at greater risk from sedimentation compared to those in
Sabah. Some notable examples are the reefs near the Miri River and the reefs of the Talang-Talang
Islands. According to the Miri-Suai Integrated Coastal Zone Executive Plan, sediments from the Miri
and Baram rivers are threatening reefs that lie within 8-9 km of the mouth of these rivers. Sediments
from the Lundu and Sematan rivers also affect the coral reefs of the Talang-Talang Islands (Pilcher
and Cabanban, 2000). In Sabah, coral reef degradation due to increased sediment loads associated
with land clearing, mangrove destruction, and reclamation can be seen in the Tunku Abdul Rahman
Park.
Table 1
Threats to coral reefs in Malaysia.
Threats
Fishing Intensity
Fishing Damage
Fish Blasting
Gleaning
Boat Scouring
Population Pressure
Sedimentation
Domestic and Agriculture Pollution
Industrial Pollution
Oil Spill
Disease and Predation
Dredging
Coral Mining
Tourist Activities
Coral Bleaching
West Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia
East Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia
East Malaysia
4
3
2
2
2
4
5
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
3
3
3
2
1
1
4
1
1
2
1
5
5
4
3
4
4
3
4
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
The Scale Values: 1 = None to Rare; 2 = Very Low Concentration; 3 = Some Damage, Some Stress; 4 = Medium to High
Damage; 5 = Very High, High Stress, Very Damaging.
Source: Malacca Straits Environmental Profile, 1997
The World Resource Institute Report (Burke et al., 2002) presented the percentage breakdown of
reefs at risk in Malaysia ranging from low threat index (13% of total area), medium (44%), high (38%)
to very high threat index (4%). The total area of reefs at medium or higher threats occupy 87% of the
total coral reef area.
Visitor Pressure
Snorkelling is one of the most popular recreational activities among visitors to Malaysia’s marine
parks or coral reefs. Seventy percent of the survey respondents on Visitor Experiences and Perceived
Conditions of Tioman Island Marine Park identified snorkelling as one of the activities that they usually
engaged in while visiting the island (Ahmad, 2002). Snorkelling is an anthropogenic impact that
threatens corals in the shallow waters as inexperienced snorkellers tend to either trample or stand on
the reefs. Corals are also subject to damage by divers. Evidence of coral breakage in areas frequently
used by SCUBA divers exists, but conclusive data or case studies for Malaysian coral reef sites that
correlate the two are either scarce or unavailable.
Effluent Discharges
The issue of effluent discharges as a result of the introduction of tourism within the marine protected
areas of Malaysia and further compounded by pollution discharge from households is indeed very
common. Sewage, oil and grease, and grey water are among the long-standing pollution problems
affecting the corals. A threat analysis study conducted at Redang, Tioman and Sibu-Tinggi islands
showed that the three islands are affected by these problems. There are many cases of hotels,
resorts and chalets discharging untreated sewage directly into the ocean. In Pulau Redang for
example, the majority of small chalets on the island are using sub-standard sewage systems. The
houses are also equipped with the same sub-standard facility in which concrete culverts are buried in
the ground to hold the wastes. A water quality study of Pulau Redang coastal waters between 1995
and 2000 indicated some sewage contamination (Law et al., 2001). The major source of
contamination was from fishing settlements. The sewage treatment facility for Pulau Sibu-Tinggi in
Johor and Tioman in Pahang is poorly developed and is inaccessible to most of the local population.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
43
Accidental leakage of oil from passenger boats or ferries is another tourism issue that is affecting the
health of corals in the marine parks of Malaysia. The problem is evident at the jetties and in areas
where there is heavy boat traffic. There is also the problem of cooking oil and grey water being
discharged directly into the river system from the adjacent business and residential premises. Sungai
Lalang in Tioman is an example of river system being heavily polluted with these discharges.
Figure 3
Distribution of turtle nesting sites in Peninsular Malaysia.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
Figure 4
Distribution of turtle nesting sites in Sabah and Sarawak.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
45
Destructive Fishing
Corals reefs are also subjected to threats from destructive fishing techniques such as blast and
poison fishing. The notable effects of these two fishing techniques are the destruction of corals reefs
and the contribution towards overfishing of economically important fish and unintended exploitation of
other species (Burke et al., 2002). The problems of destructive fishing practices are more prevalent in
East Malaysia, particularly in Sabah. The Reefs at Risk project estimated that blast and poison fishing
is affecting 68 percent of Malaysian reefs. This estimate is based on data relating to the occurrences
of dynamite and cyanide fishing, and the opinion of project experts.
Blast fishing is used to maximise catch and it usually occurs over or near coral reefs where fishes
congregate. It is practiced along nearly the entire coast of Sabah, particularly at Labuan, which had
resulted in the destruction of coral reefs and removal of various fish species. A thirteen-year (19801993) data set on coral fish landings from Sabah illustrated a drastic decline in the number of several
important fish species (Figure 5). The decline is believed to be attributed to blast fishing (Figure 6)
(Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000).
Cyanide fishing is used to catch high priced fishes like snappers, groupers and wrasses for the
lucrative live fish trade industry. Cyanide fishing occurs at Kudat, extending out of Marudu Bay in the
Northeast of Sabah to Banggi Island, as well as Labuan. In Kudat, there are several holding facilities
to house the fishes awaiting trans-shipment. Humphead Wrasse, Barramundi Cod, and the coral
groupers are sold for US$2.4 per kg to traders in Kota Kinabalu (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000). The
price soars 10 times higher for every kilo in the Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong markets.
SCENARIO
The closer the proximity of corals to human activity, the higher the likelihood of them being impacted
on by human activities. Pressures can result in lower levels of biodiversity or at the extreme end –
mortality. In April 2002, a resource survey was conducted at 12 locations in Pulau Tioman. At the
best live coral sites, nearly 27% of dead corals were observed at Pirate Reef, 10% at Pulau Renggis,
and 7.4% at Batu Malang. The three locations are close to
human activities which make the corals within these areas more
susceptible to pressures. Pirate Reef is located in the port
area of Kampong Tekek which
consists of two villages – Kg
Tekek and Kg Air Batang.
Kampong Tekek is known as the
heart of Pulau Tioman. Among all
the villages in Tioman, Kampong
Tekek has the highest number of
residents. In 2000, the total
population of Kampong Tekek was
recorded at 1,871.
The community is heavily involved
in tourism with 80% of
the household heads engaged in it.
Effluent
from
the
villages,
boats
and
tourism
activities in the area
could be contributing to the high
percentage rate of dead corals in the Pirate
Reef area. Pulau Renggis was
ranked second and Batu Malang third with regard to coral mortality rates. Their close proximity to
humans could be the reason for it. Pulau Renggis is located less than 1 km from a 5 star resort and it
is frequented by tourists whereas Batu Malang is a popular dive and snorkelling site.
Note: 1. Feather duster worms on the shallow reefs of Tioman
2. Anemonefishes in Pulau Renggis
Photos Source: http://www.rossum.com/tioman00/tioman1.htm,
Underwater photographer: Dave Rossum
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
700000
600000
Volume (MT)
500000
Caesionidae
400000
Labridae
Lethrinidae
Lutjanidae
300000
Serranidae
200000
100000
0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Year
Figure 5
Landings of Coral Reef Fishes from Sabah Waters. (Cabanban and Biusing, in press)
Average # of explosion/hour
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Sipadan
Figure 6
Mabul
Ligitan
Silam
Kunak
Kudat
Mantanani
Labuan
Average Blasts Per Hour Recorded at Various Coral Reef Sites Around Sabah.
(adapted from Pilcher & Oakley, 1997)
SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION
Corals reefs have significant socio-economic value. They are a vital source of food and income for
coastal communities of Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. Coral reefs are also effective in the
prevention of shoreline erosion and the protection of mangrove and seagrass communities. They are
also potentially valuable to the pharmaceutical industry for their biochemical properties. Coral reefs
also contribute to the growth of the tourism industry. The coral reefs in the Malacca Straits have been
valued at approximately US$563 million in terms of benefits associated with tourism, shoreline
protection, fishery resources, and research potential (Burke and Spalding, 2002).
Tourism
Coral reef related tourism activities, particularly in protected areas, have gained popularity in tourism
marketing and amongst visitors. The protection status of the distinctive and remarkably diverse coral
reef ecosystems in Malaysia has set a platform for the tourism sector to develop. Aggressive tourism
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
47
promotions of the natural assets of coral reefs have led to annual increases in the number of visitors
to Malaysia’s marine parks. Table 2 shows a high number of visitors to four coral reef sites in
Malaysia from 1999-2002.
The economic importance of coral reefs to the tourism industry is indeed significant. Coral reefs are
known to economically benefit more than 100 countries with their recreational values (Bryant et al.,
1998). In 2002, a report on the feasibility study of the Miri-Sibuti reefs had projected the potential
revenue of diving activity for the reef area4. Assuming that 11, 984 divers on a 3 days/2 nights diving
package will visit the Miri-Sibuti reefs by the year 2005, it is estimated that the potential tourism value
for diving activity alone will generate a potential revenue of RM15,456,244.16 (Elcee Instrumentation
Sdn. Bhd., 2002). Figure 7 shows the projection curve of divers visiting the Miri-Sibuti reef. The curve
is projected based on the recorded figures from 1995-2001.
Table 2
Total number of tourists to Pulau Tioman, Pulau Payar, Turtle Islands Park, and Tunku
Abdul Rahman Park 1999-2002.
Year
Pulau Tioman
Pulau Payar
1999
2000
2001
2002
184,954
200,527
243,052
213,172
83,203
106,784
125,485
133,775
Turtle Islands
Park
8,732
10,131
8,250
8,450
Tunku Abdul Rahman
Park
171,919
205,852
198,576
147,188
Sources: Department of Fisheries and Sabah Parks
Capture Fisheries
Another aspect of the socio-economic importance of coral reefs relates to their critical role in the lifecycle of many economically important fish species. Corals are known to provide sheltering habitat
essential for nursing and as a breeding ground for a variety of fish species. It is believed that
approximately 40 percent of the commercial fish in Malaysia caught within the 30 nautical miles from
the shore originate from or make use of the coral reefs (Phang, 1999). In 1999, for example, the coral
reef capture fishery value for Miri was believed to be approximately RM40,080,684 (Elcee
Instrumentation Sdn. Bhd., 2002). Miri also accounted for the largest volume of fish landings for the
state of Sarawak in that year, 40 percent of which were economically important coral reef fish. In
terms of the value of capture fisheries production, Sabah’s coral reefs contributed to between 7.8%
(RM3.3 million) of total value in 1992 to 11.5% (RM4.98 million) of total value in 1981 (Pilcher and
Cabanban, 2000).
Socio-Economic Benefits
Recreational or tourism use of coral reefs will indirectly result in improved social conditions and
commercial services in the given area. In January 2002, for instance, Pulau Tioman was accorded a
duty-free island status; Malaysia’s third duty-free island after Langkawi and Labuan. The Tioman
Development Authority (TDA) had received approval to begin selected infrastructure projects such as
the upgrading of roads and construction of a new airport. The infrastructure development in Tioman
will be done in stages and will include the construction of low cost houses, retail space in Tekek (the
island’s main village), construction of a cargo jetty and several other road projects.
The ReefMap Report of Miri-Sibuti reef areas highlighted the likelihood of the villages gaining benefits
if the reef area is promoted for eco-tourism. Among others are the infrastructure development, tourism
amenities development, and enhancement of the hygiene system. The intangible benefits that would
result from the promotion of the reef area as recreational or tourism destination are employment
opportunities and/or employment security.
4
The report was prepared for the Sarawak State Government’s consideration to gazette the Miri-Sibuti reef as a marine park
and to promote eco-tourism in the area.
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48
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
Projection Curve From 1995-2005
14000
12000
Grow th Based on Scale
No. of People
10000
8000
Grow th Based on Trend
6000
Increasing Each By
Factor of 2 from 2001
Onw ards
4000
2000
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
0
Year
Figure 7
Projection Curve for Divers Visiting Miri-Sibuti Reefs.
MANAGEMENT
National initiatives to conserve coral reefs
In Malaysia, the protection, conservation and management of coral reefs and its associated fauna and
flora is largely achieved through the establishment of marine protected areas (Marine Parks in
Peninsular Malaysia and National Parks in Sabah and Sarawak). Malaysia has designated 136
marine protected areas (MPAs) including non-fishing areas, marine parks and marine reserves.
Seven percent of these MPAs include by coral reef ecosystems (Ho, 2003). Malaysia established its
first MPA in 1983 when Pulau Redang was declared the first MPA of Peninsular Malaysia under the
Fisheries (Prohibited) Areas Regulations 1983. This regulation established a fisheries prohibited area
in the 8km of maritime waters surrounding Pulau Redang. According to the Fisheries Act 1985, the
Fisheries Department is the main government agency with direct responsibility for marine park
management.
Another 21 islands were added to the list of fisheries prohibited areas under the regulation in the
proceeding years. The Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) Regulations 1985 (Amendment), however,
reduced the surrounding waters to 3 nautical miles (nm). The Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) 1988
(Amendment 1994) added three more islands off Sarawak (Pulau Talang Talang Besar, Pulau Talang
Talang Kechil and Pulau Satang Besar) thus protecting a total of 25 islands. This regulation
superseded the Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) Regulations 1983 which gazetted maritime waters within
8km off Pulau Redang. Since some fishing activities are destructive to coral reefs, all marine parks
are protected from fishing activities. This regulation stated that, “No person shall collect shells,
molluscs or corals within prohibited areas” and “No person shall kill or capture any fish within the
fisheries prohibited area unless he holds a license issued under section 11 of the Act stating the
respective location specified in column (1) of the Schedule as the fishing base.”
Since 1998, 40 offshore islands have been gazzetted as Marine Parks under the Establishment of
Marine Parks Malaysia (Amendment) Order 1998. These include some of the fisheries protected
areas mentioned above. Table 5 shows the list of islands that are grouped into five Marine Parks:
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
49
Pulau Redang Marine Park in Terengganu;
Pulau Tioman Marine Park in Pahang;
Mersing Marine Park in Johor;
Pulau Payar Marine Park in Kedah; and
Labuan Marine Park in Federal Territory of Labuan.
The Fisheries (Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia) Order 1994, further reduced the coverage of
the marine park areas to 2nm for all the marine parks except 1 nm for Pulau Kapas.
Sabah and Sarawak, which are autonomous in terms of managing their natural resources, have
established their own MPAs and have State bodies for MPA management. The Sabah Parks Board of
Trustees established under the National Parks Ordinance 1962 is responsible for the Sabah State
Parks, including Marine Parks. The Board has been established directly under the Sabah’s Ministry of
Tourism, Environment, Science and Technology. Sabah Parks legally owns the marine parks and has
mandate to control both the activities on the land area and in the water column. The Sabah Parks
Board of Trustees also manages the collection of entrance fees to the Sabah Parks.
There are three State Parks in Sabah that have been established in the last 20 years, namely Turtle
Island Park, Tuanku Abdul Rahman Park and Pulau Tiga Park. Pulau Tiga Park was gazetted in 1978
and is comprised of Pulau Tiga, Pulau Kalampunian Damit and Kalampunian Besar. The Pulau Tiga
Park was established as a MPA because the area is comprises of a distinct mix of mud volcanoes,
good coral reef, and sea snake nesting habitat on Pulau Kalampunian Damit (Wood and Wood,
1987). The Tunku Abdul Rahman Park located off Kota Kinabalu was established as an MPA in 1974
with the aim of conserving the diverse range of marine life at the site.
Several State agencies, namely the National Parks and Wildlife Office of the Sarawak Forestry
Department, Sarawak Museum, and the Department of Fisheries manage marine ecosystems and
their associated fauna and flora in Sarawak (Table 3). The National Parks and Wildlife Office is
responsible for the implementation of the National Parks Ordinance (1956) and the Wildlife Protection
Ordinance (1958, Amendment 1990), which conserve wildlife and their habitats including marine
ecosystems. Since Pulau Talang-Talang Besar, Pulau Talang-Talang Kechil, and Pulau Satang are
turtle nesting beaches, these islands are designated as turtle sanctuaries by the Turtle Board Trust
and the Sarawak Museum. With this designation, the coral reef ecosystems of these islands are also
protected.
Non-governmental organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Malaysia play an
active role in the establishment of marine protected areas in Malaysia. For many years, WWFMalaysia has been advising the Government to protect the vast maritime waters in the seas of
northern Sabah, which borders the Sulu Sea in the East and the South China Sea in the South. In
2003, the Sabah State Cabinet endorsed the establishment of this area as the Tun Mustapha Marine
Park. This will be the largest marine park in Asia, covering an area of 1,028,000 hectares and
consisting of at least 50 islands off Kudat, Kota Marudu and Pitas districts.
The protection measures for some of the islands in Malaysia are not, however, specifically designed
for the conservation of coral reefs. For example, despite its unique atoll reef of Pulau Sipadan, it is
gazetted as the Sipadan Bird Sanctuary. Under this designation, coral reef and the maritime water of
Pulau Sipadan are not provided any legal protection. To protect the marine ecosystem, Sabah’s
government is considering further management action and feels that the island should be listed as
“World Heritage Area” under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and as a “Particularly Sensitive Areas (PSSA)” under the International Maritime
Organization (IMO). In April 2004, Government issued notices evicting dive resorts by the year end.
Another possible listing as UNESCO’s “world heritage area” for Sabah’s reef is the Tun Mustapha
Park.
Regional initiatives for coral reef conservation efforts
Regional co-operation in protecting transboundary coral reef areas can be achieved through the Large
Marine Ecosystem (LME) concept. Malaysia is currently involved in two such initiatives namely, the
Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) and the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME).
Malaysia is among the eight littoral countries in the Indian Ocean participating in the Bay of Bengal
Program (BOBP). Under this program, studies on resource mapping (Lee, 2000) and carrying
capacity assessment (Li, 1998) have been carried out in Pulau Payar.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
Table 3
List of Islands Gazzeted as Marine Parks under the Establishment of Marine Parks
Malaysia (Amendment) Order 1998.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Name of Island
Pulau Redang
Pulau Perhentian Kecil
Pulau Perhentian Besar
Pulau Lang Tengah
Pulau Susu Dara
Pulau Lima
Pulau Ekor Tebu
Pulau Pinang
Pulau Nyireh
Pulau Tenggol
Pulau Kapas
Pulau Tioman
Pulau Labas
Pulau Sepoi
Pulau Gut
Pulau Tokong Bahara
Pulau Chebeh
Pulau Sembilang
Pulau Seri Buat
Pulau Rawa
Pulau Rawa
Pulau Hujung
Pulau Tengah
Pulau Besar
Pulau Tinggi
Pulau Aur
Pulau Pemanggil
Pulau Harimau
Pulau Goal
Pulau Mensirip
Pulau Sibu
Pulau Sibu Hujung
Pulau Mentinggi
Pulau Kaca
Pulau Lembu
Pulau Payar
Pulau Segantang
Pulau Kuraman
Pulau Rusukan Besar
Pulau Rusukan Kechil
State (Marine Parks)
Terengganu (Pulau Redang Marine Park)
Pahang (Pulau Tioman Marine Park)
Johor (Johor National Park)
Kedah (Pulau Payar Marine Park)
The Federal Territory of Labuan (Pulau
Labuan Marine Park)
The LME of Sulu-Sulawesi Sea lies between the South China Sea and the waters of the Indonesian
archipelago. The initiative to conserve the SSME is to be undertaken by three countries, namely
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia through the Conservation Plan of the SSME. The coral reef
triangle of the SSME has been identified as a priority conservation area. The islands of Tun Mustapha
Park are also located within the SSME.
Besides the LME concept, Malaysia is also involved in a Transborder Marine Protected Area initiative
known as the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA). This transborder marine protected area
was established by a Memorandum of Understanding between Malaysia and the Philippines in 1996
as a result of initiatives of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The Turtle Island Park in Sabah
consists of Pulau Bakkungan Kechil, Pulau Gulisan and Pulau Selingan. The park was established in
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51
1977 to protect the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate).
The Turtle Island group has coral reefs at nine islands of the Sulu Sea. The Philippine islands consist
of six islands, namely Boan, Langaan, Lihiman, Great Bakungan, Taganak, and Baguan.
Research for coral reef conservation
In support of coral reef management and conservation initiatives, research has also been undertaken
on corals and coral reefs in the South China Sea region. These activities include:
I. Malaysia participated in the Living Coastal Resources (LCR) project under the ASEANAustralia Economic Cooporative Programme on Marine Science. This ten-year project
consisted of two phases. In Phase I (1984-1989), reef surveys and fish census was
conducted at selected islands in Malaysia. During Phase II (1989-1994), the project was
focused on monitoring the impact of tourism and development in Pulau Redang.
II. Collaborative surveys carried out by the Fisheries Department and WWF-Malaysia with
financial support from Canada Fund Malaysia. This baseline data was used to prepare the
Marine Park Island Management Conceptual Plan for Peninsular Malaysia (1994).
III. Through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility
(GEF) funded field survey at Pulau Redang Marine Park, Pulau Tioman Marine Park and
Pulau Tinggi Marine Park. The Malaysian government is planning to design a biodiversity
conservation project on these marine parks.
IV. The David Emily Packcard Foundation for the status report of coral reef in Eastern Malaysia
(2000).
V. With the support from World Resource Institute (WRI), the Town and Regional Planning
Department (TRPD) in Sabah and the Borneo Marine Research Institute of the Universiti
Malaysia Sabah carried out Reefs at Risk in Sabah. As part of the project outcome, coral
reefs around the islands and along the shoreline of Sabah have been mapped and assessed
for risks from threats, i.e. destructive fishing activities and sedimentation.
The above-mentioned surveys were aimed at providing information on the status, health and
biodiversity of the Malaysian coral reefs, especially within the existing MPAs. The information is the
basis for action to restore or to improve the existing management of the ecosystem. Decision making
on the establishment of new MPAs is also supported by outcomes of research. For example, the
decision of the Sarawak government to gazette the Miri-Sibuti reef as a state National Park was
supported by a study on a profile of the reef through reef mapping exercises (ReefMap) and
biodiversity assessments (Sarawak State Planning Unit, 2002).
More research on coral reefs will add to the knowledge-base of this important resource and assist in
its protection. For example, the Scientific Expedition to the Seas of Malaysia (SESMA) of the
University of Malaya’s Maritime Research Center (UMMReC) has revealed that Pulau Perak off
Kedah’s coast is worthy of protection as an MPA, partly because of its unique island wall reef.
However, the state government of Kedah would like to convert the island into a fishing paradise. In
early 2004, there was also a proposal to partially protect Pulau Sembilan’s coral reef in Perak’s water
from fishing activities. The Fisheries Research Institute of Malaysia carried out a study on the
biodiversity of the island in support of the proposal but the decision on the gazettement of the reefs as
MPA is still pending. It is worthwhile to note that Pulau Sembilan is considered as a rich fishing
ground for Perak fishermen.
Pulau Layang-Layang, located off Labuan and within the Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic
Zone of Malaysia is not categorized as an MPA. However, the status of the island as a restricted area
accords the reefs around Layang-Layang a high degree of protection. Research on baseline data of
reef fauna and flora was carried out in within 20 nautical miles of the island has been carried out from
the1980s until 2000. In 2003, the Department of Fisheries with cooperation from the Implementation
Coordination Unit of the Prime Minister’s Department (ICU, JPM) built the Marine Research Station
Pulau Layang Layang (MARSAL). Short research expeditions to collect baseline information of its reef
fauna and flora have been carried out in Pulau Layang Layang. Coral mining in the island for the
construction of a seawall and an air strip, however has caused adverse impact on the coral reef. In
the affected areas, live coral reef has reduced to 9.5% as compared to 30.9% in 1998 (Mohamed &
Abdullah, 2004).
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
Many efforts have been made to restore and rehabilitate the corals, which include the artificial reef
projects, coral transplantation and coral culture. Malaysian Universities, the Fisheries Research
Institute and corporate bodies are involved in coral protection and propagation work. Such coral
transplanting projects have been carried out in Pulau Perhentian and Pulau Tioman in 1999 and 2001,
respectively. The internationally known Reefball project is another example of coral propagation using
artificial reefs. This artificial reef was deployed in Pulau Talang-Talang off Sarawak. In 2004, with the
help from the Department of Fisheries of Sarawak, PETRONAS, Shell and Sarawak Tourism Board,
the Sarawak government has expanded its conservation effort through the “Rigs to Reef” project.
Abandoned oil rigs in surrounding waters of Baram were relocated to Siwa. Here the rigs are
transformed into artificial reef (Figure 8). Although this is a first in Malaysia, the project is not new
because it has taken place in the Gulf of Mexico and Brunei since 1980s.
113o 45’E
113o 50’E
113o 55’E
114o 00’E
North
’N
Baronia
BA-8
Baram B
’N
5’N
Baram A
SOUTH
CHINA
SEA
Tg. Baram
Baku
0’N
West Lutong
Kuala Baram
SBM 3
SBM 1
Lutong
SBM 5
5’N
Tukau
Tukau
Shoal
Miri
Tg. Lobang
0’N
Siwa
Siwa Shoal
Depth
<10 m
10 - 20 m
20 - 50 m
>50 m
5’N
Figure 8
Artificial reefs of the “Rigs to Reef” Project. (Source: Department of Fisheries of Sarawak)
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
53
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77-86.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
PHILIPPINES
Dr. Porfirio Aliño
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines (MSI/UP)
Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
55
PHILIPPINES
Porfirio M. Aliño
Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the six major marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines
(Figure 1). The western part of the Luzon Islands facing the South China Sea biogeographic region
are composed of the Batanes province, and the Babuyan Islands, Cagayan province as the
northernmost portion of this region. Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan, Zambales,
Bataan, Cavite, Batangas, Mindoro Oriental and Occidental, form the midwestern sector of the region
in Luzon. The island province of Palawan composes the southwestern-most sector of the Philippine’s
section of the South China Sea.
Figure 1
South China Sea (SCS) as one of the six major marine biogeographic regions in the
Philippines. (Nañola et al. 2004)
In the more recent past, the terrestrial and social conditions in Palawan have been referred to as one
of the last frontiers - mainly in relation to the extent of the forest and marine ecosystems and high
degree conservation consciousness of its stakeholders. The rich marine ecosystems of Palawan,
especially coral reefs, are facing numerous threats from human activities. This appears to be a great
obstacle to protection and conservation challenges. It is no surprise therefore that the Philippine reefs
especially its South China Sea sector has been identified as one of the hottest of the hotspots in the
marine realm (Roberts et al. 2002).
The coral reefs in this marine biogeographic region compose approximately one-fourth of the total
area of the coral reefs in the country. Municipal coral reef fisheries contribute to around 10-20% of the
total municipal fisheries production in the Philippines (Murdy and Ferraris 1980). The provinces of
Palawan, Mindoro (Oriental and Occidental), and Batangas, contribute the largest coastal tourism
revenues associated with coral reefs. Important priority marine biodiversity areas are exemplified by at
least three major marine corridors: the Batanes-Babuyan marine corridor which straddles the South
China Sea and the North Philippine Pacific Seaboard; the Batangas-Mindoro-Palawan marine corridor
straddles the South China Sea, Sulu Sea and Visayan Seas; and the Balabac Strait marine corridor in
Southern Palawan situated in the southern transition of the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
As with the rest of the country, overfishing and siltation are the most predominant threats (Gomez et
al. 1994a, 1994b). Concerns related to population pressures have also been highlighted and may lead
to food security deficits in the next decade (Bernascek 1996, ArcDev 2004). Some reefs experience
marine coastal development concerns such as offshore oil drilling, port development and tourism
establishments.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
The South China Sea marine biogeographic region experiences mixed tidal regime, wherein the
northwestern Luzon sector primarily experiences a diurnal tidal regime with the rest of the other
sectors having mixed – mainly diurnal tides. This is primarily influenced by the major currents that spill
over from the major Pacific region.
The geological development of the Luzon archipelago circumscribes the marine biogeographic realm
which straddles the: 1) the Northern Philippine Sea (NPS) portion of the Pacific Seaboard; 2) the
Western Side of the Luzon Archipelago is referred to as the South China Sea (SCS); and 3) the
Southern Luzon Area facing the Visayan Seas (e.g. in the Burias and Ticao Pass and San Bernardino
Strait). Past geotectonic movement of the Luzon archipelago into the Northern/Western Pacific
Ocean and the subsequent coalescence of the Visayan islands in the south and the Palawan
archipelago have influenced the circulation of the adjoining seas (Hall 2002). On the Eastern Side,
the northerly movement of the Kuroshio currents bifurcates westward hitting the Batanes-Babuyan
Islands Marine Corridor (Wyrtki 1961). This western movement into the SCS forms a northern gyre
movement with a west to east flow (from Viet Nam to the Western Philippines) affecting the
connectivity of the marine populations of this region (Shaw and Chao 1994). The sill overflow in the
Mindoro Strait affects the Sulu Sea region and the seas facing the Southern Luzon archipelago. The
bays and gulf of the Luzon archipelago have been formed by geological faults influencing the extent of
the coastal shelf and bathymetric slope inclination.
The coastal and marine habitats of the Palawan archipelago have undergone an extensive range of
evolutionary and ecological processes. Palawan’s incursion into the southwestern sector of the Luzon
archipelago about 3 million years ago produced wedged sill between the SCS and Sulu Sea basins
(Hall 2002). The development of the coastal habitats (e.g. fringing reefs and mangroves) is greatly
influenced by the geologic process of plate tectonics and sea level rise producing extensive shelves adjacent deep basins (having oceanic atolls in the Kalayaan Islands Group (KIG) and Tubbataha
Reefs).
On a broad-scale, western Philippine reefs are greatly influenced by the predominant current patterns
and hydrodynamic regimes of the South China Sea. However, there are areas where reefs are
constantly exposed to the exchange of water masses via the straits. For example, the Luzon Strait
links the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean while the Mindoro, Linapacan and Balabac Straits
are major corridors for the exchange of water masses between the South China Sea and the Sulu
Sea as well as to other adjacent seas (e.g. Sibuyan Sea in Romblon province).
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
The coral reefs west of the Philippines, based on geographic location, can be categorised into two
types namely: nearshore fringing reefs lining the coastlines of the islands and the more developed
and extensive offshore reef areas like those in the Kalayaan Islands Group. The distribution of reef
areas in this area is far ranging. With Manila as the reference point, reefs can be found far north such
as the Batanes group of islands and along the western coastlines of Luzon Island (including the
Scarborough shoal). Towards the south, reef areas fringe the bays of Batangas and Mindoro
provinces. Apo reef, the second largest marine park in the country is situated along the Mindoro
Strait. Southwest of Manila, reef areas can also be found in the Calamianes Group of Islands, along
the main island of Palawan, and all the way to the Balabac islands. However, the most extensive and
least explored reef areas can be found west of Palawan – the Kalayaan Islands Group (Figure 2).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
Figure 2
57
Coral reefs sites in the South China Sea biogeographic region of the Philippines.
Most of the largest extent of the reefs is found in the northern Palawan region. Some offshore ocean
reefs are situated in the Kalayaan Islands and the Scarborough Shoals, Zambales. Many of the
embayed areas that have headland areas having more extensive reef development and reef
community structure are influenced by the embayment principle (Licuanan and Gomez 1988, Hilomen
and Gomez 1988). Nañola et al. (2004) provides the most recent update on the state and conditions
of the coral reefs of the country and shows that the SCS is second to the Sulu Sea area where over
30% of the coral reef areas remain at the highest level of fish biomass. Unfortunately, the SCS also
shows one of the areas with the lowest fish abundance in the country especially that of Lingayen Gulf
(Deocadez et al. 2003, Nañola et al. 2004). The offshore reefs in the Kalayaan Islands show the
contrasting pattern and high variability in the condition of the diversity and state of its resources (Aliño
and Quibilan 2003). Here, the most extensive reef areas can be found with high species richness but
also exhibit low abundance and impoverished reef conditions.
Characteristics of relevant coral reef sites
Davila is a coral reef site in the municipality of Pasuquin in the province of Ilocos Norte. The coral
reefs are of the fringing type. The bay has low coral cover in the relatively exposed transect sites and
good coral cover in the bay area. Its total coral reef area is 164.64 hectares and mostly dominated by
Acropora.
Lingayen Gulf (including Bolinao, Anda, Alaminos) is located in northwestern Philippines. It is a
large embayment (2,100km2) surrounded by 15 municipalities and 3 cities, in the provinces of
Pangasinan and La Union. The Gulf has been classified into three sectors according to dominant
coastal features (Talaue-McManus and Chua 1998). The western section (Sector I) is dominated by
fringing coral reefs. The southern section (Sector II) is mainly soft bottom areas where majority of the
river systems of the Gulf drain off. The eastern section (Sector III) is lined mainly by sandy beaches
with patchy coral reefs (i.e., fringing and shoal) on the northern portion.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
San Salvador is an island barangay (village) under the jurisdiction of the municipality of Masinloc,
Zambales, in northwestern Luzon. The reefs in the northeastern part of the island are fringing,
characterized by a vast reef flat with sudden drop-offs in the crest. Spur and groove formations are
common along the reef crest, particularly in the area facing the South China Sea.
The diverse and abundant reefs in the Mabini - Tingloy area in the Province of Batangas, and
Balayan Bay are known for their wealth of marine life. Bordering the Calumpan Peninsula containing
Mabini municipality and Maricaban and Caban Islands of Tingloy municipality are many excellent
fringing and patchy coral reefs. These reefs are famous for their natural productivity that supplies tons
of fish to local communities. In addition, their color and diversity attract thousands of scuba divers
and swimmers to the area every month of the year.
Puerto Galera is a small northern peninsula north of the island of Mindoro, with coordinates between
13o 23’ and 13o 32’ N latitude, 120o 50’ and 121o 50’ E longitude. It is acknowledged as one of the
most highly diverse coastal areas in the Philippines (Campos 2002). Coral reefs occur in shallow
water, ranging from surface down to depths between 10 and 40m (Fortes 1997). Three sites
monitored from 1991 to 1993 by the Phase II of the LCRP are considered in this report. These are
First Plateau (13o 30.683’N, 120o 57.317’E), Third Plateau (13o 32.033’N, 120o 57.100’E), and
Escarceo Point (13o 31.450’N, 120o 59.433’E). The coral reef flats in these areas appear to be poor
although the sloping portions with depths ranging from 7 to 15 m are rich with reef-building corals.
First and Third Plateaus are characterized by pocilloporids, poritids and Seriatopora, while Escarceo
Pt. and the deeper site of Third Plateau are dominated by soft corals (Atrigenio 1995). Of the sites
surveyed, Third Plateau had the highest mean percentage of live coral at 33% (Campos 2002).
Port Barton Marine Park (San Vincente) is a 74,483-ha marine reserve that stretches from the south
shore of Albaguen Island to the rest of the inner bay. It includes reefs fringing many islands as well as
patch reefs. Underwater visibility is generally very good.
BIODIVERSITY
The rich diversity of the South China Sea derives itself from its evolutionary history. It is situated in the
Indo - West Pacific region where the coral reefs show the reefs at its zenith for both fish and coral
species richness (Veron and Fenner 2002, Carpenter and Springer 2005). The eastern section of the
South China Sea interphases with the Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea marine biogeographic regions
(DeVantier et al. 2004). Aliño (1994) and Aliño and Gomez (1994) discuss the significance of the
Philippines’ SCS in the overall global marine biodiversity conservation efforts. The Philippine National
Biodiversity Priority Setting workshops further reinforce the importance of coral reefs vis-à-vis the
other marine habitats and resources in the country. Below (Table 1) is a summary of the various
characteristics of biodiversity in several sites of the SCS region and their relevant conservation and
management responses.
Table 1
Summary of some of the noteworthy marine biodiversity features in the South China
Sea and their conservation and management responses.
Sector or Area Cluster within
the South China Sea region
Noteworthy Fauna
Responses
Northern Batanes - Babuyan
Corridor
Humpback whales, turtles and
manta rays approach the fringes of
the reef areas
Northwestern Luzon (SCS)
Nesting areas are reported in the
areas of Bataan and Zambales;
the Scarborough Shoals together
with the KIG show similarities in
coral reef community fish
composition that indicate the
connectivity of these ecosystems
Protected Seascape and Landscape of
the Batanes Islands and the Babuyan
Islands are proposed priority protected
areas through a marine corridor approach
from NGOs like WWF and Conservation
International
National Integrated Protected Areas
System (NIPAS) sites such as Masinloc
and Subic in Zambales are looking at
complementary cooperation between local
and national initiatives through Integrated
Coastal Management and Watershed
Approaches
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
59
Table 1cont. Summary of some of the noteworthy marine biodiversity features in the South China
Sea and their conservation and management responses.
Sector or Area Cluster within
the South China Sea region
Batangas-Mindoro-Calamianes
Marine Corridor
Western Palawan
Balabac Marine Corridor
Noteworthy Fauna
Responses
Dugongs and turtles foraging on
seagrass and coral reef areas;
coral reefs in this area show one
of the highest diversity indices in
this region
Irrawady dolphin, dugong and
marine turtle nesting and feeding
areas especially from Malampaya
to Bacuit Bay and most of the
coastline of the Western Palawan
mainland; new species of corals
such as Leptoseris kalayaanensis
(Licuanan 2003) are being
discovered in the adjacent oceanic
atolls of the KIG
Aside from the presence of
endangered species like the
dugong and marine turtles, these
areas are important migratory
routes of commercially important
reef associated fishes
The Calamianes and Balabac marine
corridors are part of the highest priority
areas for marine biodiversity conservation
through a marine corridor approach
Many coral reef areas are being
incorporated as part of the NIPAS system
in addition to the Strategic Environmental
Plan (SEP) of Palawan; noteworthy of
these areas are Malampaya and El Nido
which have considerable coral reef
components
A potential transboundary agreement can
be forged between Sabah and Palawan
for the conservation and cooperative
research to sustainably manage the area should be pursued
Aliño and Dantis (1999) summarises the insights derived from coral reef research as applied to
marine biodiversity conservation in the following areas: 1) conservation biology in relation to marine
protected areas; 2) resiliency to disturbances both from natural (e.g. storms and thermal anomalies)
and human induced pressures (e.g. fishing pressure); and 3) recovery and susceptibility of different
coral reefs vis-à-vis the other ecosystems as affected by various threats (e.g. siltation).
THREATS
Time series data on corals and reef fish in the South China Sea biogeographic region (PhilReefs
2005) show the trends for hard coral cover, reef fish abundance and biomass from 11 municipalities in
seven provinces. Overall, hard coral cover for majority of the reefs (44%) are in stable condition while
39% are decreasing and only 17% are increasing. In terms of reef fish abundance, more than half
(53%) are decreasing; whereas 27% are increasing and 20% are in stable condition or no net change.
The same trend can be observed for fish biomass, where 45% are decreasing, 36% are increasing
and 18% are in stable condition. However, it should be noted that not all municipalities or transect
sites have a one on one correspondence of coral cover and fish abundance and biomass data in any
year. As a result, totals for each category (i.e. hard coral cover, fish abundance and biomass) are not
the same. Thus, percentages presented above are derived separately for each category and based
only on available data.
Reef sites along the SCS biogeographic region were affected by the coral bleaching event in 1998
and are in various stages of recovery. Chronic disturbances such as siltation and overfishing are
commonplace, and need to be addressed by local governments in all three provinces: Pangasinan,
Zambales and Palawan. Illegal fishing activities (e.g. use of dynamite and fine-meshed nets) remain
rampant in Pangasinan. There are reports of poaching inside MPAs like in Anda and Bugor Island,
which are attributed to poor law enforcement activities (e.g. patrolling). This may also mean that there
is a need to heighten local communities’ environmental awareness as well as encourage active
participation in coastal management efforts. Commercial fishers encroach in the municipal waters of
Bani, Pangasinan, while coral reef fishes are excessively collected for the aquarium trade in San
Salvador Island. In Port Barton, the establishment of seaweed farms seemed to have affected the
water circulation within the bay. Natural disturbances such as the crown-of-thorns (COTS) outbreak
that happened in May 2004 hampered reef recovery in El Nido. Abesamis (2003) demonstrates the
differential vulnerability of offshore reefs to pa-aling (a more efficient substitute for muro-ami, Miclat et
al. 1991) in the Spratlys area vis-à-vis the marine corridor areas of the Calamianes and the Balabac
areas. Perhaps this implies that despite the relative inaccessibility of the KIG areas they are quite
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
60
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
vulnerable to commercial scale reef fisheries. Destructive and illegal fishing still remain the most
prevalent threats as the result of what has been referred to as Malthusian overfishing (Pauly et al.
1989, Alino et al. 2004).
Threats at the site level
In Nagabugan Bay, Davila, coral bleaching has been observed. Blast fishing has stopped since the
implementation of the Coastal Environmental Project (CEP) program. Sporadic cyanide fishing still
occurs. Pollution is still a problem. Overfishing is not a problem in the area due to some established
alternative livelihood projects like aquaculture, livestock raising and farming. Based on the 2000
survey, large areas with encrusting and massive corals were observed near the transect stations.
However, deterioration on the condition of the corals sampled was observed. Possible reason for the
decrease in live coral cover was the strong typhoons that hit Northern Luzon in the previous years that
caused siltation in the area.
Overfishing, illegal fishing, siltation and pollution are the major issues and threats in the Lingayen
Gulf. Capture fisheries with 23,000 fishermen exert very intense pressure in the Gulf. The number of
fishers translates to about 7 fishers per meter of coastline or about 23 fishers per sq. km of municipal
fishing ground. High fishing pressure is attributed to the steady increase of municipal fishers since
1976. Encroachment by commercial fishers (e.g. commercial trawl) is perceived as a major factor that
caused the reduction in fishery production. Hence, small-scale capture fisheries has become the
prevalent marginal occupation in the Gulf. The use of destructive fishing methods (e.g. dynamite,
cyanide fishing and the use of fine mesh net fishing gear) has resulted in rapid habitat degradation
and decline of the fishery stocks. Pollution in relation to mariculture activities (e.g. fishpens, fishcages
and fishponds), and siltation from mine tailings, quarrying activities and erosion of agriculture lands
have both affected water quality and productivity. Bolinao, at the western side of the gulf was
adversely affected by the 1998 bleaching event (Arceo et al. 2001).
Severe coral bleaching was observed in San Salvador in 1998. High exposure to storms is another
natural threat to the reefs. Heavy siltation from river and agricultural run-off is also a major threat.
Blast fishing is still occurring. Recently, aquarium fishers have gradually returned to fish in the reefs
of San Salvador even though it is prohibited. In fact, several violators were observed while
biophysical monitoring was going on. The extent of exploitation of aquarium fishes is a growing
concern. Catch often includes juvenile fishes, and no limit in number or size has been set. Lastly, the
presence of the National Power Corporation (NPC) coal power plant has always been of some
concern due mainly to the increased seawater temperature brought about by the facility.
In Maricaban Strait, signs of destructive fishing activities are not as serious as in the past. Storm
damaged corals in the late 1980s are being replaced with new developing corals although a storm in
2000 substantially overturned some coral heads at Sombrero, Arthur’s and White Sand Reefs.
Further, for the reefs to improve through increased coral growth, human-caused damage from
anchors, fishing and careless scuba divers must be addressed. Tourism activity is high and
increasing. The number of local boats used for diving and traveling by visitors has increased
dramatically over the past ten years. Anchor damage is apparent on all the reefs except where the
buoys are routinely used.
The total lack of solid waste management is very evident in the area. At every site, the survey
encountered floating debris. Plastics are more common than jellyfish! Sediment deposited from
heavy rainfall events was evident on the reefs bordering the Calumpan Peninsula especially at Twin
Rocks and at White Sand Reef. This reflects deforestation and building constructions on land. The
increasing construction activity along the shoreline is having negative impacts on the reefs in general.
Most structures are constructed less than 20 m from the high tide line as stipulated in the Land
Management Act.
A major threat to the reefs in Puerto Galera is sedimentation associated with the development of
coastal settlements, marble mining and goldpanning, and eutrophication brought about by sewage
effluents from resorts and coastal settlements (Fortes 1997). Water pollution may also have been
brought about by discharges of watercrafts plying the area. The lack of enforcement of existing laws
and ordinances as well as weak community participation in conservation efforts further aggravates the
situation.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
61
In Port Barton, the area still has good coral cover and much fish but it is having difficulty recovering
from a storm that followed right after a mass bleaching event in 1998. Hard corals were devastated
after a storm (Typhoon Norming) and this was followed by a mass bleaching event (April-May) in
1998. Hard coral cover percentage both inside and adjacent to the fishery reserve has since become
generally stable but target fish species abundance (inside and adjacent to the reserve) appears to
drop from 1999 to 2001. This decrease is also reflected in the major fish carnivores (groupers,
snappers, emperors and sweetlips) and is more evident in adjacent areas compared to areas inside
the reserve.
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES
Previous socio-economic resource valuation studies related to reefs in the Philippines
Past economic/resource valuation studies on coral reefs in the Philippines along the South China Sea
basin has been done for provinces like Pangasinan, Palawan and Batangas. Studies have focused
on these themes: socio-economic impacts of coral bleaching (Cesar et al. 2001, Mamiit and Francisco
2001), cost-benefit analyses of impacts of logging versus tourism and fisheries (Hogdson and Dixon
1988, 2000), economic valuation of biodiverisity (UPMSI-MERF 2002), determination of user fees
(WWF-Philippines 2001, ENRAP-PAWB-PPSO 1999), economic benefits of protection and smallscale tourism (White et al. 2000a), and recreational benefits (Ahmed et al. unpublished). Other
studies undertaken in the Philippines were in Olango, Cebu (White et al. 2000b) and Apo Islands
(Vogt 1997).
There has been initial work on estimating the socio-economic impacts by coral bleaching in the
Philippines. Most recent is the work by Cesar et al. (2001). In their study, the economic impact of coral
bleaching to fisheries and tourism was determined for Bolinao, Pangasinan and El Nido, Palawan. A
large percentage of corals bleached during the second half of 1998. Significant economic losses to
tourism due to the coral bleaching event in El Nido was estimated at US$30 million (i.e. with the
assumption that these losses were permanent at 9% discount rate). Losses to the fishery in Bolinao,
Pangasinan, were more difficult to determine because of the confounding effect of overfishing and the
nature of the fishery. There was, however, some indication of fish recruitment failure for rabbitfishes a
year after the bleaching event. The study by Mamiit and Francisco (2001), determined that on the
average around PhP3,756.67 (~US$70 @ PhP53: US$1), was the amount domestic (or local)
recreational SCUBA divers were willing to pay for the restoration of bleached or damaged coral reefs
in the Philippines. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used.
Cost-benefit analyses on the impacts of siltation (i.e. derived from logging activities) on the fisheries
and tourism in El Nido, Palawan (Hodgson and Dixon 1988) revealed that logging would severely limit
the viability and income that would be generated from tourism and fishery. A follow-up study
(Hogdson and Dixon 2000) showed that indeed tourism flourished after 10 years following the
preservation of the unique forest ecosystem. However, there are now indications of increased fishing
pressure that have resulted in overfishing. Populations of high-value species of fish and shellfish are
significantly reduced.
An economic valuation was carried out for the period of 1986 – 1987. There were two options, i.e. (1)
logging is banned; and (2) logging to continue. In Option 1, forest cutting was totally banned, tourism
and fisheries kept on going, but there was one thing to be considered, i.e. compensation for logging
owner. In Option 2, forest cutting continued, doubtlessly fisheries would keep on declining, so would
be tourism. Results of calculation of the economic value of the three aspects (including Option 2-1)
are given in Table 2.
An on-going project entitled “The economic value of coral reef biodiversity: Examples from Southeast
Asia” aims to determine the estimated value of coral reefs specifically due to biodiversity. TOTAL
FINA ELF Corporate Foundation funds this two-year project. This project is currently being
implemented by the Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines through the Marine
Environment and Resources Foundation Inc. (MERF, Inc.) with collaborators from Viet Nam. Areas
considered in this study are: Maricaban, Batangas, Hundred Islands, Pangasinan (both in the
Philippines) and Hon Mun Island in Viet Nam.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
62
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
Table 2
Tourism, fisheries and logging industries: ten-year sum of gross revenue and its present
value (x $1,000) using 10% and 15% discount rates.
Gross Revenue
Tourism
Fisheries
(with tuna)
Logging
TOTAL
Present Value 10 %
Tourism
Fisheries
(with tuna)
Logging
TOTAL
Present Value 15 %
Tourism
Fisheries
(with tuna)
Logging
TOTAL
Option 1
Option 2
Option 2 - 1
47,415
28,070
46,070
0
75,485
8,178
12,844
21,471
12,884
33,906
39,237
15,226
24,599
-12,844
41,579
25,481
17,248
28,308
0
47,729
6,216
9,108
15,125
9,769
25,093
19,265
8,140
13,183
-9,769
17,636
19,511
14,088
28,308
0
32,599
5,591
7,895
13,083
8,639
22,125
13,920
6,193
10,039
-8.639
11,474
Source: Hodgson & Dixon, 1988.
Coral reef resource valuation from the UNEP SCS project
Samonte-Tan and Armedilla (2005) reviews the economic value (use and preservation values) of
Philippine coral reefs in the South China Sea biogeographic region. The approach for estimating the
economic value of coral reefs used the valuation framework agreed by the UNEP’s Regional Task
Force on valuation. The concept of total economic valuation highlights the significant economic values
that can be accrued from use values and non-use values. Adding the above market (direct) and nonmarket values (indirect and option values) gives an estimate of the total quantifiable economic value
of PhP2,901 million (US$53 million). Fisheries, tourism and research values account for about 27
percent of the total net economic value. Calculated over 20 years, with a discount rate of 10%, the net
present value of benefits of Philippine coral reefs in the South China Sea basin is estimated at
PhP24,700 million (US$449 million) that translates to approximately PhP5.3 million/km2 net present
value, or PhP 266,112/km2/yr on an annualized basis. This is based on an estimated Philippine coral
reef area within the South China Sea basin of 4,640.94km2.
Samonte and Armedilla (2005) shows that 1km2 of coral reef can generate US$11,366 direct and
indirect values. Philippine coral reefs have an estimated value of PhP1,064 million/year (US$19.3
million) and the value of coral reefs for the South China Sea biogeographic region is estimated at
PhP52.7 million/year as indicated in Table 3 (Samonte-Tan and Armedilla 2005).
Table 3
Potential annual net economic benefit. (Samonte-Tan and Armedilla, 2005)
Resource Use
(Direct and Indirect)
Fisheries
Philippinesa
($ million)
620.0
Tourism
Philippines-South China Sea
Basin ($ million)
11.3
108.0
2.3
326.0
23.2
10.0
7.0
Carbon Sequestration
8.4
Coastal Protection
Biodiversity
Research
0.7
Total Net Annual Benefits
b
Net Present Value
Reef Area (km2)
1,064.0
52.7
9,063.0
449.1
27,000.0
4,640.9
a
Burke et al. 2002
b
Stream of annual benefits over 20 years at 10% discount rate
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
63
Coral reef areas in the Philippines are major fishery resources and popular recreational attractions for
domestic and foreign tourists. Current financing of coral reef management is insufficient considering
the threats of land-based and marine-based human activities that cause irreversible damage to the
coral reef resources. The results of Samonte-Tan and Armedilla (2005) study may help guide policy
makers in evaluating/updating pricing policies (user fees, general tax revenues, fines, etc.) and in
developing appropriate financing mechanisms.
MANAGEMENT
The specific national legislation, which updates the particular and fragmented marine related concerns
are embodied in Republic Act 8550 known as the Philippine Fisheries Code. Previous to this (ca.
1991) more general laws such as the Local Government Code delineates the jurisdiction of municipal
waters within 15 kilometers.
The significant decline of marine resources in the Philippines led various government institutions,
provincial and local governments, non-government organizations (NGOs), people’s organizations
(POs), stakeholders and managers together with the local communities to spearhead the
establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), marine fishery reserves, sanctuaries and protected
seascapes and landscapes. The coral reef and mangrove areas have been the primary focal areas
where many of these targeted management efforts are directed. The management of these areas is
regarded as the most appropriate approach in the management of fisheries because traditional fishery
management efforts (e.g. regulating catch and fishing effort) are difficult to apply (Bohnsack 1996;
Arceo et al. 2002). Marine protected areas also became popular with coastal managers because they
offer simple win-win solutions. This approach is based on the assumption that an area closed to
fishing will benefit adjacent areas through: 1) spillover of adult fish resulting from increased fish
density; 2) export of larvae that could recruit elsewhere resulting from increased spawning stock; and
3) regulation of fishing effort if matched with the management of areas outside no-take areas.
Proliferation of marine reserves and sanctuaries in the late 1990s was due to the availability of funds
from both foreign and local donors (i.e. International Grants, national and provincial governments).
Other funding agencies supported efforts to sustain the management and protection of the marine
biodiversity (e.g., Conservation International and the World Wide Fund for Nature). To date, more
than 500 protected areas have been established in the Philippines (Aliño et al. 2000, AFMA-MFR
database, http://www.msi.upd.edu.ph/midas/). Majority of these MPAs were proclaimed under
Presidential Proclamation No. 1801. Some MPAs are managed by the local government units (LGUs)
together with the POs and local communities while others are managed by non-government
organizations (NGO) with the support of LGUs, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
regional offices, POs and the local communities. A number of MPAs were established under the
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 and are being managed by the
Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) in coordination with the Protected Areas and Wildlife
Bureau (PAWB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).
Protected areas that are managed by the community are sometimes considered to be very effective
and exist continuously even with the change in local administration. However, these are successfully
implemented in very small areas. Management efforts by local government (including coastal law
enforcement) continue to rapidly gain ground, although its conservation effectiveness is not yet
evident in the collected data.
Initiatives such as the Integrated Coastal Resources Management Project (ICRMP), Coastal
Resources Management Project (CRMP), and Participatory Coastal Resource Appraisal (PCRA) were
organized through partnerships between LGUs, NGOs and POs with the support of government
institutions such as Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DABFAR), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and DENR. Other programs such as
Fisheries Resources Management Program (FRMP) and Pacific Seaboard Research and
Development Program were funded by the DA-BFAR and DOST, respectively, to assess and manage
some of the priority areas for protection and conservation.
Sustainability of funds for the operation and maintenance of these protected areas is the most
common problem in the Philippines. Many MPAs collect users fees from tourists (e.g. Apo Reserve
and Tubbataha National Marine Park) that are kept as trust funds to sustain their operations.
Resource use conflicts among local stakeholders, in addition to weak enforcement of ordinances and
policies by the concerned agencies are the next most common problems (e.g. Visayan Seas region).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
64
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
Based on submitted reports, from an initial list of 10 marine protected areas (MPAs) in 2003 (Philreefs
2003), five small MPAs, mostly from Pangasinan, and two proposed are now included. There are now
17 marine protected areas in the region, roughly covering a total area of 152,644ha. or 1,576km2.
Assuming that total coral reef area along the SCS biogeographic region is about 4,641km2; the total
area protected so far would be about 34%. This is an overestimate considering that not all marine
protected areas are established on reef areas, some would include mangrove areas, seagrass beds
or deep sandy areas.
Another source of information that was released recently is the MPA database 2004 by the Coastal
Conservation and Education Foundation, Inc. (CCEF, Inc. 2004) (PhilReefs 2005). At present, there
are 331 MPAs described in this database from all over the country. From this database, a total of 19
MPAs from the SCS was generated from it (Table 4). This list includes the large marine protected
landscapes and seascapes, marine reserves and very small (i.e. ~2ha.) fish sanctuaries.
Management efforts, big and small, are continually geared towards setting aside areas for protection
and conservation. However, it seems that despite these efforts, it may not be enough to save reefs on
time. In the Philippine marine sanctuary strategy, the urgent call is to improve management
effectiveness and sustain efforts within and outside marine protected areas (Aliño 2004). The sense of
urgency stems from the fact that more than 50% of the reef areas monitored so far have shown
decline in the reef condition (Philreefs 2003, Philreefs 2005), and that these areas are continually
being exposed to varying degrees of exploitation and disturbances (human and natural). Greater
challenges remain and questions need to be answered like: If we were to improve municipal fisheries
by 10%, how many more MPAs do we need to establish? Do we increase the size of existing MPAs
and by how much? How do we improve management effectiveness? How will we network these
MPAs? What is the strategy or framework? Aliño et al. (2004) suggests that if a minimum of 20
hectares should be pursued in many of the existing areas, perhaps the projected 100-year period
would be reduced by half (i.e. 50 years), and if, on the average, this will be increased to at least 40
hectares then perhaps it will reach a reasonable strategic period of 20 years.
Within the SCS bio-geographic region, only one MPA is declared a national marine park (i.e. Apo
Reef Marine Reserve) while some are relatively small marine protected areas or fish sanctuaries
(Table 4). Establishment of fish sanctuaries such as those in Bolinao and Anda, Pangasinan;
Masinloc, Zambales; and Mabini-Tingloy, Batangas were made possible by passing municipal
ordinances. However, the greatest challenge is how to manage reefs located in relatively larger areas
such as Bacuit Bay, Lingayen Gulf and the Kalayaan Islands Group. Managing reef areas covered by
more than one province and/or municipality or a number of barangays may be more difficult as it will
need a more comprehensive management plan and regulations enforced by the various stakeholders
in the area. How to manage offshore reefs in the Kalayaan Islands Group is a totally different story as
it is claimed in part or whole by six countries. Based on ecological considerations, it is proposed that it
be declared as the “Spratly Islands Marine Park” to benefit the whole region (McManus and Meñez
1997).
Table 4
List of marine protected areas/reserves and/or fish sanctuaries along the SCS
biogeographic region generated from the MPA Database 2004 (PhilReefs 2005).
MPA/Fish sanctuary
Batanes Protected Landscape and
Seascape
Agoo-Damortis Protected
Lndscape and Seascape
Agoo, Sto. Tomas, La Union
Hundred Islands National Park
Alaminos, Pangasinan
Masinloc Oyon Bay Marine Reserve,
Masinloc, Zambales
Nalayag Point Fishery Refuge and
Sanctuary, Nalayag, San Agustin
Kanluran, Isla Verde, Batangas City
Pulong Bato Fishery Refuge and
Sanctuary, San Agapito, Isla Verde,
Batangas City
Year of
establishment
1994
Size (ha)
213,578
Municipal ordinance (MO)
and/or existing laws
Pres. Proc. No. 355 Feb 28 1994
Republic Act No. 8991-2001
Pres. Proc. No. 277 April 23, 2000
Republic Act No. 7160
2000
10,649
1940
1,630
1993
7,568
2002
1
MO # 13 Series of 2002
2002
2
MO # 13 Series of 2002
Pres. Proc. No. 231 Aug 18, 1993
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
Table 4 cont.
65
List of marine protected areas/reserves and/or fish sanctuaries along the SCS
biogeographic region generated from the MPA Database 2004 (PhilReefs 2005).
?
Municipal ordinance (MO)
and/or existing laws
MO # 3 Series of 1995
1999
5
MO # 92 Series of 2003
2003
2
MO # 3 Series of 2003
1998
2
1998
2
Tanagan Marine Sanctuary
Tanagan, Calatagan Batangas
Brgy. Biga Marine Sanctuary
Biga, Lobo, Batangas
Malabrigo Fish Refuge and Sanctuary,
Malabrigo, Lobo, Batangas
Sawang/Olo-olo Fish Sanctuary
Sawang and Olo-olo, Lobo, Batangas
2002
2
2002
10
2002
3
Resolution No. 60-2002
2001
9
MO # 59 Series of 2001
Batalang-Bato Fish Sanctuary
Sto. Tomas and Talahib, Batangas
Malampaya Sound Protected Landscape
and Seascape, Malampaya, Palawan
Manalo Fish Sancturay
Manalo, Puerto Princesa, Palawan
Manyukos Island marine Sanctuary
Buenavista, Puerto Princesa, Palawan
2002
2.5
MO # 1 Series of 2002
2000
200,115
2000
74
MO # 144 Series of 2000
2003
232
MO # 246 Series of 2003
Part of St. Paul, Subterranean
River National Park; IPRA Law
NOTE: The 193,255 ha for
Batanes was included in the
computation.
MPA/Fish sanctuary
Dive & Trek Fish Sanctuary
San Pablo, Bauan, Batangas
Bagong Silang Marine Sanctuary
Bagon Silang, Calatagan, Batangas
Carretunan Marine Sanctuary
Caretulan, Calatagan, Batangas
Pagapas Bay Marine Reserve
Tanagan and Sta. Ana, Calatagan Batangas
Sta. Ana Marine Sanctuary
Sta. Ana, Calatagan, Batangas
TOTAL AREA PROTECTED IN THE SCS
BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION
Year of
establishment
1995
Size (ha)
413,564
Resolution No. 89-1998
Pres. Proc. No. 342 July 11, 2000
In the Philippine Marine Sanctuary Strategy a proposal for a network of MPAs to be supported by a
multisectoral body is espoused under the co-chair coordination of the Department of Agriculture –
Bureau of Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR). It has been proposed that beyond MPAs, an Archipelagic Development Strategy provides an
overarching framework for all strategies within an ecosystem-based framework. ArcDev (2004)
integrates the various habitat-based and project-based efforts into area-based –catchment
“watershed” management approach linked to integrated coastal management. To date, no formal
legitimized document provides this institutional framework. Existing legislative instruments should be
utilized to incorporate improve implementing mechanisms for achieving targets of various action
plans.
Though it has been legislated that municipal development plans should provide the basis for each
local government’s strategic action plans, only a handful (in the mid 1990s) has developed their
coastal development plans with their appropriate zoning schemes. In the last 5 years coastal
management plans have been initiated in an increasing number of LGUs found in the South China
Sea region (e.g. in Batanes, Lingayen Gulf, Bataan, Batangas and Palawan). Budgetary allocations
reaching at least around US$5,000 annually for coral reef management are often related to marine
sanctuaries established in coral reefs. Perhaps due to the recognition of the gap in the coordination
among local governments, which should function cooperatively, and share in the management of
municipal waters, provincial and/or baywide management bodies have been established. The
Strategic Environmental Plan legislated for the province of the Palawan (1992) and the National
Integrated Protected Areas (NIPAS) declaration of Batanes as a Protected Seascape and Landscape
are some of the provincial exemplary models for provincial initiatives engraved in national law. Other
local provincial ordinances and executive issuances have been promulgated through the provincial
governments as seen by the initiatives in Batangas and Bataan. On-going efforts among provinces to
revive the baywide management arrangements (as espoused by the RA 8550) in Lingayen Gulf is
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
66
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES
being undertaken between the Provincial Governments of Pangasinan and La Union together with the
support of other national government agencies like the DA-BFAR, DENR and the National Economic
Development Authority (NEDA).
Despite the need for better inter-hierarchical coordination at the local and national levels, hope
springs forth as seen in on-the-ground efforts, which have borne fruit in recognition of good practices
in MPA management (e.g. Masinloc, Zambales winning the “Galing Pook” national award) and the
CRM regional working group in Lingayen Gulf winning an award for its coastal zone management.
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Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
THAILAND
Dr. Thamasak Yemin
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science
Ramkhamhaeng University
Huamark, Bangkok 10240, Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
69
THAILAND
Thamasak Yemin
Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University
INTRODUCTION
Thailand’s coastal areas, located between 6°N and 13°N, offer suitable environmental conditions for
coral reef development. The total coastline of Thailand, in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand,
is approximately 2,614 kilometres. The Gulf of Thailand, a major area in Southeast Asia, immediately
to the west of the South China Sea is bordered by several nations, i.e. Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand
and Malaysia. Thailand has historically profited from the wealth of living and mineral resources in the
Gulf. Several millions of people derive their livelihoods from fisheries and mineral resources produced
from the Gulf of Thailand, however, several millions more are affected by changes in the environment
including coral reef habitat, whether these changes are physical or political. The Gulf of Thailand is a
semi-enclosed sea, as defined by the Law of the Sea that measures approximately 400 km by 800
km, covering an area of about 320,000 square kilometres. The Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong,
and Bang Pakong rivers enter the gulf. There are also many small rivers that flow along the coast.
The Gulf of Thailand harbours a large area of coral reefs, seagrasses beds, and mangroves. Coral
reefs represent an important part of the ecosystem that is in danger of becoming dangerously
depleted. Coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand are a home of many species of fish and other benthic
organisms. These coral reefs are very sensitive to pollution, and are under threat from certain fishing
and tourism activities.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Climate
The majority of the Gulf coastline belonging to Thailand has a tropical climate dominated by the
monsoons. The climate is characterised in general by four seasons: a dry season from January to
February; a hot season from March to May; a wet season from June to October; and a cool season
from November to December. Approximately 90 percent of rainfall occurs during the wet season.
Annual precipitation varies from 1,000mm to 2,030mm depending on the region. In Bangkok, the
average temperature ranges from 20°C in December to 35°C in April.
Geology
The Gulf of Thailand is part of the Sunda Shelf and is relatively shallow. The mean depth is 45m, and
the maximum depth is 80m.
Hydrology
The Gulf of Thailand receives water mainly from the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong and Bang
Pakong rivers. Among these rivers, the Chao Phraya has the largest catchment area (162,000km2),
which is a one third of the whole area of Thailand.
An in-depth and systematic study of the oceanographic conditions of the Gulf was undertaken by the
NAGA Expedition, which lasted from 1959-61, and was sponsored by Thailand, South Viet Nam and
the United States of America. The results showed several physical properties of the Gulf of Thailand.
The Gulf is a two layered, shallow-water estuary. The upper layer has low salinity due to rain and
freshwater runoff from rivers. The deeper layer has high salinity due to cool water flowing into the Gulf
from the South China Sea at the mouth. Monsoons, tidal currents and precipitation drive the Gulf’s
circulation and influence its salinity and turbidity. Monsoons also have a significant influence on the
surface currents. During the southwest monsoon season, the surface current moves clockwise and
during the northeast monsoon season it moves counterclockwise.
Water Quality
Water quality along the coastal areas and tourist beaches is mostly fair, except for some locations at
the mouth of Thailand’s four major rivers. Primary productivity in the Gulf of Thailand is boosted by
increased nutrients from rivers, shrimp farms and household sewage. Many cities have no sewage
treatment and discharge directly into the Gulf. More fertilizers are being used on agricultural lands.
They eventually reach the Gulf and contribute to the deterioration of water quality. The increase in
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
70
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
inputs of nitrate, phosphate and silicate are causing occasional algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
Summary seawater temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and suspended solids data at coral reef
sites in the Gulf of Thailand are given in Table 1, while concentrations of nutrient components in the
coral reef sites are presented in Table 2.
Table 1
Important environmental factors at coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Coral Reef Sites
Chumphon Group,
Chumphon Province
Koh Chang, Kud and
Mark, Trat Province
Ang Thong Group, Surat
Thani Province
Samui and Phangan
Group, Surat Thani
Province
Samet Group, Rayong
Province
Sichang Group,
Chonburi Province
Sattaheep and
Samaesarn Group,
Chonburi Province
Lan and Phai Group,
Chonburi Province
Chao Lao, Chanthaburi
Province
Prachaub Khiri Khan
Group, Prachaub Khiri
Khan Province
Tao Group, Surat Thani
Province
Koh Nhu and Maew,
Song Khla Province
Koh Kra, Nakorn,
Srithamarat Province
Koh Losin, Narathiwat
Province
Temperature
(°C)
Salinity
(ppt)
Dissolved oxygen
(mg/L)
Suspended Solid
(mg/L)
Wet
season
Dry
season
Wet
season
Dry
season
Wet
season
Dry
season
Wet
season
Dry
season
29-31
31-35
27-36
27-36
6-8
4-8
0-681
0-100
27-31
31-33
9-27
27-36
6-10
6-8
50-681
50-150
27-31
29-33
27-36
27-36
6-87
4-8
0-100
0-100
29-31
29-35
27-36
27-36
6-8
4-8
0-50
0-100
29-33
31-33
27-36
18-36
4-8
4-8
0-100
0-100
29-31
29-33
18-36
18-27
4-8
6-8
50-861
0-50
29-31
31-33
27-36
27-36
4-8
6-8
0-50
0-50
29-31
29-33
18-36
27-36
2-8
2-8
0-400
0-100
29-31
31-33
9-36
27-36
6-8
6-8
50-915
29-38
29-35
18-36
27-36
6-10
6-8
100861
200861
29-31
31-33
27-36
27-36
6-8
6-8
0-50
0-50
29-31
31-33
27-36
27-36
6-8
6-8
0-100
0-100
29-31
31-33
27-36
8-27
4-6
4-6
0-50
0-100
29-31
29-31
27-36
27-36
6-8
6-8
0-50
0-50
0-915
Source: Department of Pollution Control, 2004.
Sedimentation
The average rate of sedimentation in the Gulf of Thailand during July to December was
2.004g/cm2/mo, while that from December to June was 5.632g/cm2/mo. The sedimentation rate in the
deeper area during June to December was 3.036g/cm2/mo and during December to June was
4.178g/cm2/mo. In the northern part of Koh Sak island (Rayong Province), the rate of sedimentation in
shallow and deep areas was low during both July to December and December to June. In general, the
rate of sedimentation was higher in the shallow than in the deeper areas. Sedimentation was usually
found highest at the southern part of the island, particularly during December to June, but lowest in
the shallow water from July to December (Sudara et. al., 1992).
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
The coral communities in the Gulf of Thailand could be categorised into three distinct areas with
different oceanographic conditions (Figure 1), i.e., the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand (Chonburi),
the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Rayong, Chanthaburi and Trad) and the west coast of the Gulf
of Thailand (Prachuab Kirikhan, Chumporn, Surathani, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Songkhla, Pattani and
Narathiwat).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 2
71
Major nutrient components in coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Coral Reef Sites
Chumphon Group,
Chumphon Province
Koh Chang, Kud and
Mark, Trat Province
Ang Thong Group,
Surat Thani Province
Samui and Phangan
Group, Surat Thani
Province
Samet Group, Rayong
Province
Sichang Group,
Chonburi Province
Sattaheep and
Samaesarn Group,
Chonburi Province
Lan and Phai Group,
Chonburi Province
Chao Lao, Chanthaburi
Province
Prachaub Khiri Khan
Group, Prachaub Khiri
Khan Province
Tao Group, Surat
Thani Province
Koh Nhu and Maew,
Song Khla Province
Koh Kra, Nakorn,
Srithamarat Province
Koh Losin, Narathiwat
Province
Nitrate-Nitrogen
(mg/L)
Nitrite-Nitrogen
(mg/L)
AmmoniaNitrogen (mg/L)
PhosphatePhosphorus (mg/L)
Wet
season
Dry
season
Wet
season
Wet
season
Dry
season
Dry
season
Wet
season
Dry
season
0-200
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-600
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-400
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-150
0-25
0-200
0-400
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
0-100
0-100
0-25
0-50
0-50
0-25
0-200
0-200
Source: Department of Pollution Control, 2004.
Three types of coral communities in the Gulf of Thailand are obviously recognised i.e., coral
communities, developing fringing reefs and early formation of fringing reefs. Since there are four
major rivers, which flow into the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand, most of these coastal areas are
dominated by mangrove forests. However, scleractinian coral communities can be found around
several islands in the inner part of the Gulf Thailand. The most inner islands, Koh Sichang, have a
unique type of coral community. Eighty-five species of hermatypic corals were found (Sakai et al.,
1986). Porites lutea is the most abundant species and grows on the widest vertical range. Other
abundant species are Montipora hispida, Acropora formosa, Pavona frondifera, Platygyra daedalea
and Pseudosiderastrea tayamai. Sediment is considered as a significant factor, among others, that
inhibits coral growth. After Koh Sichang, there is the Pattaya group, which consists of several islands.
The coral reefs around the islands in South of Pataya have been used for tourism and the area of
Sattaheep is controlled by the Navy. The coral communities are in relatively good condition (Chou et
al., 1991). On certain islands within this area, turtle conservation and coral rehabilitation projects
have been undertaken.
In waters of the eastern Gulf of Thailand, coral communities around small islands in Rayong Province
once had very good live coral cover, but due to illegal dynamite fishing and increased tourism, the
coral communities of several islands have now deteriorated. Farther along the east coast to
Chanthaburi, most of the coastal areas are mangroves. However, coral reefs are found in patchy
distribution along the shore where there is no river runoff and around a few small islands. There are
many islands with coral reefs in Trat Province. The coral reefs in this area are well developed and in
very good condition before the coral bleaching phenomenon in 1998.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
72
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
In waters of the western Gulf of Thailand, a few small islands exit with newly formed fringing reefs in
Prachuab Kirikhan. The branching growth form of Acropora spp. was the most dominant species
before the severe coral bleaching in 1998. In Chumphon Province, coral reefs are best developed on
the eastern side of islands. Fresh water and sediment from land inhibit reef growth on the western
sides of these islands. There are many islands with corals in good condition. Farther south to
Surathani, there are several islands which harbor well developed coral reefs. Koh Samui, Koh PhaNgan and Koh Tao Islands are popular coral reef tourism destinations (Chankong, 2000).
A comprehensive reef survey programme was conducted between 1995 and 1998 at 251 sites in the
Gulf of Thailand and 169 sites in the Andaman Sea (Department of Fisheries, 2000). The condition of
reefs in the Gulf of Thailand was: 16.4% excellent, 29% good, 30.8% fair, and 23.8% poor. However,
the figure of poor condition was considerably increasing after the severe coral bleaching event in
1998. For instance, certain areas of Trat Province showed reduction in live coral cover of 80-90%.
Only a small number of monitoring of reef fish was carried out in Thai waters. It is very difficult to
provide a clear figure of reef fish status because of high temporal variations. However, reef fish
communities on reef slopes were more abundant than on reef flats. There was also a gradient of reef
fish abundance from nearshore to offshore locations that was a result of reef types and certain
environmental factors. No statistics of coral reef fish harvested from Thai’s coral reefs are collected.
Practically, most coral reefs in Thailand are used in fisheries. Many coral reefs, which locate in rural
areas are used by small-scale fishermen, and shell and ornamental fish collection. They provide
fishery products as important sources of both food and income.
The coral reef conditions in the Gulf of Thailand were worse after the coral bleaching in 1998.
However, there are signs of recovery in many islands, depending on mainly coral recruitment.
Important Coral Reef Sites in the Gulf of Thailand
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Sichang Group
Lan and Phai Group
Sattaheep Group
Samet Group
Chao Lao
Mu Koh Chang
Prachaub Khiri Khan Group
Chumporn Group
Tao Group
Ang Thong Group
Samui and Phangan Group
Koh Nhu and Maew
Koh Kra
Koh Lao Pee
Koh Losin
Chonburi Province
Chonburi Province
Chonburi Province
Rayong Province
Chanthaburi Province
Trat Province
Prachaub Khiri Khan Province
Chumporn Province
Surat Thani Province
Surat Thani Province
Surat Thani Province
Song Khla Province
Nakorn Srithamarat Province
Pattani Province
Narathiwat Province
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Figure 1
Distribution of coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
73
74
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
BIODIVERSITY
Diversity of certain major groups of coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand, including stony corals,
sponges, crustaceans, echinoderms, reef fishes, algae and threatened species is summarized in
Table 3. Moreover, species lists of reef building corals, reef fishes, echinoderms and endangered and
threatened species are developed based on previous surveys (Jivarat, 1985, Satapoomin, 2000) and
unpublished documents as seen in Annex 1.
THREATS
Natural impacts
The first extensive coral bleaching phenomenon in the Gulf of Thailand occurred in April - June, 1998.
The results from field observations obviously showed spatial variation of coral bleaching. The
observed corals exhibited a variety degree of bleaching. Coral bleaching was widespread on shallow
reefs. However, certain coral communities on deeper pinnacles, such as Hin Luk Bat in Trat Province,
approximately 10-15m in depth, there were no signs of coral bleaching. According to the long-term
studies, Acropora spp. and Pocillopora damicornis were severely affected. Several species of
Acropora showed local extinction in certain locations. On the other hand, Goniopora spp. showed
complete recovery after the bleaching event. Coral recovery in the inner Gulf of Thailand needs longer
period of time due to low coral recruitment. However, there are large numbers of coral recruits
observed in the east and the west coasts of the Gulf of Thailand. Most of them are Pocillopora
damicornis, Acropora spp., Fungia spp. and faviid corals. Coral bleaching appeared in different
degrees. Generally, most of impacted areas are now in the processes of recovery.
Table 3
Summary of biodiversity of coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand. (NR: no report)
Coral Reef
Sites
Chumphon
Group
Koh Chang,
Kud and Mark
Hard
corals
>120
Coral
cover (%)
55%
NR
Crustaceans
>304
Echinoderms
>187
Reef
fishes
>106
Threatened
species
5
>130
>69
>29
>250
>178
>113
8
Ang Thong
Group
Samui and
Phangan
Group
Samet Group
55%
>45
>36
>136
>187
>122
7
>40
40%
>35
NR
>136
>187
>106
11
>41
35%
>38
>23
>134
>98
>74
11
Sichang Group
>90
20%
>40
>66
>304
>107
>86
11
Sattaheep &
Samaesarn
Group
>90
33%
>40
>29
>304
>134
>75
11
Lan and Phai
Group
>72
18%
>40
>33
>304
>134
>75
5
Chao Lao
>80
30%
>33
>19
>123
>107
>105
4
Prachaub Khiri
Khan Group
>74
30%
>35
NR
>106
>142
>162
7
Tao Group
>79
45%
>30
NR
>136
>187
>106
7
Koh Nhu &
Maew
>80
40%
>5
NR
>90
>134
>90
2
Koh Kra,
Nakorn
>80
70%
>5
NR
>90
>134
>90
2
Koh Losin
>90
60%
>5
NR
>90
>134
>90
2
Koh Lao Pee
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Algae
Sponges
>35
40%
>110
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
75
There were significant effects on coral reefs from the outbreaks of Acanthaster planci in the Andaman
Sea in the past. High population densities of A. planci were also reported in certain areas of the Gulf
of Thailand. However coral reef degradation in Thailand caused by A. planci is limited in small areas.
There are no clear signs of coral damage from predation of any gastropods. Low population densities
of Duprella sp. were observed in certain coral communities.
Extreme low tides and freshwater are additional natural disturbances, which cause severe damage to
coral reefs in certain areas but in small scales. Storms and monsoons are the important causes of
coral reef damage by uprooting and breaking coral colonies. For instance, the typhoons Gay and
Linda hit Thailand in 1989 and 1997, respectively. These resulted in significant damage to terrestrial
environment as well as coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand.
Anthropogenic impacts
The coral reefs in Thailand support a variety of human activities that can be categorised into three
main groups, i.e., tourism and recreation, fisheries-related uses and other uses. There has been a
clear pattern of change in reef uses, as small-scale or traditional fisheries have gradually been
replaced by tourism activities. Local fishermen have converted their boats into tour boats and
collected shell for souvenir trade. This evidence can be seen in several provinces, such as Trat and
Surat Thani.
Tourism and recreation activities include diving, underwater photography, glass-bottom vessels, sea
walkers, and sport fishing. Tourism can result in several problems to coral reefs such as anchoring of
boats on corals, accumulation of garbage, coral damaged by divers, wastewater from hotels and
resorts. Living coral coverage on Nang-Yuan Island in Surat Thani, one of the most popular snorkeling
sites, declined about 17% within the period of five years. Coral reefs close to beach resorts are
usually used intensively for tourism-related activities. Chonburi, Rayong, Trat, Chumporn and Surat
Thani are the major provinces for recreation on coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand. Coral reefs in
several localities have received very heavy tourism activities such as Pattaya, Koh Larn, Koh Samet,
Koh Tao and Koh Samui. Many localities are also experiencing a rapid and steady growth in tourism,
with obvious increases in coral reef-related activities. The buoy mooring projects were implemented in
several areas and showed reduction of coral reef damages by anchoring.
Shell and ornamental fish collection by using chemicals are among serious problems of coral reef
degradation in the Gulf of Thailand. Using of dynamite fishing was seldom observed at remote
islands.
Sedimentation and wastewater pollution associated with rapid coastal development are recent and
increasing severe problems in many provinces along the coastline (Sudara et al., 1991). Jetty
constructions in several locations, especially in the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand, resulted in coral
reef and seagrass degradation. Threat levels to coral reefs in different sites are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Threats on coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand.
Coral Reef Sites
Sichang Group
Lan and Phai Group
Sattaheep Group
Samet Group
Chao Lao, Chanthaburi
Province
Koh Chang
Prachaub Khiri Khan
Group
Chumphon Group
Tao Group
Ang Thong Group
Samui and Phangan
Group
Koh Nhu and Maew
Koh Kra
Koh Losin
Fishing
impact
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Development
impact
High
High
Medium
High
Medium
Threats
Tourism and
recreation activities
Medium
High
Low
High
Low
Land-based
pollution
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Natural
impact
Medium
High
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
High
High
High
High
Low
High
Medium
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
High
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Low
Low
High
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Medium
Medium
Medium
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
76
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
ECONOMICS VALUATION AND USES
Uses of coral reefs
Socio-economic data of certain important reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand summarized in Tables 5-6
indicate that coral reefs are used extensively in Thailand, mainly for tourist development and fisheries.
Table 5
Socio-economic data of certain important reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Coral Reef Site
Mu Koh Chumporn
Mu Koh Samui
Mu Koh Angthong
Mu Koh Chang
Coral Reef
2
Area (Km )
6.497
32.492
4.259
15.558
No. of Tourist
532.166
961,804
54,323
384,733
No. of
Population
378,851
53,279
575
4,773
No. of Fishing
BoatS
2,314
555
290
Fishery
Product (ton)
61,328
18,616
95,228
Source: Provincial Statistics, 2003.
Table 6
Quantity of marine fishes landed at major landing places in 2000. (Unit: Ton)
Fish
Crustaceans
Squids&
Shell
Cuttlefishes fishes
Total
SubTotal
Fish
Food
fish
Trash
fish
Shrimp
&
Prawn
Lobster
Crab
Trat
95,228
88,773
64,324
24,449
2,162
18
503
3,771
1
Chanthaburi
2,931
2,431
1,501
930
223
-
19
258
-
Rayong
78,501
75,000
57,404
17,596
108
-
102
3,291
-
Chonburi
25,657
14,440
7,800
6,640
6,630
13
492
4,082
-
Prachuap
Kirikhan
Chumporn
43,936
41,507
31,978
9,529
2,315
-
11
103
-
61,328
56,049
39,884
16,165
3,189
0
278
1,809
3
Suratthani
18,616
4,581
525
4,056
5,829
-
661
1,417
6,128
Nakhon
Srithammarat
Songkhla
170,695
144,147
83,624
60,523
6,623
1,014
1,590
17,321
-
296,733
258,688
196,276
62,412
1,882
1,015
1,081
33,898
169
Pattani
280,108
268,717
198,655
70,062
1,245
343
458
9,345
-
3,764
3,250
1,708
1,542
356
1
44
113
-
Province
Narathiwat
Source: Department of Fisheries, 2003.
Case studies on economic valuation
A case study on economic valuation carried out in Mu Koh Chumphon Marine National Park (Royal
Forestry Department, 2003) provided values of coral reefs, including direct and indirect uses, and
ecosystem service (Table 7). Total values of coral reefs of the park are 18,192,974baht/year.
Other case study used both the travel cost method and contingent valuation method to estimate the
benefits of tourism on Phi Phi’s coral reefs. Table 8 shows coral reef benefits based on the travel cost
method. The survey found that the total benefits of the recreational services offered by Phi Phi were
about 69.9 million Baht (US$1.75 million) a year for domestic visitors and 8,146.4 million Baht
(US$203.66 million) a year for international visitors. Adding these two numbers up gives a figure of
8,216.4 million Baht (US$205.41 million) a year for the total recreational benefit that Phi Phi provides.
Therefore, the value of Phi Phi is about 249,720 Baht (US$6,243) per ha per year (the reef area at Phi
Phi is approximately 32,900ha). Loss of the site usually means loss of all future recreational
opportunities, not just the current annual value. The entire future stream of annual recreational values
must therefore be included. Economic theory suggests this stream of benefits, because they would
occur in the future, should be discounted to make them comparable with the present. Assuming the
real value of the recreational value of 8,216.4 million Baht (US$205.41 million) a year remains the
same over 30 years and using a real interest rate of 5%, the present value of Phi Phi’s recreational
benefits is 126,280 million Baht (US$3,157 million). It is apparent from this analysis that the local and
national government in Thailand can justify larger annual budget allocations for the management of
coral reefs.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 7
Valuation of coral reefs in Mu Koh Chumphon Marine National Park.
Coral reef utilization
Resources
Price/unit
72,476kg
50 Baht/kg.
3,623,800
2,719.3kg.
100 Baht/kg.
271,930
Value/year (Baht)
Fisheries products
(local community consumption)
Fisheries products
(commercial species)
Tourism revenue (long stay)
4,815.15 people 732.39 Baht/people
3,526,567.71
Tourism revenue (one day trip)
8,059.58 people 127.72 Baht/people
1,029,369.56
Indirect value from resources
satisfaction
Coastal protection
Ecological service
12,808.54
people
3.6239km2
2
3.6239km
624.67 Baht/people
8,001,110.68
480,000 Baht/km2
1,739,472
2
724.78
2 00.00 Baht/km
Total
Table 8
77
18,192,974.73
Coral reef benefits based on the travel cost method. (Note: US$1 = 40 Baht
Sample size
Domestic
(n=630)
International
(n=128)
CS per visit
3,403.55 Baht (US$85)
Number of visitors (1998)
20,540
59,760 Baht (US$1,494)
136,277
Total benefits
69.9 million Baht
(US$1.75 million)
8,146.4 million Baht
(US$203.66 million)
Table 9 shows coral reef benefits based on the contingent valuation method. The valued derived by
this method differs from the values previously present, as only the coral sites were evaluated and not
the entire Phi Phi Islands as in the travel cost measures. It was found that the mean maximum
willingness to pay for domestic visitors was 287 Baht (US$7.17) per visit. For international visitors the
figure was 286 Baht (US$7.15) per visit. From this it was calculated that the total value of Phi Phi’s
coral reefs were 5.89 million Baht (US$0.147 million) a year for domestic visitors and 49.6 million Baht
(US$1.24 million) a year for international visitors. This study also used CVM to calculate the mean
willingness to pay of domestic vicarious users (people who value the reef without visiting it) – 634
Baht (US$15.85) per person – and from this the total value (use and non-use) of the reefs. This was
estimated to be 19,840 million Baht (US$496 million) a year. Therefore, the benefit values (use and
non-use) of Phi Phi’s coral reefs were estimated to be 19,895 million Baht (US$497.38 million) a year,
averaging 604,720 Baht (US$15,118) per ha per year.
The study also found that the reefs studied could generate large economic returns through leisure
pursuits and that tourists were willing to pay for conservation measures. It suggests a number of
levies and charges that could help remove tourist pressure from the reefs and help pay for their
conservation.
Table 9
Coral reef benefits based on the contingent valuation method.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
78
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Regarding willingness to pay the utilization of coral reef resource on tourism, a case study was
implemented in Ko Chang National Park, Trat Province. The purpose of this research was to study the
Willingness to Pay (WTP) factors that affect the utilization of coral resource by tourism. Derived
results might present appropriate guidelines to determine admission fees for the utilization of the
resource. A Survey Research method was employed in this study. The study sample comprised of
103 tourists who viewed the coral reef resource, and 109 tourists that did not, 22 businesses that
supplied equipment for coral viewing as well as 24 businesses that did not, and 206 local residents.
The WTP study was achieved by using travel cost method and contingent valuation method. All
variable factors such as age, average monthly income, travel cost with time value, etc., were analyzed
using multiple regression analysis.
The WTP for use values of coral resource utilizing for tourism under travel cost and contingent
valuation methods were 219,808,391 baht/year and 1,026,027,000 baht/year respectively. The total
economic value was 7,185,500,182 baht/year. Average monthly income, attitude toward coral
resource and presentation WTP had significant positive effects on WTP for the use value. However,
age of tourists as another significant independent variable showed an opposite outcome. The WTP
for option value had significant positive relationship with age, average monthly income, travel cost
with time value, knowledge and attitude. Average monthly income, frequency of visits, knowledge,
attitude, and information received had positive but level of education had negative relationship with
the WTP for existence value. All variable were evaluated at α = 0.05.
The guidelines for admission fees for coral resource utilization for tourism at Ko Chang National Park,
as developed based on this study indicate that the government might need to set up admission fees
about 52.92 baht/time for a tourist who visit coral resource, and about 3,398.28 baht/year for
businesses that supply equipment for such activities.
MANAGEMENT
Overview of Coral Reef Management
Coral reef management in Thailand rests on laws and regulations that apply to all coral reefs and
additional measures applicable only to marine protected areas. In recent years, central agencies,
provincial governments and the private sectors have undertaken non-regulatory actions aimed at
improving coral reef conditions through restoration, preventive measures and education.
Several laws are used to protect coral reefs in Thailand, e.g. the Fisheries Law of 1947, the National
Park Act of 1961, the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA)
of 1975, etc. These regulations are mainly enforced by the Department of Fisheries (DOF) and Marine
National Parks. There have been problems in enforcing coral reef protection regulations. For example,
the language of the law and the subsequent regulations are often unclear or incomplete. Marine
National Parks in Thailand include significant reef areas. Most of the parks containing reefs have been
designated in the Andaman Sea, which only a few sites designated in the Gulf of Thailand. Together
with the Fisheries Protected Areas, approximately 60% of Thailand’s significant coral reefs are
included a protected area.
Several institutional and operational constraints have, however, limited the effectiveness of Thailand’s
network of protected areas in preserving coral reef habitat. These include:
-
The size of the areas designated and the boundaries have been too broad or have not
corresponded to resource protection priorities;
-
There have been serious conflicts between park designation and traditional uses of marine
resources, particularly fisheries;
-
Local economic and social priorities have been overlooked in the park management and
development process;
-
Jurisdiction over marine resources is unclear and there have been apparent conflicts with
fisheries regulations; and
-
The emphasis of marine park management has been on accommodating visitor use rather than
on resource protection, marine interpretation and enforcement.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
79
Non-regulatory measures
Public support for coral reef management increased dramatically the late 1980’s. This support has
come in part form the extensive media coverage of both the beauty and degradation of Kingdom’s
coral reefs. Commitment to coral reef conservation has also grown in response to direct action taken
at both national and local levels to reverse trends in coral reef degradation. These actions have
largely been voluntary. They depend on individuals, businesses and government agencies working
together to solve problems. Such voluntary efforts are called “non-regulatory measures”
Non-regulatory measures can include education and scientific activities as well as direct management
actions such as mooring buoy installation. Several organisations have led the effort to increase public
awareness about importance of coral reefs The human activities that are leading to their degradation
and actions can be taken to conservation this valuable habitat. This campaign has reached most of
Thailand’s mass media.
The Tourism Authority of Thailand and volunteer associations of divers and tour boat operators have
cooperated to educate pilots and escort guides in coral reef ecology and ways to avoid damaging
reefs. The results of such efforts have been impressive in terms of change of behavior and increase of
commitment to conservation. The Nation Park Division is beginning to include coral reefs in its park
interpretive programs; and the Department of Fisheries, through its extension program, has offered
conservation education to reef fishermen.
Cooperation among coral reef scientists in Thailand has been extensive and is essential to the
national strategy formulation process. Researchers have worked together to document reef conditions
in Thailand through the ASEAN-Australian baseline study and the coral reefs project of Department of
Fisheries.
Management Models and Marine National Parks
There are only a few case studies of community-based management on coral communities in
Thailand such as Had Chaolao in Chantaburi Province where local people manage coral communities
for tourism. There are currently 7 Marine National Parks in the Gulf of Thailand (Figure 2) which play a
major role on coral reef management in Thailand, harboring about 38% of the total area of coral reefs
in the gulf (Table 10). Based on the report by Department of Fisheries in 1999, conditions of coral
reefs in the marine parks are classified mostly as fair to excellent (Table 11). The general organisation
chart of marine national parks are showed in Figure 3. There are also several fisheries sanctuaries,
which are controlled by Department of Fisheries. Many islands, especially in Chonburi Province, are
managed by Thai Royal Navy. Other islands, mostly in Chumporn Province, assigned for bird nest
concession have been recognised as areas with the good reefs.
Coral Reef Zoning
All major coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand are previously assigned to one of four management
categories as follows:
- General Use Zone
- Intensive Tourism Zone
- Ecotourism Zone
- Ecosystem Reserved Zone
A total of 290 coral reef sites is classified by using the above criteria. The majority of coral reefs in the
Gulf of Thailand is classified as ecotourism zone (Table 12).
Table 10.
Coral reefs in national parks in the Gulf of Thailand.
Province
Trat
Chantaburi
Rayong
Chonburi
Prachuap Khirikhan
Chumporn
Surat Thani
Total
Coral reef
2
area (km )
15.89
0.72
3.50
7.59
2.04
6.50
38.67
74.91
Coral reef area in national parks
(%)
(km2)
4.84
30.46
2.71
77.4
0.22
10.80
6.14
94.50
14.35
37.11
28.26
37.72
National park
Mu Koh Chang
None
Khao Laem Ya - Mu Koh Samet
None
Had Warakorn Khao Sam Roi Yod
Mu Koh Chumporn
Mu Koh Angthong Tarnsadej
7 national parks
Source: Marine National Park Division (excluding marine national parks at Had Khanom- Mu Koh Talay Tai and Ao Manao).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
80
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Figure 2
Table 11
Map of Marine National Parks in Thailand.
Coral reef conditions in Marine National Parks in the Gulf of Thailand.
Marine National Park
Mu Koh Chang
Mu Koh Samet
Khao Sam Roi Yod
Had Warakorn
Mu Koh Chumporn
Mu Koh Angthong
Tarnsaej
Coral reef
area (km2)
4.84
2.71
0.14
0.08
6.14
3.31
11.04
Excellent
(%)
23.50
12.57
30.00
60.00
41.17
31.66
5.20
Coral reef conditions
Good
Fair
(%)
(%)
31.21
25.67
36.73
29.66
40.00
22.38
29.30
36.43
20.69
56.10
33.70
Poor
(%)
9.75
2.30
3.09
5.33
2.5
Source: Department of Fisheries, 1999.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
Very poor
(%)
9.87
18.74
70.00
4.06
5.89
2.50
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 12
81
Coral reef zoning in the Gulf of Thailand.
Province
Chonburi
Rayong
Chantaburi
Trad
Prachuap
Khirikhan
Chumporn
Surat Thani
Nakhon
Sithamamarat
Songkhla
Pattani
Naratiwwat
Total
Coral Reef Zoning (Number of island/site)
General Use
Intensive
Ecotourism
Ecosystem
Zone
Tourism Zone
Zone
Reserved Zone
6
2
33
5
2
4
12
0
0
0
1
3
3
0
34
5
Total
46
18
4
42
9
0
6
4
19
18
10
0
4
44
71
2
2
64
87
0
0
1
0
1
4
2
0
54
0
0
0
10
2
0
1
205
0
0
0
21
6
2
1
290
Management Capacity for Coral Reefs
There are many institutions involved in coral reef management in Thailand, including:
• Office of Environment Policy and Planning
• Pollution Control Department
• Chulalongkorn University (Department of Marine Science and Aquatic Resources Research
Institute)
• Ramkhamhaeng University (Marine Biodiversity Research Group)
• Kasetsart University (Faculty of Fisheries)
• Burapha University (Department of Aquatic Science and Marine Science Institute)
• Prince of Songkla University (Department of Biology)
• Department of Fisheries
• Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (Marine and Coastal Resources Research
Center, Center Gulf of Thailand, Research, Marine and Coastal Resources Research Center,
Eastern Gulf of Thailand and Phuket Marine Biological Center)
• Marine National Park Division (21 Marine National Parks)
• Royal Thai Navy
• Chulabhorn Research Institute
• Reef Check Thailand
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
82
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Marine National Park
Protection and Resource
Management
Administration
Services and Development
Academics
•
Correspondence
•
Patrol and law enforcement
•
Park signs
•
Survey and monitoring
•
Accounting and budget
•
Permission
•
Visitor services
•
Park management
•
Material and equipment
•
•
Statistics
•
National conservation project
•
Indigenous people
management
Vehicles and building
•
•
Training
Survey and construction
•
Research
•
•
Volunteer
Public hearing, complaint
•
•
Planning
Assessment
Figure 3
General organisation chart of marine national park in Thailand.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
83
REFERENCES
Chankong, A. 2000. Assessment of coral reefs in the western part of the Gulf of Thailand in 1998. Abstract of the
th
9 International Coral Reef Symposium. Bali, Indonesia.
Chou, L. M., S. Sudara, V. Manthachitra, R. Moordee, A. Snidvongs and T. Yeemin. 1991. Temporal variation in
a coral reef community at Pattaya Bay, Gulf of Thailand. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 19:
295-307.
Department of Fisheries. 2000. Fisheries Statistics of Thailand. Information Center. Department of Fisheries.
91pp.
EMECS. 2003. Environmental Guidebook on the Enclosed Coastal Seas of the World. International EMECS
Center, Kobe, Japan. 133pp.
Jiravat, V. 1985. Taxonomic study of stony corals collected from the Gulf of Thailand. M.Sc. Thesis,
Chulalongkorn University (in Thai).
rd
Lewmanomon, K. 1986. Marine algae of coral reef areas. Paper presented at 3 National Conference on Marine
Science: Marine Biology and Fisheries. 6-8 August 1986. National Research Council of Thailand. 10pp.
Sakai, K., A. Snidvongs, T. Yeemin, M. Nishihira and K. Yamazato. 1986. Distribution and community structure of
hermatypic corals in the Sichang Islands, inner part of the Gulf of Thailand. Galaxea 5: 27-74.
Satapoomin, U. 2000. A preliminary checklist of coral reef fishes of the Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea.
Raffles Bull. Zool. 48: (1) 31-53.
Sudara, S., A. Sanitwongs, T. Yeemin, R. Moordee, S. Panutrakune, P. Suthanaluk and S. Nateekanjanaparp.
1991. Study of the impact of sediment on growth of the coral Porites lutea in the Gulf of Thailand.
Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Living Resources in Coastal Areas, Manila, 107-112.
Sudara, S., T. Yeemin, S. Satumanatpun, S. Nateekanjanalarp and C. Sookchanulak. 1992. Qualitative
assessment of impacts from siltation on the coral communities around Koh Sak, Rayong Province.
rd
Proceedings of the 3 ASEAN Science and Technology Week Vol.6. Marine Science: Living Coastal
Resources, edited by L. M. Chou, and C. R. Wilkinson, pp. 95-111. Department of Zoology, National
University of Singapore and National Science and Technology Board of Singapore, Singapore.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
84
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
ANNEX 1
List of Coral Reef Species Recorded in the Gulf of Thailand
Table 1
Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Scientific name
Common name
Astrocoeniidae
Stylocoeniella armata
Thom coral
Pocilloporidae
Pocillopora damocornis
Cauliflower coral
Pocillopora verucosa
Cauliflower coral
Acroporidae
Acroporidae
Fungiidae
Acropora humilis
Staghorn coral
Acropora cf. digitifera
Staghorn coral
Acropora formosa
Staghorn coral
Acropora muricata
Staghorn coral
Acropora nobilis
Staghorn coral
Acropora micropthalma
Staghorn coral
Acropora millepora
Staghorn coral
Acropora pulchra
Staghorn coral
Acropora hyacinthus
Staghorn coral
Acropora nasuta
Staghorn coral
Acropora cytherea
Staghorn coral
Acropora florida
Staghorn coral
Acropora valida
Staghorn coral
Astreopora gracilis
Starflower coral
Astreopora myriopthalma
Starflower coral
Astreopora ocellata
Starflower coral
Montipora aequituberculata
Pore coral
Montipora grisea
Pore coral
Montipora foliosa
Pore coral
Montipora efflorescens
Pore coral
Montipora hispida
Pore coral
Montipora cebuensis
Pore coral
Montipora danae
Pore coral
Montipora digitata
Pore coral
Montipora informis
Pore coral
Montipora millepora
Pore coral
Montipora monasteriata
Pore coral
Montipora peltiformis
Pore coral
Montipora tuberculosa
Pore coral
Montipora hoffmeisteri
Pore coral
Montipora spongodes
Pore coral
Diaseris sp.
Fungia fungites
Mushroom coral
Fungia echinata
Mushroom coral
Fungia surpulosa
Mushroom coral
Fungia scaraba
Mushroom coral
Fungia granulose
Mushroom coral
Fungia concinna
Mushroom coral
Fungia repanda
Mushroom coral
Fungia poumotensis
Mushroom coral
Fungia corona
Mushroom coral
Herpetoglossa simplex
Coarse boomerang coral
Herpolitha limax
Striate boomerang coral
Polyphyllia talpina
Joker’s boomerang coral
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 1cont. Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Scientific name
Common name
Sandalolitha robusta
Poritidae
Podabacia cf. crustacean
Bracket coral
Lithophyllon edwardsi
Stone-leaf coral
Porites australiaensis
Porites labata
Agariciidae
Agariciidae
Siderstreidae
Oculinidae
Faviidae
Porites lutea
Mountain coral
Porites cylindrical
Finger coral
Porites lichen
Hump coral
Porites rus
Wrinkle coral
Porites solida
Hump coral
Goniopora djiboutiensis
Anemone coral
Goniopora columna
Anemone coral
Goniopora fructicosa
Anemone coral
Goniopora lobata
Anemone coral
Goniopora somaliensis
Anemone coral
Goniopora tenuidens
Anemone coral
Oulastrea crispapa
Intermediate valley coral
Oulastrea heliopora
Intermediate valley coral
Leptoseris scabra
Porcelain coral
Coeloseris mayeri
Pachyseris speciosa
Serpent coral
Pavona cactus
Flower coral
Pavona decussate
Flower coral
Pavona frondifera
Flower coral
Pavona varians
Flower coral
Pseudosiderastrea tayamai
Psammocora contiqua
Petal-like coral
Psammocora nierstraszi
Petal-like coral
Psammocora profundacella
Petal-like coral
Psammocora digitata
Petal-like coral
Galaxea astreata
Galaxy coral
Galaxea fascicularis
Octopus coral
Barabattoia amicorum
Knob coral
Favia pallida
Ring coral
Favia favus
Ring coral
Favia speciosa
Ring coral
Favia matthaii
Ring coral
Favia maxima
Ring coral
Favia rotumana
Ring coral
Favites abdita
Larger star coral
Favites chinensis
Larger star coral
Favites complanata
Larger star coral
Favites flexuosal
Larger star coral
Favites halicora
Larger star coral
Favites pentagona
Larger star coral
Favites russelli
Larger star coral
Goniastrea aspera
Honey comb coral
Goniastrea australiaensis
Honey comb coral
Goniastrea edwardsi
Honey comb coral
Goniastrea favulus
Honey comb coral
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
85
86
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 1cont. Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Faviidae
Scientific name
Common name
Goniastrea palauensis
Honey comb coral
Goniastrea retiformis
Honey comb coral
Goniastrea pectinata
Honey comb coral
Platygyra daedalea
Brain coral
Platygyra lamellina
Brain coral
Platygyra sinensis
Brain coral
Leptoria phrygia
Brain coral
Montastrea curta
Montastrea magnistellata
Montastrea valenciennesi
Merulinidae
Mussidae
Pectinidae
Dendrophylliidae
Caryophylliidae
Total
Leptastrea purpurca
Crust coral
Leptastrea tranversa
Crust coral
Cyphastrea serailia
Small star coral
Cyphastrea chalcidicum
Small star coral
Cyphastrea microphthalma
Small star coral
Echinopora lamellosa
Spiny pored coral
Diploastrea heliopora
Double star coral
Hydnophora exesa
Jack-fruit spined coral
Hydnophora microconos
Jack-fruit spined coral
Merulina ampliata
Spiny cabbage coral
Acanthastrea hillae
Starry cup coral
Lobophyllia hemprichii
Lobed cup coral
Lobophyllia hattai
Lobed cup coral
Symphyllia recta
Brain coral
Symphyllia radians
Brain coral
Pectinia lactuca
Lettuce coral
Pectinia paeonia
Lettuce coral
Echinophyllia aspera
Spiny encrusting coral
Oxypora lacera
Spiny plate coral
Turbinaria peltata
Disc coral
Turbinaria frondens
Disc coral
Dendrophyllia micranthus
Tree coral
Plerogyra sinuosa
Rounded bubblegum coral
130
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Table 2
Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Scientific name
Common name
Rhincodontidae
Rhincodon typus
Whale shark
Dastidae
Taenidae lymna
Blue spotted ribbon tail ray
Atherinidae
Atherinomonus sp.
Silverside
Kyphosidae
Kyphosus cinerascens
Highfin rudderfish
Apogonidae
Archamia fucata
Orange-line cardinalfish
Caesionidae
Chaetodontidae
Archamia goni
cardinalfish
Apogon cyanosoma
Yellow-striped cardinalfish
Apogon taeniophorus
Bandfin cardinalfish
Cheilodipterus artus
Lined cardinalfish
Cheilodipterus macrodon
Large-toothed cardinalfish
Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus
Five-lined cardinalfish
Caesio caerulaurea
Scissor-tailed fusilier
Caesio cunning
Deep-bodied fusilier
Pterocaesio chrysozoma
Goldband fusilier
Chaetodon octofasciatus
Eight-banded butterflyfish
Chaetodon weibeli
Weibeli’s butterflyfish
Chelmon rostratus
Beaked butterflyfish
Hemiochus acuminatus
Longfin bannerfish
Diodontidae
Diodon histrix
Porcupinefish
Diodon liturosus
Blach-blotch porcupinefish
Ephippidae
Platax teira
Longfin spadefish
Gobiosocidae
Diademichthys lineatus
Urchin clingfish
Gobiidae
Amblygobius nocturnes
Nocturn goby
Cryptocentrus cinctus
Yellow prawn-goby
Cryptocentrus fasciatus
Barred prawn-goby
Cryptocentrus leptocephalus
Leptocephalus prawn-goby
Cryptocentrus strigilliceps
Target prawn-goby
Cryptocentrus sp.1
Goby
Cryptocentrus sp.2
Goby
Ctenogobiops pomastictus
Gold-specked prawn-goby
Istigobius ornatus
Ornate goby
Mahidolia mystacina
Flagfin prawn-goby
Gobiidae
Valenciennea mularis
Mural goby
Grammistidae
Diploprion bifasciatum
Two-banded soapfish
Haemulidae
Diagramma pictum
Slatey sweetlips
Plectorhinchus albovittatus
Giant sweetlips
Plectorhinchus gibbosus
Gibbus sweetlips
Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides
Harlequin sweetlips
Plectorhynchus picus
Spotted sweetlips
Myripristis hexagona
Doubletooth soldierfish
Sargocentrum rubrum
Redcoat
Holocentridae
Kyhposidae
Kyphosus vaigiensis
Lowfin rudderfish
Labridae
Cheilinus chlorourus
Floral wrasse
Cheilinus fasciatus
Red-banded wrasse
Cheilinus trilobatus
Tripletail wrasse
Choerodon schoenleinii
Blackspot wrasse
Diproctacanthus xanthurus
Wandering cleaner wrasse
Epibulus insidiator
Slingjaw wrasse
Halichoeres argus
Argus wrasse
Halichoeres chloropterus
Postel-green wrasse
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Table 2cont. Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Lutjanidae
Scientific name
Checkerboard wrasse
Halichoeres margaritarceus
Weedy surge wrasse
Halichoeres marginatus
Dusky wrasse
Halichoeres melanulus
Pin striped wrasse
Halichoeres nebulosus
Nebulosus wrasse
Halichoeres nigrescen
Diamond wrasse
Halichoeres purpurescen
Purple striped wrasse
Hemigymnus fasciatus
Barred thicklip
Hemigymnus melapterus
Blackedge thicklip
Labroides dimidiatus
Cleaner wrasse
Novaculichthys taeniourus
Dragon wrasse
Oxycheilinus digrammus
Bandcheek wrasse
Stethojulis interrupta
Cutribbon wrasse
Stethojulis trilineata
Three-blue line wrasse
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
River snapper
Lutjanus decussatus
Checkered snapper
Lutjanus fulviflamma
Lutjanidae
Common name
Halichoeres hortulanus
Lutjanus lemniscatus
Flame tail snapper
Snapper
Lutjanus monostigma
Onespot snapper
Lutjanus russelli
Russel’s snapper
Lutjanus vitta
One-lined snapper
Microdesmidae
Pteriotris microlepsis
Mullidae
Parupeneus indicus
Indian goatfish
Upeneus tragula
Blackstriped goatfish
Muraenidae
Gymnothorax sp.
Moray
Siderea thyrsoidea
Moray
Nemipteridae
Scolopsis bilineatus
Twoline spinecheek
Scolopsis ciliatus
Saw-jawed spinecheek
Scolopsis magaritifer
Pearly spinecheek
Scolopsis monogramma
Monogrammed monocle bream
Ostraciidae
Ostracion cubicus
Yellow boxfish
Pempheridae
Pempheris oualensis
Copper sweeper
Pomacanthidae
Pomacanthus annularis
Bluering anglefish
Pomacentridae
Abudefduf bengalesis
Bengal sergeant
Abudefduf notatus
Yellow-tail sergeant
Abudefduf sexfasciatus
Scissor-tail sergeant
Abudefduf sordidus
Black-spot sergeant
Abudefduf vaigiensis
Indo-pacific sergeant
Amblyglyphidodon curacao
Staghorn damsel
Amphiprion peridarion
Pink anemone fish
Cheiloprion labiatus
Big-lip damsel
Chromis atripectoralis
Black-axil chromis
Chromis cinerascens
Green chromis
Chrysiptera unimaculata
One spotted chromis
Dacyllus reticulatus
Reticulated dascyllus
Dacylluss trimaculatus
Three-spotted dascyllus
Neoglyphidodon melas
Black damsel
Neopomacentrus cyanomos
Regal damoiselle
Neopomacentrus filamentosus
Brown damoiselle
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 2cont. Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family
Scientific name
Plectoglyphidodon lacrymatus
Pomacentridae
Scaridae
Serranidae
Siganidae
Sphyraenidae
Total
Common name
Jewel damsel
Pomacentrus alexanderae
Alexander’s damsel
Pomacentrus chrysurus
Whitetail damsel
Pomacentrus coelestis
Neon damsel
Pomacentrus cuneatus
Wedge spotted damsel
Pomacentrua moluccensis
Lemon damsel
Scarus frenatus
Bridled parrotfish
Scarus ghobban
Bluebarred parrotfish
Scarus niger
Swarthy parrotfish
Scarus prasiognathos
Greenthroat parrotfish
Scarus rivulatus
Surf parrotfish
Anyperodon leucogrammicus
Slender grouper
Cephalopholis argus
Peacock grouper
Cephalopholis boenak
Chocolate hind
Cephalopholis cyanostigma
Bluespotted hind
Cephalopholis formosa
Bluelined hind
Cephalopholis sp.
Grouper
Epinephelus rivulatus
Halfmoon grouper
Epinephelus fasciatus
Blacktip grouper
Epinephelus quoyanus
Longfin grouper
Plectopomus maculatus
Spotted coral grouper
Siganus corallinus
Coral rabbitfish
Siganus guttatus
Yellow spotted rabbitfish
Siganus javus
Java rabbitfish
Siganus punctatus
Goldspotted rabbitfish
Siganus vermiculatus
Vermiculate rabbitfish
Siganus virgatus
Virgate rabbitfish
Sphyraena baracuda
Great barracuda
Sphyraena genie
Blackfin barracuda
Sphyraena obtusata
Barracuda
113
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Table 3 Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
CRINOIDEA
Order COMATULIDA
Mariametridae
1. Dichrometra bimaculata (Carpenter,1881)
2. Dichrometra tenuicirra A.H. Clark, 1912
3. Lamprometra palmata (Müller, 1841)
4. Liparometra articulata (Müller, 1849)
5. Stephanometra oxycantha (Hartluab, 1890)
6. Stephanometra spicata (Carpenter, 1881)
ASTEROIDEA
Order PAXILLOSIDA
Luidiidae
7. Luidia maculata Müller & Troschel, 1842
8. Luidia penangensis de Loriol, 1891
Astropectinidae
9. Astropecten granulatus Müller & Troschel, 1842
10. Astropecten fasciatus Döderlein, 1926
11. Astropecten indicus Döderlein, 1888
4
12. Astropecten hartmeyeri Döderlein, 1917
13. Astropecten monacanthus Sladen, 1883
14. Astropecten polyacanthus Müller & Troschel, 1842
4
15. Astropecten vappa Müller & Troschel, 1843
16. Astropecten velitaris von Martens, 1865
17. Astropecten zebra Sladen, 1883
18. Craspidaster hesperus Müller & Troschel, 1840
19. Psilaster andromeda Sladen1885
Order VALVATIDA
Goniasteridae
5
20. Stellaster equestris (Retzius, 1805)
5
21. Stellaster incei Gray, 1847
22. Stellaster princeps Sladen, 1889
Oreasteridae
6
23. Anthenea chinensis Gray, 1840
6
24. Anthenea pentagonula (Lamarck, 1816)
25. Anthenea regalis Koehler, 1910
26. Culcita novaeguineae Müller & Troschel, 1842
7
27. Goniodiscaster forficulatus (Perrier, 1875)
7
28. Goniodiscaster scaber (Möbius, 1859)
29. Pentaceraster alveolatus (Perrier, 1875)
8
30. Pentaceraster australis (Lütken, 1871)
31. Pentaceraster gracilis (Lütken, 1871)
32. Pentaceraster regulus (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
33. Pentaceraster sibogae Döderlein, 1916
34. Pentaceraster westermanni (Lütken, 1871)
10
35. Poraster indicus (Koehler, 1910)
36. Protoreaster nodosus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Asterinidae
37. Asterina sarasini (de Loriol, 1897)
Asteropseidae
38. Asteropsis caranifera (Lamarck, 1816)
Acanthasteridae
39. Acanthaster planci (Linnaeus, 1758)
Order VELATIDA
Pterasteridae
40. Euretaster cribosus (von Martens, 1867)
Order SPINULOSIDA
Echinasteridae
41. Echinaster luzonica (Gray, 1840)
OPHIUROIDEA
Order PHRYNOPHIURIDA
Ophiomyxidae
42. Ophiomyxa irregularis Koehler, 1898
Euryalidae
43. Euryale aspera Lamarck, 1816
Asteronychidae
44. Asteronyx loveni Müller & Troschel, 1842
Order OPHIURIDA
Amphiuridae
45. Amphilycus scripta (Koehler, 1904)
46. Amphioplus relictus (Koehler, 1905)
47. Amphioplus (Amphichilus) cesareus (Koehler, 1905)
12
48. Amphioplus (Lymanella) depressa (Ljungman, 1867)
49. Amphipholis misera (Koehler, 1899)
50. Amphipholis squamata (Delle Chiaje, 1829)
51. Amphiura (Amphiura) abbreviata Koehler, 1905
52. Amphiura (Amphiura) sexradiata Koehler, 1930
53. Amphiura (Felleria) heptacantha (Mortensen, 1940)
54. Dougaloplus acanthinus (H.L. Clark, 1911)
Ophiactidae
55. Ophiactis affinis Duncan, 1879
56. Ophiactis helmitiles H.L. Clark, 1915
57. Ophiactis modesta Brock, 1888
58. Ophiactis savignyi (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
59. Ophiosphaera insignis Brock, 1888
Ophiotrichidae
60. Macrophiothrix aspidota (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
61. Macrophiothrix bedoti (de Loriol, 1893)
62. Macrophiothrix galateae (Lütken, 1872)
63. Macrophiothrix hirsuta (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
64. Macrophiothrix longipeda (Lamarck, 1816)
15
65. Macrophiothrix martensi (Lyman, 1874)
15
66. Macrophiothrix nereidina (Lamarck, 1816)
14
67. Macrophiothrix striolata (Grube, 1868)
68. Macrophiothrix variabilis (Duncan, 1887)
69. Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lamarck, 1816)
70. Ophiogymna elegans Ljungman, 1866
71. Ophiogymna pellicula (Duncan, 1876)
72. Ophiopsammium semperi Lyman, 1874
73. Ophiopsammium rugosum Koehler, 1905
74. Ophiopteron elegans Ludwig, 1888
75. Ophiopteron vitense Koehler, 1927
76. Ophiopteron punctocoeruleum Koehler, 1922
77. Ophiothela danae Verrill, 1869
78. Ophiothrix (Acanthophiothrix) armata Koehler, 1905
79. Ophiothrix (Acanthophiothrix) spinosissima Koehler, 1905
80. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) abstinens Koehler, 1930
81. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) exigua Lyman, 1874
82. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) plana Lyman, 1874
83. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) prostrata Koehler, 1922
84. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) stelligera Lyman, 1874
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 3cont.
91
Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Ophiocomidae
85. Ophiocoma lineolata Müller & Troschel, 1842
19
86. Ophiocomella sexradia (Duncan, 1887)
19
87. Ophiomastix sexradiata A.H. Clark, 1952
90. Ophiarachnella gorgonia (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
91. Ophiarachnella infernalis (Müller & Troschel, 1842)
92. Ophiochasma stellatum (Ljungman, 1867)
Ophiuridae
93. Ophiolepis cincta Müller & Troschel, 1842
94. Ophioplocus japonicus H.L. Clark, 1911
95. Ophiura kinbergi (Lyman, 1867)
96. Stegophiura sterilis Koehler, 1922
ECHINOIDEA
Order CIDAROIDA
Cidaridae
97. Prionocidaris bispinosa (Lamarck, 1816)
Order DIADEMATOIDA
Diadematidae
98. Astropyga radiata (Leske,1778)
99. Chaetodiadema granulatum Mortensen, 1903
21
100. Diadema saxatile (Linnaeus, 1758)
21
101. Diadema setosum (Leske, 1778)
102. Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas, 1774)
Order TEMNOPLEUROIDA
Temnopleuridae
103. Paratrema doederleini (Mortensen, 1904)
104. Salmaciella dussumieri (L. Agassiz, 1846)
105. Salmacis bicolor L. Agassiz, 1846
106. Salmacis sphaeroides (Linnaeus, 1758)
107. Salmacis virgulata L. Agassiz, 1846
108. Temnopleurus alexandri (Bell, 1884)
109. Temnopleurus reevesi (Gray, 1855)
110. Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske, 1778)
111. Temnotrema siamensis (Mortensen, 1904)
Order ECHINOIDA
Toxopneustidae
112. Gymnechinus pulchellus Mortensen, 1904
113. Pseudoboletia maculata Troschel, 1869
114. Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck, 1816)
115. Tripneustes sp.
Echinometridae
116. Heliocidaris sp.
117. Heterocentrotus mammillatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Parasaleneiidae
118. Parasalenia gratiosa A. Agassiz, 1863
Strongylocentrotidae
119. Strongylocentrotus echinoides A. Agassiz, 1863
Order CLYPEASTERIDAE
Clypeasteridae
120. Clypeaster (Coronanthus) latissimus (Lamarck, 1816)
121. Clypeaster (Rhaphidoclypus) recticulatus (Linnaeus,
1
8)
Arachnoididae
122. Arachnoides placentra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Fibulariidae
123. Fibularia acuta Yoshiwara, 1898
124. Fibularia angulipora Mortensen, 1948
Laganidae
125. Laganum decagonale (de Blainville, 1827)
126. Laganum depressum Lesson, 1841
127. Peronella orbicularis (leske, 1778)
Astriclypeidae
128. Echinodiscus auritus Leske, 1778
129. Echinodiscus bisperforatus Leske, 1778
Order SPATANGOIDA
Spatangidae
22
130. Maretia planulata (Lamarck, 1816)
22
131. Maretia ovata (Leske, 1778)
Loveniidae
132. Lovenia elongata (Gray, 1845)
133. Lovenia subcarinata (Gray, 1845)
Schizasteridae
134. Schizaster (Schizaster) lacunosus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Brissidae
135. Anametalia sternaroides (Bolao, 1874)
136. Brissopsis luzonica (Gray, 1851)
137. Brissus (Brissus) latecarinatus (Leske, 1778)
138. Metalia sternalis (Lamarck, 1816)
139. Rhynobrisus pyramidalis A. Agassiz, 1872
HOLOTHUROIDEA
Order ASPIDOCHIROTIDA
Holothuriidae
140. Actinopyga echinites (Jaeger, 1833)
141. Actinopyga sp. 2
23
142. Bohadschia marmorata (Jaeger, 1833)
23
143. Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper, 1868)
144. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) coluber (Semper, 1868)
145. Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida Selenka, 1867
146. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Jaeger, 1833
147. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Lesson, 1830
148. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) pardalis Selenka, 1867
149. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) verrucosa Selenka, 1867
150. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota (Brandt, 1835)
151. Holothuria (Metriatyla) albiventer Semper, 1868
152. Holothuria (Metriatyla) martensi Semper, 1868
153. Holothuria (Metriatyla) ocellata Jaeger, 1833
154. Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra Jaeger, 1833
155. Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis Semper, 1868
156. Holothuria (Semperothuria) flavomaculata Semper, 1868
25
33. Holothuria (Stauropora) fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1833
157. Holothuria (Theelothuria) notabilis Ludwig, 1875
158. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera Théel, 1886
159. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens Forskål, 1775
160. Pearsonothuria graeffei (Semper, 1868)
Stichopodidae
161. Stichopus chloronotus Brandt, 1835
162. Stichopus hermanni Semper, 1868
163. Stichopus horrens Selenka, 1867
164. Stichopus japonicus Semper, 1868
165. Stichopus naso Semper, 1868
27
166. Stichopus variegatus Semper, 1868
Order DENDROCHIROTIDA
Cucumariidae
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Table 3cont.
Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
28
167. Cercodemas anceps (Selenka, 1867)
29
168. Colochirus quadrangularis Troschel, 1843
30
169. Cucumaria frondosa (Gunner, 1767)
170. Mensamaria bicolumnata (Dendy & Hindle, 1907)
171. Mensamaria intercedens (Lampert, 1885)
172. Plesiocolochirus australis (Ludwig, 1875)
173. Pseudocolochirus sp.
Sclerodactylidae
174. Cladolabes schmeltzii (Ludwig, 1875)
Phyllophoridae
175. Havelockia versicolor (Semper, 1868)
176. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) kohkutiensis Heding & Panning, 1954
177. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) robusta Heding & Panning, 1954
178. Phyllophorus (Phyllothuria) cebuensis Heding & Panning, 1954
179. Phyllophorus sp.
180. Selenkiella malayense Heding & Panning, 1954
181. Selenkiella siamense Heding & Panning, 1954
Table 4
182. Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1855)
183. Stolus conjugens (Semper, 1868)
184. Thyone okeni Bell, 1884
Caudinidae
185. Acaudina leucoprocta (H.L. Clark, 1938)
186. Acaudina sp.1
187. Acaudina sp.2
188. Paracaudina chilensis ransonnettii (Müller, 1850)
Molpadiidae
189. Molpadia roretzi (von Marrenzeller,1877)
Synaptidae
190. Opheodesoma australensis Heding, 1931
191. Opheodesoma grisea (Semper, 1868)
192. Opheodesoma lineata Heding, 1928
193. Synaptula recta (Semper, 1868)
194. Synaptula aff. virgata (Sluiter, 1901)
Total: 194 species
Endangered and threatened species found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Common name
Scientific name
Status
Sittang whale
Irawaddy dolphin
Balaenoptera edeni
Orcaella brevirostris
CR
CR
Humpbacked dolphin
Sousa chinensis
CR
Bottlenose dolphin
Tursiops aduncus
CR
Common dolphin
Delphinus capensis
CR
Rough-toothed dolphin
Steno bredanensis
CR
Spotted dolphin
Stenella attenuata
CR
Malonheaded whale
Peponcephalus electra
CR
Shortfined pilot whale
Globicephala macrorhynchus
CR
Killer whale
Orcinus orca
CR
False killer whale
Pseuorca crassidens
CR
Finless porpoise
Neophocoena phocoenoides
CR
Dugong
Dugong dugong
EN
Whale shark
Rhincodon typus
EN
Hawkbill turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata
EN
Green sea turtle
Chelonia mydas
EN
Loggerhead turtle
Caretta caretta
EN
Giant clam
Tridacna spp.
EN
Total
18
Note: CR = Critically endangered, EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations
Environment Programme
UNEP/GEF South China Sea
Project
Global Environment
Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
VIETNAM
Mr. Nguyen Van Long
Focal Point for Coral Reefs
Department of Marine Living Resources
Institute of Oceanography
01 Cau Da Street
Nha Trang City, Viet Nam
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
93
VIET NAM
1
Vo Si Tuan1, Nguyen Huy Yet2, Nguyen Van Long1
Institute of Oceanography, 2Viet Nam Natural Museum
INTRODUCTION
Viet Nam has a large marine area with more than 3200km of coastline and more than 3000 islands.
Marine resources are significant in terms of livelihoods of coastal communities and development of
the country. Located in the tropical monsoon area of South East Asia, marine waters of Viet Nam are
characterised by high biodiversity of fauna and flora and high abundance of tropical ecosystems such
as coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds. Among them, coral reefs are an important habitat in a
large number of coastal areas, as well as offshore islands.
Many surveys of coral reefs in the South China Sea have been carried out since the establishment of
the Institute of Oceanography of Viet Nam in 1922. Surveys were carried out from aboard De
Lanessan’s ship at Spratly and Paracel Islands from 1920-30. Results of these studies were published
in scientific papers of Chevey (1926, 1928, 1931, 1935) and Krempf (1930). Subsequent surveys
recorded the species composition of hard corals, and the structure and distribution of several coral
reefs in Ha Long Bay, the Gulf of Thailand, Con Dao Island, the and coastal areas of central Viet Nam
(Serene, 1937; Dawydoff, 1952). Most scientific studies during the first half of the 20th century were
conducted by foreign scientists and published in French.
From 1955 to 1975, few studies on coral reefs were conducted. Significantly, there were two studies
at Nha Trang Bay: the first described the coral reef communities of the Bay (see Tran Ngoc Loi 1962);
and the second resulted in the production of a document on the taxonomy of soft corals in the area
(see Tixier-Durivault 1970).
Many government-funded research programmes were conducted in collaboration with the Soviet
Union during the period 1975 to 1990. Basic studies on coral reef distribution, structure, and species
composition were undertaken as part of these collaborative research initiatives. Documentation of this
work published in the scientific literature provide basic information regarding coral distribution, coral
reef communities, reef-building coral species composition, and the status of coral reefs in Viet Nam’s
coastal areas and at the Spratly Islands (see Latypov 1982, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1995; Nguyen Huy Yet
1991, 1993, 1994, 1996; and Vo Si Tuan and Nguyen Huy Yet, 1995, Vo Si Tuan & Phan Kim Hoang,
1996, Vo Si Tuan, 1998).
From 1991 to date, coral reef studies have focused on the collection of data and information to enable
sound decision making with regard to isues such as biodiversity conservation, determination of
sustainable resource use levels, and the establishment of marine protected areas. Results of surveys
conducted by the Worldwide Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Institute of Oceanography during
the 1990s provided a basis for the identification of seven highly biodiverse coral reef sites for inclusion
in a system of marine protected areas in Viet Nam. Other studies funded by the Government of Viet
Nam’s and conducted by the National Center for Natural Science and Technology developed baseline
information for an additional 8 MPA sites. At the time of writing, Government was considering a
system of 15 coral reef MPAs. Coral reef management in Viet Nam has achieved some preliminary
successes, particularly at the Con Dao and Nui Chua National Parks, and the Hon Mun Protected
Area
The abovementioned research has also assisted in improving understanding of geozoology and in
biodiversity zoning based on reef-building corals (Malioutin & Latypov 1991; Vo Si Tuan 1998).
Results of studies on coral reef degradation and threats have been summarised in some publications
(Vo Si Tuan, 2000a, b; Nguyen Huy Yet et al., 2000). Coral reef monitoring has been implemented
since 1998, and at the time of writing 11 sites were involved in the monitoring network with financial
support from the Government of Viet Nam, UNEP, WWF, and Total Foundation (Vo Si Tuan, 2002a,
Vo Si Tuan et al. 2005). There has been much recent interest in coral reef rehabilitation, and related
activities have received some support from the government.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
The “Doi Moi” process has encouraged a high rate of economic growth in Viet Nam, but has also
caused threats to the marine environment and resources. Recent decades have seen increased
degradation of coral reef ecosystems and over-exploitation of associated resources. As such there
has been a strong recent emphasis on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of resources in
Viet Nam over the past decade.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Temperature
Spanning through 8 degrees of latitude from approximately 8 N-16 N, water temperature generally
increases from the north to the south. Oceanographic surveys indicate that there are three different
water masses in the coastal waters of Viet Nam, including the Tonkin Gulf, the South central and
South eastern areas, and the Gulf of Thailand, with two boundaries, namely Ca Mau Cape and
Varella Point (approximately 13oN). There is a sharp reduction in water temperature during winter in
the waters of north Varelle Point. In general, the temperature of Vietnamese coastal waters is
favorable for coral reef development, except in areas of the Tonkin Gulf where winter temperatures
reach 18oC. The wide range of temperatures between water masses has resulted in significant
differences in the species richness of hard corals from the north to the south.
River influence and sedimentation
Along the coastline of Viet Nam, there are two large river mouths: (1) the Red River mouth; and (b)
the Mekong river mouth. The coastal areas in the general vicinitity of these river mouths are devoid of
coral reefs due to high quantities of sediments entering the coastal water bodies. Smaller rivers also
influence nearshore waters, especially during the rainy season. Turbidity surveys indicate that the
South central area has the highest transparency in both seasons (La Van Bai, 1991). The influence of
rivers and associated sediment loads is the main factor limiting the distribution in Viet Nam.
Circulation
The surface water circulation of the South China Sea depends on the monsoon regime, and generally
flows southwest in summer and northeast in winter. In the offshore areas of Viet Nam, currents
change direction according to the wind regime. At the basin scale, water circulation in the central
South China Sea supports the exchange of water between the western and eastern boundaries.
Coastal water currents are very complicated, and largely depend on the coastline, seabed
topography, and river influence. There is permanent North-South current in central Viet Nam, which
starts at approximately 17o North. Current systems in Tonkin Gulf are complex with minimal exchange
with southern water masses is limited (Vo Van Lanh, unpublished information).
Coastline change in geological history
Following existing approach, recent coral communities depend on geological process happening
during recent 18,000 years with change of sea level. Geological surveys highlighted an old coastline
at depths of approximately 100m in Vietnamese waters of the South China Sea (Saurin, 1962). With
this depth, a large area of the west South China Sea was mainland in that period, including Tonkin
Gulf, southeastern shelf and Gulf of Thailand. Development of coral reefs has changed a lot during
increase and decrease of sea levels with change of coastline and depth. In parallel, diversity of coral
communities at present time also depends on survival and dispersal again sea level change during
history.
Seabed topography
Viet Nam’s coastal waters are characterised by an abundance of small islands. There are
approximately 2,000 islands in the Tonkin Gulf, which provide favourable conditions for coral reef
development. Central and southern waters have a number of large, offshore islands, which are almost
all surrounded by coral reefs. There are also many submerged banks along the continental shelf of
Viet Nam’s central and southern regions where coral reef could develop.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND MORPHOLOGY
Distribution and characteristics of coral reefs
The geographic location and environmental conditions of Vietnamese coastal waters are generally
highly suitable for the growth of coral reef building species, except in some areas affected strongly by
river inputs with low salinity and high turbidity. Coral reefs are normally located in shallow, coastal
waters, particularly adjacent to islands with hard substrates (Figure 1). However, the morphology and
diversity of coral reefs in Viet Nam vary significantly by location.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Figure 1
95
Locations of Known Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of Viet Nam.
(including monitoring sites and Marine Protected Areas)
In terms of the environmental conditions suitable for the growth of reef-building coral species, the
coastal areas of western Tonkin Gulf are less favorable for reef development. This is largely due to
low water temperatures during the winter months, and large contributions of freshwater and sediments
to this part of the Gulf from adjacent river systems. Corals are mainly observed in areas of Ha Long
Bay, Bai Tu Long, the Co To Archipelago, and Long Chau Islands, which are mostly surrounded by
shallow and muddy bottoms. The coral reefs that have developed in the western Tonkin Gulf are
typically narrow and extend to a depth of only 5-7m. Coral reefs have developed at depths of 10 m in
areas adjacent to Bach Long Vi Island.
Conditions for coral reef development are favourable in the coastal waters of the south-central region,
as well as adjacent to the islands offshore southeastern region. Water temperatures in these areas
are normally higher than 200C, with predomoninantly offshore influences. The coastline in these areas
is comprised of a diverse range of small bays and islands, which contributes significantly to the
diversity of coral reef areas in these regions. Coral reefs are a dominant coastal habitat around
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
96
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
islands such as Cu Lao Cham to Con Dao, and extend along the coastline from Danang to Binh
Thuan Province. Fringing coral reefs are very diverse in their morphology and range in width from 50
to 800 metres. Many reefs have developed on submersed banks, which are common on the
continental shelf.
Coastal waters of southwestern Viet Nam in the Gulf of Thailand are not ideal for coral growth
because of muddy bottoms and highly turbid waters. Coral reefs have developed in areas adjacent to
the offshore islands of Phu Quoc, Nam Du, and Tho Chu. The reefs of these islands are relatively
similar in terms of morphology as there are minimal fluctuations in the hydrological regime and hydrodynamics of the area. These reefs are normall 50-100m wide and spread to a depth of 10-13m.
Coral reef morphologic types
Two types of coral reefs are located in the continental shelf waters of Viet Nam, namely fringing and
platform reefs. Coral assemblages are also observed in some areas. Offshore coral reefs are usually
atoll and platform reefs.
Fringing reefs
Coastal fringing reefs have developed in coastal water areas from Quang Tri Province to Ca Na Bay
(Binh Thuan Province). This reef type is not observed along the coast of Tonkin Gulf or in
southeastern and southwestern waters, mainly due to large freshwater and sediment contributions to
these areas as noted above. Island fringing reefs are the most common coral reef type in Viet Nam.
Islands on the continental shelf such as Ha Long, Cat Ba, Cu Lao Cham, Ly Son, Phu Quy, Con Dao,
Phu Quoc, Tho Chu, Nam Du, and small islands in Khanh Hoa Province are known as highly diverse
coral reef areas.
In terms of morphology, fringing reef generally belongs to two different types: typical fringing reefs and
untypical fringing reefs. Typical fringing reefs are characterised by a completed stage of coral reef
establishment process. Such reefs are usually made up of a fringing lagoon, reef flat, and slope.
Fringing lagoons are observed at some reefs with channels running along the shoreline. Lagoon
substrate is typically sand and dead corals, with a low number of coral species thinly distributed
across the lagoon floor.
Most reef flats on the typical fringing reefs of Viet Nam are comprised of dead corals, and are subject
to exposure during low tides. Live coral coverage is very low, with most live coral found in submerged
caves. Boulder corals such as Goniastrea and Porites can form “micro atolls”. These are formed by
such corals growing outward rather than up, largely in response to the shallow water environments on
reef flats. Often the core of the boulder corals sinks and dies, leading to the development of the micro
atoll like structure. These structures are present on reefs of Ninh Thuan Province and along the
northern coast of Binh Thuan Province in Viet Nam. Live coral coverage and species diversity
increases with reef flat depth.
In some areas, single species grow extensively to create mono-specific stands on reef flats.
Montipora aequitubeculata dominates areas subjected to low wave energy to the west of Cu Lao Cau
Island. Panova decussata dominates the low wave energy reef flats of An Thoi at Phu Quoc Island,
whilst Acropora hyacinthus dominates strong wave energy reef flats at Cu Lao Cham and Con Dao
Islands. The staghorn coral Motipora digitata dominates strong wave energy reef flats at My Hoa
(Ninh Hai) of Ninh Thuan ProvinceNinh Thuan. Steeply sloping reef slopes characterise most fringing
reefs systems, extenging from the reef flat in a seaward direction. The composition of coral species is
more highly diverse on reef slopes, and are characterised by large numbers of hard and soft coral
species. Most reef slopes of typical fringing reefs in Viet Nam end at depths between 5-8m.
Seagrass and mangrove communities are common at the edges and landward sides of typical fringing
reefs. The effects of typical fringing reefs in reducing the effects of wave action on the coastline,
creates an environment suitable for seagrass and mangrove community development. Bay Canh
Island, Ben Dam Bay at Con Dao is characterised by a large mangrove forest on the landward side of
the fringing reefs in the area. A similar mix of coral reefs and seagrass beds can be observed at the
Southeastern Bay of Con Dao Island, in Binh Thuan Province along the Vinh Hao coast, and along
the Ninh Hai coast in the Ninh Thuan Province.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
97
Untypical fringing reefs are characterised by an incomplete stage of coral reef development (Sudara
and Thamrongnawasawat, 1991). They are called coral gardens by Vo and Hodgson (1997). Such
reefs are usually divided into three zones from the shore to deeper water areas. The zone closest to
the shore is typically characterised by poorly developed coral communities and sometimes no coral.
The next zone, described as the “continuous zone”, is a partially developed reef flat with high coral
coverage (occasionally reaching 100%). The third zone, or “the slope” is characterised by a gentler
slope than a typical fringing reef and low coral coverage and diversity.
Detailed investigations conducted at the Nam Du Islands (Latypov, 1986) indicated that such reefs are
normally those less affected by wind and waves. Small colonies of staghorn corals Acropora and
massive corals Porites, Goniastrea, and Platygyra are observed in nearshore zones. On the partially
developed reef flats, staghorn corals Acropora dominate, often with mono-specific stands several
hundreds metres wide. Reef slope are typified by massive corals Favia, Cyphastrea and Physogira,
cup-sharp Turbinaria (southern Tho Chu Island), or foliate corals Pachyseris (southern Bay Canh
Island of the Con Dao Island group). The morphological structure of untypical fringing reefs is highly
influenced coastal hydrodynamics.
Closed reefs are observed in the near-shore bays of Viet Nam. Low wave energy conditions enable
the development of corals to depths of 5-7 metres. Reefs may extend up to a width of 150m, but are
usually characterised by a low number of species of mostly massive corals and thin staghorns. Big
staghorn Porites dominates such reefs in Dam Bay (Nha Trang Bay) and in other areas such as Co
Co Canal (Van Phong - Ben Goi Bay). Because there is typically no reef flat to prevent sedimentation
on the reefs, very few coral species are adapted to survive under such conditions (Grigg and Dollar,
1990).
Exposed reef exist in areas of high wave energy. Drains normally divide seafloor terrain in such areas,
and the substrate is normally rock and some sands, and dead corals in the channels of deep drains.
Reef-building corals may distribute down to 15m deep but account for a small proportion of overall
coverage. Zone division at such sites is not obvious, but are typically dominated by Acropora,
Pocillopora, or soft corals. Staghorn corals are normally observed at the ends of such reefs.
Semi-enclosed reefs represent those reefs that are partly encolsed by edges, islands, or submerged
rocks. Such sites are usually characterised by well-developed formations of large reef-building corals.
They can also be highly diverse in terms of both species composition and colony morphology. Overall
coral reef coverage on these reefs is high, and is normally comprised of foliate coral Montipora and
staghorn corals Acropora in the shallow water areas, to massive corals Porites and Diploastrea,
foliate corals Pachyseris and Echinopora, and cup-sharp Turbinaria in deeper waters.
The above-analyzed results showed that the untypical fringing reef had much more complicated
morphology to compare with typical fringing reef. In qualitative, untypical reef had higher ratio in most
of the study areas (table 1). Typical fringing reef just had relatively high number in Con Dao, Ninh
Thuan and northern Binh Thuan province.
Table 1
Percentage of Typical and Untypical Fringing Reefs at the Study Sites.
No. of
Studied Reefs
16
Typical Ringing
Reef (%)
19.8
Untypical Fringing
Reef (%)
81.2
Khanh Hoa
13
0
100
Ninh Thuan
7
57.1
42.9
Northern Binh Thuan
12
50
50
Con Dao
17
58.8
41.2
Kien Giang
11
0
100
Study Areas
Quang Nam - Da Nang
Platform reefs
Platform or patch reef is that which develops on submerged banks or hills (Stoddard, 1978; Veron,
1986). Bathymetric maps highlight many submerged banks and hills in the coastal waters of Viet
Nam, although these areas have been understudied and there is currently a paucity of information
relating to this reef type in Viet Nam. Coral specimens collected from several banks provide some
insight into platform reef morphology in some areas.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
98
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
The Grand Bank of Nha Trang Bay is based on macmatic rocks formed during the Tertiary Period
2
(Pham Van Thom, unpublised). The area of the bank is approximately 10km and rises to depths of
20m. Reef-building corals grow mainly on the northeastern side of the bank and account for a
significantly large proportion of coral coverage in the area. Coral species composition consists mainly
of Seriatopira histrix, Porites lutea, P. rus, Galaxea fascicularis, Lobophyllia corymbosa, and Acropora
valida. The top of the bank is characterised by lower diversity of coral species, with coral cover being
made up of colonies of small size Acropora and some massive coral species (Favia, Favites, and
Goniastrea). The seaweed Sargassum is also abundant in this area, reaching lengths of 3-4m.
The Thuy Trieu Bank on seaward side of Cam Ranh Bay is two times larger than the Grand Bank, and
extends in a northwest-southeast direction. It rises from a depth of 40m to a water depth of 3m. It Is
comprised predominantly of carbonate sedimentation stones from the Tertiary Period (Pham Van
Thom, 1992). On the seaward side of the bank, the substrate is mostly boulder rocks and pebbles at
the depth of 25-40m and hard rock base at the depth of 10-25m. Coral coverage on this bank is very
poor, and is comprised of few species like Scolymia vitiensis which attach to rocky boulders and dead
corals. Dead corals were observed on the top of the bank flat, along with several live soft and hard
coral colonies of small-sized Acropora and Favites.
There are many shallow areas with depths less than 20m in the waters of Northern Binh Thuan. The
Breda Bank is the largest with a size of 22km2 and rises to depths ranging between 4-10m. The bank
is comprised of carbonate-enriched sedimentation rocks from the Tertiary Period, as well as bioclastic
sediments and some phosphated rocks on the surface (Pham Van Thom, 1980; 1985). This site is
mainly composed of soft corals Sarcophyton and the massive corals Goniastra, Porites, and
Platygyra. Sargassum is also present in shallower areas. Generally, corals are observed to develop
poorly on submersed banks in Vietnamese waters.
Coral assemblages
In addition to fringing and platform reefs there are additional areas in Viet Nam where corals are
observed without reef formation. Such areas are referred to as coral assemblages, and such areas
are understudied in Viet Nam. Preliminary observations suggest that such areas can be classified into
two types of coral assemblages.
In some shallow and low wave energy areas, coral assemblages are composed of one or two
species., including Acropora (thin branch colonies) or Porites (massive colonies). Such coral
assemblages are present in Ben Goi Bay (Khanh Hoa Province) and on the northeast coast of Phu
Quoc islands (Kien Giang Province). Sandy and mud substrates were observed to be disadvantagous
for coral assemblage development in the areas investigated to date.
The second type of coral assemblage occurs on rocky bottoms in areas exposed to high wave energy
conditions. Such assemblages can be observed at the Son Tra Peninsular (Da Nang City) and north
of Hon Tre Island in Nha Trang Bay. Massive or encrusting corals (Goniastrea, Merulina, and Porites)
and branch corals Acropora and Pocillopora are small in size and attached directly to the rocky
substrate in a scattered distribution.
BIODIVERSITY
Composition of hard corals and hermatypic corals
Based on the taxonomic system of Veron and Stafford-Smith (2000), and after amending the results
of Vietnamese coral taxonomy of many authors up to date, a list more than 400 hard coral species
belonging to 79 genera was established. As such, Viet Nam’s coral fauna can be compared with the
most diverse coral areas of the world. From the 400 known species, 380 are hermatypic species and
the remainder are ahermatypic species. From the 79 identified hard coral genera, 72 genera5
belonged to hermatypic corals (Table 2).
5
Following an inventory from all taxonomic publications, 74 hermatypic genera are lised by Vo Si Tuan et al (2005). Off that
list, two genera namely Australogyra & Wellsophyllia published by Latypov (1995) were not re-recorded by the extensive
surveys during 2002-2004. These two genera were removed from this list, indicating a total of 72 genera of hermatypic
corals.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
99
Five main distinct coral reef regions in Viet Nam are include: (1) the Western Tonkin Gulf (from the
Northern border with China to Con Co Island); (2) central Viet Nam (from Con Co Island to Varella
Cape); (3) South central Viet Nam (from Varella Cape to Phu Quy Island); (4) South eastern Viet Nam
(Con Dao Islands); and (5) South western Viet Nam (Tho Chu, Nam Du, and Phu Quoc Islands).
*
Tonkin Gulf: Corals are mainly distributed around islands on the seaward of the Gulf toward Ha
Long and Bai Tu Long Bays, Co To Islands, the north-eastern part of Cat Ba Islands, Long Chau
Islands, Bach Long Vi, Hon Me, Hon Son Duong, and Con Co Islands. Nearly 200 species
belonging to 56 genera of hard corals (186 species of 53 genera of hermatypic corals) have been
recorded from the region.
*
Central Viet Nam: This region is characterised by a sinuous shoreline, few large rivers, and a
predominantly oceanic environment. Corals are not only located adjacent to the region’s many
islands (Cu Lao Cham and Ly Son), but also along the shoreline. Approximately 250 species of
hard corals belonging to 64 genera have been observed in this region, and about 230 of them
belong to 61 genera of hermatypic species.
*
South-Central Viet Nam: This is a highly diverse area in terms of both coral reef types and
environmental conditions suitable for coral growth. As such, this region contains the highest
recorded number of coral species in Viet Nam. Approximately 400 species belonging to 77 genera
can be observed in the region, of which 350 species belong to 71 genera hermatypic reef species.
*
Southeastern Viet Nam: The Con Dao Island group is not a large area, which is a limiting factor in
the size of fringing reefs at the islands. Despite this, 350 species belonging to 63 genera of hard
corals have been recorded with more than 300 species from 61 genera being of the hermatypic
type. The many submersed banks in the region have not yet been surveyed and the numbers of
species presented here likely under-estimates.
*
Southwestern Viet Nam: Nearly all corals in this region occur adjacent to islands that are located
sufficiently far from the coastline to enable coral development in the more turbid waters of the Gulf
of Thailand. Large reef areas have developed at Tho Chu, Nam Du, and Phu Quoc Islands. Nearly
270 species belonging to 64 genera of hard corals have been recorded at these sites from the
limited survey work conducted to date. More than 250 of the species of 61 genera recorded are of
the hermatypic type.
Biodiversity zoning based on hermatypic corals
The total of 72 hermatypic coral genera recorded at the site indicate that the coastal waters of Viet
Nam are characterised by a highly diverse coral fauna. This is most likely due to geographical location
of Viet Nam, which is in close proximity to the coral dispersal centre in the Philippines and Indonesia.
There is also significant inter-regional variations in the types of coral reefs and associated
communities which have developed along Viet Nam’s coast. This is due to Viet Nam’s coastline
crossing many latitudes and the related gradients in physical and chemical environments. These are
main factors affecting the biodiversity of corals (Veron, 1998).
Surveys of coral fauna characteristics (seeVo Si Tuan, 1998) showed a clear differentiation in generic
richness of hermatypic corals in the coastal waters of Viet Nam. Supplementary analysis improved
this hypothesis with some minor changes. South central waters might be assumed as the most
diverse area in the number of recorded genera (71) and also species number with nearly 350 in Nha
Trang bay (Vo Si Tuan et al., 2004), more than 300 in Ninh Hai reefs (DeVantier, unpublished). The
number of recorded genera at southeastern and middle central waters is relatively diverse (61
genera). Detailed surveys at Con Dao Islands showed a high species richness of hermatypic corals
with more than 300 species recorded (DeVantier, unpublished). Records of 60 hermatypic genera in
southwestern waters indicate that coral fauna there is more diverse than that at the Tonkin Gulf (53
hermatypic genera recorded).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
100
Table 2
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
List of hard coral genera and their distribution in Viet Nam.
Genera
Stylocoeniella
Pocillopora
Seriatopora
Stylophora
Palauastrea
Madracis
Montipora
Anacropora
Acropora
Astreopora
Porites
Goniopora
Alveopora
Pseudosiderastrea
Psammocora
Coscinarea
Pavona
Leptoceris
Gardineroseris
Coeloseris
Pachyseris
Cycloseris
Diaseris
Cantharellus
Heliofungia
Fungia
Ctenactis
Herpolitha
Polyphyllia
Halomitra
Sandalolitha
Lithophyllon
Podobacia
Galaxea
Acrhelia
Echinophyllia
Oxypora
Mycedium
Pectinia
Blastomussa
Micromussa
Cynarina
Scolymia
Australomussa
Acanthastrea
Lobophyllia
Symphyllia
Hydnophora
Merulina
Caulastrea
Favia
Barabatoia
Favites
Goniastrea
Platygyra
Leptoria
Oulophyllia
West Tonkin
Gulf
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+
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Midle
central
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South
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Southeastern
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Southwestern
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Table 2cont.
No.
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
101
List of hard coral genera and their distribution in Viet Nam.
Genera
Oulastrea
Montastrea
Plesiastrea
Diploastrea
Leptastrea
Cyphastrea
Echinopora
Moseleya
Trachyphyllia
Euphyllia
Catalaphyllia
Plerogyra
Physogyra
Heterocyathus *
Turbinaria
Duncanopsammia
Heteropsammia
Dendrophyllia *
Tubastrea *
Balanophyllia *
Culicia *
Flabellum *
West Tonkin
Gulf
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Midle
central
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
South
central
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Southeastern
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Southwestern
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Offshor
e reefs
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Note: - *: Ahermatypic corals.
Water temperature is a key factor limiting coral growth and the formation of reefs. The number of coral
species observed on reefs usually increases from high to low latitudes (Veron, 1998). This suggests
that Viet Nam’s coastal waters may have greater coral diversity than countries which coastlines
extend across few degrees of latitude. However, according to the documents of Krempf (1930) and
Vo Van Lanh (unpublished), Viet Nam’s coastal waters can be classified into three temperature
regimes. There is a clear decline in surface temperatures of Tonkin Gulf and middle central waters in
winter. This decline in termperature is not prevalent in South central and Southeastern waters. The
intersection point of these two zones is Varella Cape according to Krempf (1930) or 13oN according to
La Van Bai (1991). The Gulf of Thailand is isolated by Ca Mau Cape and has a cooler temperature in
the summer and warmer temperature in the winter when compared with Tonkin Gulf (La Van Bai,
1991). The clear differences between the three temperature zones results in significantly diverse coral
communities at the demarcation fronts.
Water currents of the South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand play an important role in the dispersal
of larvae from areas of the Philippines and Indonesia. The interactions of the highly diverse coral hot
spots in the Philippines and Indonesia with the Western Pacific Ocean and Kalimantan channel are
also significant. Water is exchanged with the Western Pacific during the winter and via the Kalimantan
channel during the summer. These exchanges are critical for the exchange of coral larvae between
coral biodiversity center with Central and Southeastern waters of Viet Nam.
Another important factor influencing the biodiversity of coral reefs in Viet Nam is sea level change.
Geological surveys highlighted an old coastline at depth of approximately 100m in the South China
Sea at 18 000 years ago (Saurin, 1962). At that period, coastal line in the North of the Philippine, in
the East of Indonesia and in the North of Papua New Guinea was as similar as that nowadays. These
were shelters for coral communities to be existing even affected by disasters of seawater surface
changes. Days by days, the seawater level has been increasing and submerging the areas in the
western, northern and southern parts of those areas became new home for corals (Well, 1988). In
accordance to this logicality, reef-building corals in the Viet Nam central part has longer development
history and more advantage to receive coral seedlings dispersed from coral biodiversity center in the
Pacific-Indian waters thanks to a little changeable shores. Other waters all (such as Tonkin Gulf,
Southwestern and Southwestern) were mainland in the period of 18 000 years ago, so had shorter
duration of coral dispersion.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
102
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Moreover, another less significant and more localised factor to be considered is the influence of the
sedimentation regime on coral biodiversity via substrate characteristics, sediment accumulation, and
illumination (Veron, 1998). In this respect, South Central waters contain more highly biodiverse coral
reefs than other areas.
A synthesis of the effects of all the aforementioned factors on the reef-building biodiversity (Table 3)
shows that South central waters has the most suitable condition and Tonkin Gulf is the worst area on
coral biodiversity.
Table 3
Effect of main factors on hermatypic coral biodiversity. (- disadvantage, + advantage)
Area
Temperature
Tonkin Gulf
Middle central
South central
Southeastern
Southwestern
+
+
+
Dispersal
level
+
+
+
-
Coastal line
change
+
+
-
Sedimentation
regime
+
-
Based on the studies and analysis of natural conditions influencing reef-building coral distribution, it
can be assumed to separate four zones of reef-building coral distribution.
South central and Southeastern waters have similar biomes due to being locating in areas with similar
temperature regimes and relative proximity to areas of coral dispersal in the Philippines and
Indonesia. Information and data on environmental conditions and the distribution of coral genera in
Vietnamese waters enabled the adjustment of the isopangeneric contours of reef-building corals
established by Veron (1993) for the South China Sea (Figure 2).
The isopangeneric contour of 60 genera originates from Con Co Island (17o North). The Tonkin Gulf
area is characterised by less than 60 genera of hermatypic corals. Waters of midlle central Viet Nam
are located to the south of this where the number of genera ranges from 60-70. The isopangeneric
contour of 70 genera originates from Varella Cape (approximately 13O North), encompassing the
Paracel and Spratly archipelagos. Studies of population inter-dependence in the South China Sea,
based on the genetic structure of fish Dascyllus trimaculatus (Ablan et al., 2002), support the
establishment of a boundary at Varella Cape. Areas having more than 70 genera include South
central waters, Paracel and Spratly. Although only 61 genera of hermatypic corals have been
observed at Con Dao Island, it has been proposed that Con Dao be included within the 70+ genera
isopangeneric contour.
Southwestern waters of Viet Nam belong to the distribution zone with less than 70 genera. The
isopangeneric contour of 70 genera covers all the Gulf of Thailand, although does not seem to be
compatible with findings of small-scale studies, which indicate that there are fewer genera in this area.
Surveys conducted at Phu Quoc Island in Viet Nam (WWF-IOC team, 1994) and at Mu Koh Chang in
Thailand (Thamasak, unpublish) identified only 34 and 44 genera of hermatypic corals, respectively. It
is necessary to undertake additional surveys to enable a better understanding of coral reef fauna in
the Gulf of Thailand.
Species level analysis suggested establishing contours of 300 species overlapping the 70 genera
contour and 200 species overlapping the 60 genera line. Nha Trang Bay, the Ninh Hai coastal reefs,
and Con Dao Islands are characterised by a high level of coral species diversity, with more than 300
species recorded. They are perhaps amongst some of the most species rich coral reef areas in the
world.
Coral reef associated organisms
Surveys of coral reef associated organisms conducted from 1993 to present identified nearly 1,000
species of invertebrates (Table 4). Molluscs were the most diverse, with nearly 500 species recorded,
and where followed by the crustaceans with more than 250 species. Approximately 175 species of
polychaetes and species of 100 species echinoderms were recorded. The littoral fauna was
comprised of more than 200 species, whilst the rest belonged to sub-littoral organisms. The areas of
Con Dao Islands and the coastal waters of Khanh Hoa Province have been studied more instensively,
and more than 400 and 300 species of coral reef associated organisms were observed in these areas
respectively.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Table 4
Coral reef invertebrates in the coastal waters of Viet Nam.
Taxon
Echinoderm
Crustacean
Polychaeta
Molluscs
Total
Figure 2
103
No. Family
30
44
38
78
190
No. Genera
63
144
110
177
494
No. Species
96
251
176
446
969
Isopangeneric and isopanspecies contours of hermatypic corals showing high
biodiversity of hermatypic corals in Vietnamese waters.
(dashed line – following Veron, 1993; solid line – modified from Vo Si Tuan, 1998)
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
104
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
In total, some 411 species of coral reef fish, from 139 genera in 44 families, have been recorded as
being present in the coastal waters of Viet Nam (Table 5). Of these, the families Pomacentridae
(66 species) and Labridae (61 species) were both well represented, as was the Chaetodontidae
(32 species). Locations in south-central Viet Nam, including Nha Trang Bay and Ca Na Bay, are more
diverse in coral reef fish, with 222 and 211 species having been recorded at the sites, respectively.
These areas may be more diverse in coral reef fish than other coastal water areas of Viet Nam.
Table 5
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Composition of coral reef fish in some major locations in coastal waters of Viet Nam.
Location
Co To
Cat Ba
Cu Lao Cham
Nha Trang
Ninh Hai
Ca Na
Con Dao
Phu Quoc
Total
Family
16
16
33
38
32
37
33
27
44
Genera
27
25
76
102
81
87
84
60
139
Species
34
31
178
222
147
211
202
135
411
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are an important coastal habitat type in Viet Nam, playing a critical role as a reservoir of
biodiversity. They are also important for fisheries and tourism development in the coastal zone.
Traditionally, millions of people from different communities in the coastal zone of Viet Nam have
directly depended on coral reefs for food and other benefits. In recent years, coral reefs have been
used for coastal tourism development, especially when the economy is open and the interests of
public communities on the marine environment are improved. Being one of the most visually
impressive habitats, coral reefs are utilised for recreational activities such as snorkelling, scuba diving,
and recreational fishing. Coral reefs have also contributed to the formation of islands, and protect a
substantial portion of Viet Nam’s coastline from the effects of wave action and the impacts of storms.
They are also considered a “live laboratory” for research and education.
Economic benefits
Fisheries
Although no data on the current harvests of reef fishes and invertebrates exist for most coastal
provinces, fisheries are of high economic significance in Viet Nam. Many commercial species of fish,
molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms live and take shelter on coral reefs.
Coral reef fisheries are typically multi-species, multi-gear fisheries and small-scale in nature. Hookah
air diving, purse seine and gill net, light fishing, drift nets, long line, trawling, and the gleaning of tidal
flats are common fishing gear and practices used to target coral reef associated fish on and adjacent
to coral reef areas (Table 6).
Table 6
Main fishing activities and marine resources collected from coral reefs in Viet Nam.
Fishing activity
Hookah air diving with or without
dynamites and poisons
Net (gill net, purse seine, drift net)
Light fishing
Long line
Fixed net
Trap net
Gleaning on tidal flat
Main Marine Organisms Fished
Groupers, sweetlips, top shells, triton shells, giant clams,
lobsters, ornamental fish and live corals
Sweetlips, snappers, cardinalfish, coral breams, anchovies
Anchovies and cuttlefish
Cuttlefish and fish
Mackerel, tuna, snapper, jacks
Cuttlefish and fish
Seaweeds, gastropods and fish
Many commercial reef fish such as groupers, snappers, sweetlips, emperors, parrotfish and triggerfish
are being caught. Live groupers Epinephelus spp., Plectropomus spp. and Cephalopholis spp. have
become the favoured targets and are harvested from reefs because of their high prices. Other reef
fish such as grunts Plectorhynchus spp., snappers Lutjanus spp. and emperors Lethrinus spp.,
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
105
mackerel Scomberomorus sp., tuna Auxis sp. and anchovies are also being caught. Annual catch of
grouper Epinephelus sp. from coral reefs in Ninh Thuan Province occupied some 10% of a total catch
of demersal fish in the whole province, with annual landings ranging from 0.6 (1995) to 1.0 tonnes
(2002) (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries, 2001). Mackerel (Scomberomorus sp.) and
tuna (Auxis sp.) are the main contributors to the total fisheries production landed in Ninh Hai District,
Ninh Thuan Province. These fishes are usually concentrated in front of Vinh Hy Bay where coral reefs
are commonly found. In Phu Quoc, a total of mackerels and anchovies landed in 2001 was about
3,500 and 12,500 tons respectively (Data from Phu Quoc Department of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries). Anchovies were harvested on or close to coral reefs from April to September around the
year with a total catch reaching up 5-7 tonnes per boat per day.
Cuttlefish (Sepia spp.), squid (Sepioteuthis spp). and (Loligo spp.) are fished on a commercial basis.
Lobsters (Panulirus spp.) have also become an important species due to high market prices.
Collecting edible sea cucumbers, gastropods and bivalves for food or for sale in souvenir shops has
commonly appearred in most of the coastal provinces. Among them, abalones (Haliotis spp.), top
shells (Trochus niloticus and T. maculatus), giant clam (Tridacna spp.) are considered as
commercially important food and materials for souvenirs. A total production of giant clams collected
around Con Dao islands reached 10 tonnes during April-July of 1994. Information collected from one
of the three local sellers at My Hoa Village, Ninh Thuan Province in 2001 confirmed that there were
some 4 tonnes gastropod and bivalve shells being exported to Nha Trang and Da Lat Cities during
2000-2001. Edible sea cucumbers are also collected from coral reefs in the area. According to data
collected by Phu Quoc Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in 2001, as much as 3,879
tonnes of squid and cuttlefish were caught for both local uses and international export. Pearl oysters
(Pinctada mertensi and P. maxima), abalone (Haliotis ovina) and scallops (Chlamys nobilis and C.
Irregularis) were exploited for food and jewellery. Information collected from local fishermen indicates
that the number of Pinctada maxima caught at the depth of 20 - 40m by four hookah divers reached
10-15kg per day.
The annual catch of adult lobsters harvested from the coral reefs of Ninh Thuan waters ranged
between 30-50 tonnes (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries, 2001) with the price ranging
from 200,000 – 300,000 VND per kg. During the past five years, hookah divers from My Tan, My Hiep
villages - Nhon Hai Commune, Ninh Thuan province collected ornate lobster (Panulirus ornatus) on
the coral reefs for lobster cultured-cages. Recently, the cage culture of lobsters has develped quickly
in Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan Provinces. There are some 15,000 cages for lobster culture with the
amount of juvenilles collected from the wild totalling around a million per year in Khanh Hoa Province.
Annual ornate lobster harvested from coral reefs in Ninh Thuan waters was 200,000-300,000
individuals (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries 2001). Information from local fishemen
indicates that 250-500 juvenille of ornate lobster have been collected from the coral reefs of Nhon Hai
Commune in Ninh Thuan Province during the settlement season (from November-April), and this may
sometimes reach up to 2,000-5,000 individuals per day during the peak season (from January to
February). The price of one lobster seed was 30,000 – 60,000VND depending on the season.
The gleaning or harvesting of organisms from reefs by hand is still commonly conducted to collect
certain species on the reef flats. Collecting seaweeds and reef-associated organisms such as
molluscs, crustaceans, sea cucumbers, sea urchins and fish on the reef flats during the low tide
period is an important income generating activity for a many coastal communities of Viet Nam. In Ninh
Hai waters, Ninh Thuan Province, some 15 - 25 tonnes of seaweeds are harvested annually from
coral reefs. Of which, Gracilaria eucheumoides, G. salicornia, Gelidiella acerosa and Betaphycus
gelatinae are mainly harvested for food. Sargassum, Acanthophora, Hypnea, Gracilari, and
Ulva.occur with a very high biomass on many reefs and are harvested for producing fertilisers for
agriculture cultivation. A wet kilo of seaweed from Ninh Hai district, Ninh Thuan Province was valued
at almost 2,000 VND in 2002.
The collection of ornamental fishes from coral reefs has occurred in some coastal provinces for
domestic uses and international export. In the recent past, ornamental fish such as butterflyfish,
angelfish, wrasse, and scorpions fish were being caught for local aquaria and the international
aquarium trade. The number of ornamental fish collected from Nha Trang Bay annually for
transportation to aquaria in Ho Chi Minh City was around 1,000 fish (Chu Anh Khanh, per. comm.).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
106
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Tourism
Coral reefs are a major draw for snorkellers, scuba divers, recreational fishers and those seeking a
vacation in the sun. Nha Trang City is considered as a major center of marine tourism development in
Viet Nam, and the coral reefs surrounding nearby islands are very diverse and abundant. The number
of visitors to Nha Trang has recently increased, with an approximate value in excess of more than 300
billion VND (equivalent US$20 millions ) being recorded in 2003. The annual number of visitors to the
islands of Nha Trang Bay was estimated at 30,000 people in 1995 to more than 400,000 people in
2003. About ten percent of them joined diving and snorkling on the reefs of Hon Mun MPA. These
services brought benefit about US$400,000 occupied approximate 2% of total income of tourist sector
in Khanh Hoa province. There was a further dramatic increase in numbers and diversification of
operations. A tourism survey conducted by IUCN in 2000 revealed that many tourists would be willing
to pay round US$1-2 each to visit Hon Mun Marine Protected Area.
Tourism can be expected to play an increasingly important role in the development strategies of Phu
Quoc district, Kien Giang province for the next ten years. Number of tourists (mostly domestic tourists)
visited the islands has been increased dramatically during the last 7 years, from 4,543 people in 1995
to 74,997 people in 2001. The total international tourists visit Phu Quoc in 1995 were 1,106 peoople,
increasing to 42,748 people in 2001. The duration of international visitors spent at the islands
avearged 3 - 4 days per vocation per person while this increased to 3 - 5 days to domestic tourists.
The total benefits of the district collected from tourism have also increased from 1.5 billions in 1995 to
11 billions VND in 2001. At present, tourism in Phu Quoc has been mainly focused on land while
marine environment was not well attractive to visitors. Tourists spent their time to visit the Naturre
Forest Reserve in the norther part of Phu Quoc island and to swim at some beatiful beaches such as
Bai Sao and Bai Vong beaches. The islands group in the southern part of Phu Quoc (An Thoi) with
pristine coral reefs have been considered by tourist organizers during the last three years and that
were emphasized as diving, snorkelling, fishing area for marine eco-tourism in the Tourism
Development Plan of the district. At present, only one hotel (Sai Gon - Phu Quoc Resort) has
operated diving service. It charges 20 - 110 USD/person including resort pleasure boat, guidance,
mineral water, snack, insurance, life buoy and fishing equipments.
Tousit development based on coral reefs has also been considered in Con Dao islands and Cu Lao
Cham Marine Protected Area (Quang Nam province).
Social Benefits
With the importance of fisheries and tourism, coral reefs have ben playing an important role in the
development of economy, providing jobs and benefits for society. Fishing is a major activity with
about 15,000 fishermen from different communities around Nha Trang Bay depended on. Population
of Phu Quoc district recorded in 2001 was 74,000, of which some 11,130 fishermen are engaged in
capture fisheries in the sea while most of the rest work in fisheries proccessing and other related
occupation on these islands. Many primary processing factories of marine products have provided
many kinds of sea products. Fish sauce “nuoc mam”, a famous sea product, was produced in Phu
Quoc and exported to many different countries on the world. This is a traditional industry of turning
low-valued fish into a profitable product through long period of fermentation and processing with salt
and water.
Tourism has provided significant employment for population of Nha Trang City. More than 80 hotels,
60 tourism boats and a range of associated services have provided thousands of jobs for local
communities. At present, Phu Quoc has 8 large hotels to be built on the main island, mostly
concentrated in the west coast of Phu Quoc island and that will be increased in the near future. The
development of marine tourism at the area will be generated jobs and benefits for local communities.
Uses of coral reefs as a resource for education and aesthetic have been considered in Nha Trang bay
and Con Dao National Park. There has been number of students from different universities coming for
enhancing awareness and knowledge on marine ecology and conservation. The photos contest on
natural beauty was organized in 2004 with number of photos of coral reefs of Nha Trang and Van
Phong bays.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
107
STATUS AND THREATS
With more than 200 coral sites along the Viet Nam coast have been surveyed for recent years shows
that the coral coverage in the reefs is not in the good status. Based on the scale of English et al
(1997), only 1% of coral reefs is in excellent coverage (higher than 75% coral coverage), while there
is more than 31% of coral reefs in bad coverage (less than 25%). The coral reefs with fair and good
coverage are about 41% and 26%, respectively. The specific inventory data of coral reef areas stated
that most of coral reefs have coverage at average level from 25 to 50% (table 7). Only coral reefs
located at offshore or far from the communities may maintain relatively good status (Vo Si Tuan,
2000).
Table 7
Coverage of some reef areas in the coastal waters of Viet Nam.
No
Study areas
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
7
8
9
10
Hạ Long–Cat Ba
Bạch Long Vi
Hai Van–Son Tra
Cu Lao Cham
Nha Trang bay
Ninh Hai
Ca Na bay
Con Đao
Phu Quoc
Nam Du
Tho Chu
No. sites
21
5
7
5
8
6
6
8
6
4
4
Coverage rank
(%)
12 - 65
2.7 - 47.6
35 - 62.7
18.4 - 53.7
5.6 - 44.4
16.3 - 55.9
18.4 - 68.4
1.6 - 50.3
28.7 - 52.5
37.8 - 62.8
4.6 - 15.9
Average cover
(%)
40.6 ± 15.2
21.7 ± 19.0
50.5 ± 15.7
33.9 ± 12.4
26.4 ± 15.9
36.9 ± 13.5
40.5 ± 24.1
23.3 ± 18.2
42.2 ± 8.60
47.4 ± 11.7
11.3 ± 4.80
Time
1998
1995
1996
2002
2002
2002
1996
2002
2002
2002
2002
The coverage of live corals on the reefs at some major distribution areas of Viet Nam waters has been
decreasing by time. The coral coverage declined down to 30% at some areas (Table 8). It implies that
coral reefs have been damaged and towards bad degradation.
The coral reef status has also been reflected via data of coral reef community. Some studies on coral
fish of Nguyen Huu Phung & Nguyen Van Long (1997); Nguyen Van Long & Nguyen Huu Phung
(1997) proved that coral reefs in Southern part of Central Viet Nam is relatively diverse in species
composition. However, coral fish density is just remarkable in the further islands such as Con Dao,
Phu Quoc, Nam Du, Tho Chu...ect. The inventory data of dominant species as standard of Reef
Check (1998) presented serious poor of coral organisms, who have used for food or/and souvenir
material values. Some families have food value such as Emperor (Lethrinidae), Snapper (Lutjanidae),
grouper (Serranidae), Sweetlips (Haemulidae) remain rarely in the reefs and most of them are shorter
than 20 cm long. The continuously studied data for several years in coral reefs at Cu Lao Cham, Nha
Trang Bay, Con Dao, Phu Quoc also showed that the number of fish species with edible or/and
ornamental value has been decreased by time and some species would be probably locally extinct
(Nguyen Van Long, in press). Some benthic species having high value on the reefs such as lobster,
Sea Cucumber, Trumpet triton Charonia tritonis and Giant Clam Tridacna spp. is remaining very few
and even extinct in some reefs.
Table 8
STT
1
2
3
4
5
Decline of coral coverage in some areas.
Study areas
Ha Long–Cat Ba
Cu Lao Cham
Nha Trang bay
Con Dao
Phu Quoc
No. site
5
8
8
5
Decline of coral cover
(%)
-7.1
-1.9
-21.2
-32.3
-3.3
Period
1993 - 1998
1994 - 2002
1994 - 2002
1994 - 2002
1994 - 2002
Burke et al. (2002) indicated that most coral reefs in the coastal waters of Viet Nam were under
threats with 50% of the reefs ranked at higg level and 17% at very high level. Destructive fishing was
assessed as popular and serious with 85% coral reefs at medium and high levels. Over fishing was
indicated a serious threat to a half of coral reefs. The other threats have been concerned as lesser
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
108
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
like potential sedimentation (47% coral reefs), coastal development (40% coral reefs) and pollutions
(7%). The mitigation of threats based on affective management is not remarkable in Viet Nam. In fact,
only three areas consisting of Cat Ba, Con Dao and Ha Long Bay were ranked as rather effective
management following the standard criteria of Reef at Risk in South East Asia. In comparison with
other coral reef status in the region, based on the model, Viet Nam was ranked in the group of high
rate of threatened coral reefs (together with the Philippines, China, Taiwan and Indonesia). The direct
survey data clearly addressed multiple and rather serious threats at most of coral reefs in Viet Nam.
Over fishing
Surveys at 29 coastal communities of ADB project (5712-REG) (phase 2) showed that fresh seafood
importing need of China and Hong Kong markets is creating a high pressure on coral reef resources
of Viet Nam. In fact, those activities have not been controlled and checked even in some national
parks like Con Dao. It leads to over fishing all the marine specialties such as sand fish, lobster,
mollusks ect... The most important compositions to build up the coral reefs are hard corals, staghorn
corals, and soft corals, which are extensively exploiting and trading. In addition to making souvenir,
“live rock” have been annually exporting to Europe and US for marine pest needs. Ornamental fish
are also exploiting for exporting to marine pest culture markets.
The data obtained during 2002 – 2003 by coral reef monitoring reflect the poorness of ReefCheck
indicators. The commercially valuable groups of large groupers Serranidae (e.g. Plectropomus,
Epinephelus, Cephalopholis spp.) and Lutjanidae (Lutjanus spp.) are both highly depauperated and
low relative abundance and sizes, reflecting the intensive fishing pressure. Only few of them were
recorded at few sites in Cu Lao Cham, Con Dao islands, Nha Trang bay. Other notable absentees
from almost areas include the labrid Humphead Maori Wrasse Chelinus undulatus and serranid
Barramundi Cod Cromileptes altivelis, once common components of many Indo-west Pacific reef fish
assemblages. These species are among the most favour target fishes for the Asian live fish trade, and
are now locally extinct in many areas of East Asia. They were observed at only one site of Con Dao
islands.
Benthic indicators for commercial species were not recorded at number of sites. The Giant Clam
Tridacna squamosa is observed commonly only in Cu Lao Cham. The Giant Triton Charonia tritonis is
not seen in any of sites monitored. Notable absentees in almost areas are the commercially important
sea cucumber species. The same situation occurs for lobsters, which were recorded at few sites of Cu
Lao Cham, Nha Trang and Ca Na bays. The Top Shell Trochus nilotichus presents only in Con Dao
islands and Cu Lao Cham with low density. Amount of dead corals exploited for limestone and making
dykes of aquaculture ponds has not been reported.
Destructive fishing
This threat is performed via using destructive fishing method such as dynamite, poison, small mesh
size fishing nets, trawling net, electrical fishing. According to the survey of project ADB 5712-REG in
1999, destructive fishing methods are implementing in 21/29 coastal provinces/cities. In there, the
destructive fishing methods have been commonly using at Quang Ninh, Nghe An, Quang Binh, Thua
Thien – Hue, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan province. Recently, dynamite fishing
has been decreased, but cyanide fishing has been become more popular for increased demand of
living fish trade. The effectiveness of those destructive fishing methods is very dangerous and badly
impact on whole ecosystem.
There are few statistic data concerning with destructive fishing. Some interviews with local fishermen
show existence of dynamite fishing in some reef areas. The survey in Nha Trang bay (Vo Si Tuan et
al, 2002) showed that ca. 10% of manta-tows had evidence of blast fishing in the form of "craters"
and/or other obvious physical damage to reef areas. The monitoring pratices did not record any traces
on the transects and the index values are maximum. Hookah diving using poison has brought to high
benefit for a lot of coastal fishermen in Cu Lao Cham, Nha Trang and Ca Na bays, Phu Quoc
islands... According to above-mentioned survey, evidence of poison fishing was found at a lot of reefs
in Nha Trang bay. Overall ca. 5% of manta-tow sites were affected. Abandoned poison "squirt bottles"
were also observed on one reefs. Actually, a lot of "hookah" divers use poisons to capture fish, both
for food and to supply the lucrative aquarium trade and cyanide is thought to be used regularly.
However, and evidence is not always obvious.
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Tourism
One of the biggest impacts of tourism is the increase of souvenir need and does leading to wild
animal exploitation. Marine turtle (Hawks’ bill turtle, green turtle...) has been exploiting at any time and
anywhere and free trade in big tourism center such as Nha Trang, Vung Tau. Other species can be
used for making souvenir things for example: pearl oyster, snail, sea urchin...becoming rare animals
in the reefs and being in danger of local extinction. Tourism also creates physical impacts like
anchoring on coral reefs, careless jumping down of tourists... can break corals.
Coastal development and sedimentation
The development of coastal cities has been affected to coral reefs. The infrastructure construction
such as port and dike building, has directly or/and indirectly damaged coral reefs. Some evidences
presented that recent increase of sediment concentration in the water has a connection with coastal
development, dredging, soil exploitation, forest cut and other unplanned agricultural activities.
Ha Long – Cat Ba coastal areas are examples, which demonstrate a strong impact of sedimentation
on coral reefs. The previous studies showed that the suspended sediment concentration in the water
at those areas is rather high. Coral reefs of the Cat Ba National Park were damaged by high sediment
concentration discharged from mining activities of Quang Ninh province. The coastal areas in the
central Viet Nam have been known as less impact of waterways system. However, studies also
showed that the coral reefs at those areas are in danger of sedimentation from the rivers in the rainy
season. It is highly concerned that high water turbidity has not only locally occurred, but also
expanded to a large area, where corals are currently distributing.
Pollution
Industrial zones and manufactures’ development nearby the coast is creating potentially negative
impacts. New building, harbor enlargement and more frequent operation of boats have been speeded
up the coastal pollution process. Increasing of seawater nutrient is another threat and it may generate
a eutrophicating phenomenon. Surveys recorded over growth of seaweed at some areas in the North
of Nha Trang Bay and South of Van Phong Bay. (Pham Van Thom & Vo Si Tuan, 1997). Aquaculture
is dramatically developing at shallow coastal areas near by the coral reefs created negative influence
on coastal coral reefs. Data collected from recent studies showed that blooming tendency of harmful
algae at aquaculture areas will be a potential threat to coral reefs in those areas (Pham Van Thom,
unpublished).
Coral exploitation
Dead coral exploitation using for construction material and making dykes of aquaculture ponds has
been popularly happened at some places such as Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan...coral
exploitation at littoral areas decreased distribution areas of corals, created hydraulic unbalance of
coral reefs as well as increased sedimentation caused by erosion, aggradations and exploitation. The
most certainly important composition of coral reefs is hard corals, horny corals and soft corals, which
are currently exploiting and trading at the big scale. Nowadays, coral trading is an increasing
commerce around the world including dead corals, souvenir material corals and alive corals for
ornamental culture. Viet Nam exporters have been licensed from the government agencies. The
difference in coral trade between Viet Nam and other export countries is week control in species,
exploitation yield, and transparency in the coral trade. Even though Viet Nam doesn’t have any
inventory data on exported corals but other import countries knew it very well. The table 9 presents
the data on the yield of corals exploited in 1998. It probably needs further discussion on this
commercial activity in Viet Nam. According to some studies (Vo & Truong, 1997; Dang Ngoc Thanh &
Vo Si Tuan, 1998) coral reefs in Viet Nam are seriously being damaged in most of waters. Living
resources have been over exploited and become extremely poor. Many problems like ecological
balance of the coral reef ecosystem are still being uncovered. Ecosystem conservation is quite simple
even in the proposed marine protected areas. Management capacity of functional agencies is still not
required enough. Those are some issues should be discussed when approved coral export campaign
in the future.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
Table 9
A figure on coral export in Viet Nam and some countries.
Export country
Viet Nam
Tonga
Solomon
Indonesia
Fiji
Living corals (piece)
19,327
10,754
25,856
517,841
71,353
For souvenirs (Kg)
103,157
232
50,403
155,527
(source: CITES, 1998).
Anchor and Others Kind of Damage
The damage caused by anchoring was recorded mainly in tourist sites such as Nha Trang Bay. As
showing in the habitat survey (Vo Si Tuan et al. 2002), anchor damage is apparent in < 10% of survey
sites focusing in areas with the most intensive tourism activities. Other sites with noticable damage
were in the vicinity of the villages and where fishing boats anchor. Overall data of the monitoring sites
do not show anchor damage on the transects and showed maximun values of the index. Meanwhile,
some other damage causing coral breakage, rubbish (non-fishing and fishing related) were recorded
in most areas and presented via low values of the indexes. This means that rubbish is dischared
directly into the sea by local communities and fishermen.
During recent years a number of fishing ports have been constructed in a lot of the islands with coral
reefs such as Cu Lao Cham, Bach Long Vi, Phu Qui, Con Dao. Port building and dredging nearby Ha
Long bay are considered a reason for sediment loading on coral reefs. These have directly or/and
indirectly damaged coral reefs but no detailed surveys on the impacts done.
Storms
Storms can physically damage and break corals at shallow waters, especially Staghorn corals. Many
corals were completely broken, alive corals’ coverage declined and population structure rather
changed after the storms threw. Coral surveys conducted from 1986 – 1989 reported large areas of
broken staghorn corals accumulated on the seabed and nearby the South-Eastern coasts of Cat Ba,
rd
Dau Be and Long Chau. Those were consequences of Joe storm passed the areas by Jul. 23 1980.
Some storms seriously affected to coral reefs of the coastal waters in South Viet Nam. In 1997,
impacts of Linda storm on coral reefs in Con Dao were a clear proof for this phenomenon. The survey
results before the storm (1994-1995) stated that 70% of coral reefs were ranked at high or very high
coverage levels. After the Linda storm, most coral reefs were damaged and coral coverage of some
reefs was nearly down to more or less zero. If possible, those coral reefs need to spend more than ten
years to recover as previous status.
Coral bleaching
In 1998, coral bleaching seriously affected on many coral reefs in Viet Nam. Coral reefs in Con Dao
were considered as a clearest evidence for this impact style. After the Linda storm, many newly
recovered coral reefs in Con Dao were damaged by bleaching in 1998. Data collected from more than
11 coral reef sites demonstrated that the frequency of damaged coral colonies was very high and
fluctuated from 0 to 74.2%, average value was about 37% depending upon different sites. Periodical
survey data conducted from 1998 to 2002 showed that Con Dao coral reefs recovered very slowly
after two serious damages of Linda storm and coral bleaching phenomenon (Vo Si Tuan, 2000)
Outbreaking of some species
Crown of Thorn Starfish (COTS) Acanthaster planci becomes a danger of coral reefs around world.
They eat corals faster than recovery rate of corals when obtained high enough density. This will
impact on the coverage of live corals on the reefs and create ecological unbalance of reefs. Human
activities have been considered as indirect reasons relating to this outbreak.
COTS has been a considered problem causing degradation of the reefs in some coastal central areas
in Viet Nam. Actually, its outbreak occurring for recent years would be a serious damage to a lot of
reefs, especially in central coastal waters from Quang Nam province to Khanh Hoa province. Reef
monitoring activities during 2002 – 2003 showed the abundance of Crown of Thorn Starfish (COTS)
and Diadema sea urchin for benthos (Table 10). The records of high density of COTS on the reefs of
central coastal waters (Cu Lao Cham islands with the average density of 50ind/ha), Van Phong - >
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150ind/ha and Nha Trang bays - > 60ind/ha) suggest further surveys to explain the reasons. The
outbreak of COTS in Nha Trang bay started in 2001 (Vo Si Tuan, 2002) and continues a problem for
reef conservation. Sea urchin Deadema setossum reach rather high abundance around the coastal
islands of Gulf of Thailand (Phu Quoc and Nam Du). The comparison of Diadema density in 2000 –
2001 (Vo Si Tuan 2002) with that during 2002 – 2003 recognized the increasing trend at almost areas,
except at Ninh Thuan coastal waters (Table 10).
Recently, expansion of Sponges has been recorded only in several sites in Ha Long Bay and Cat Ba
islands. Sponges have expanded in many reefs, squeezing out and eroding coral colonies. Several
large sized boulder corals can be broken even by a slight touch.
Table 10
Summary for density of Crown of Thorn Starfish and sea urchin.
Reef areas
Cu Lao Cham
Van Phong bay
Nha Trang bay
Ninh Hai
Ca Na bay
Con Dao
Phu Quoc
Nam Du
Tho Chu
Crown Of Thorns Starfish
(2002-03)
2.50 ± 3.50
7.74 ± 12.52
3.34 ± 3.45
0.00
0.24 ± 0.34
0.13 ± 0.35
0.08 ± 0.20
0.00
1.13 ± 1.34
Diadema setossum
2000-01
2002-03
26.61 ± 32.65
28.5
43.92 ± 48.16
4.6
63.13 ± 85.05
7.1
4.17 ± 3.24
125.76 ± 163.71
4.9
20.38 ± 56.03
124.3
434.09 ± 173.20
460.88 ± 189.11
89.77 ± 132.55
MANAGEMENT
National legislation related to marine resoureces and coral reef mamagement
The Law on Environmental Protection was passed by the National Assembly in 1993. It is broad
and includes strategic direction for environmental protection. In 1994, it was followed by Decree No.
175/CP, which provides guidance for its implementation. The law contains a broad mandate for
environmental impact assessment, and it establishes environmental quality standards specifying the
provisional environmental quality criteria that are to be used for monitoring and inspections of projects
and activities. The law has been effectively implemented, making great strides in environment
protection, especially enhancing the people’s awareness on the environment and ecology.
Law of Fisheries was adopted on 26th December 2003 by the National Assembly of Socialist
st
Republic of Viet Nam . This Law came into force from July 1 2004. The Law stated that Fisheries
resources shall be subject to the ownership of the people and under the integrated management of
the State. Organizations and individuals shall have rights to exploit the fisheries resources as
provided for by legislation. Following the law, fisheries activities shall ensure the economic
effectiveness in accordance with the protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources
and biodiversity; shall protect environment and natural landscape. The development of fisheries
activities in all aspects shall be done in accordance with the development master plan and plans of
fisheries sector nationwide and in specific provinces. The articles related to coral reefs included
contents on sustainable fisheries development; prohibited activities in fisheries activities; habitat
protection, conservation, protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources, and
Planning and management of protected areas and marine parks
The Ordinance on the Protection and Development of Fisheries Resource was approved by the
Government of Viet Nam on April 25, 1989. It contains 29 article stipulating national fishery resource
protection and development in inland water bodies, territorial waters, transitional areas, EEZs and
national continental shelf areas. Article 3 states in details that the fishery resources protection and
development must be integrated with their living environment protection. Article 8 also stipulates to
strictly ban any harmful acts to damage fishery resources, to pollute living environments of aquatic
organisms by uses of dynamites, toxic substances, electric pulse, waste discharge and destruction of
coastal habitats, etc.. Although no specific provision is provided for marine conservation palling by the
Ordinance, it has become an important legal instrument for supporting fishery resources management
for both inland and marine resources.
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Directive No. 125 – CT dated 28 April 1988 on development of aquaculture issued by the
Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Now called Prime Minister). The document considered
aquaculture activities, especially shrimp culture for export in coastal provinces and Mekong delta and
other coastal area, which were developing very strongly, contributing to the economic growth,
increased people’s income and improved well-being. However, environmental protection, balanced
and scientific planning were not paid due attention. This Directive has provisions on initial planning of
land with water surface for aquaculture, on the integration between aquaculture farming and
protection of resources, protection of land especially agriculture land, the protection of environment
and natural ecosystem. However, this document still mainly focuses on economic development.
There are some other legal documents supporting to enforce above-mentioned laws, including:
Decree No. 195/HDBT, dated 2/6/1990 issued by Minister Council on executing Ordinance on the
fishery protection and development; Decree No. 48/CP, dated 12/8/1996 issued by Government on
stipulation of administrative violation on the protection of fishery resources; Directive No.1/1998/CT –
TTg dated 2/1/1998 issued by the Prime Minister on banning of using explosive, striking – electricity,
poison for fishery exploitation. Decree No. 26/CP, dated 12/8/1996 issued by Government on
stipulation of administrative violation on environment protection; Decree No. 68/CP dated 01/11/1996
and Decree No. 76/2000/ND – dated 15/12/2000 issues by Government on detail stipulation of
enforcement Mineral Law;
Legislations on tourism have considered concerns on impacts of tourist activities to resources and
environment in general and to coral reefs in particulary. On 22/6/1993, the government has enacted
Resolution 45/CP on management reform and development of the tourist sector. In the Resolution,
the government has confirmed that Viet Nam has large potential to develop tourism activities, is
endowed with natural beauty, places of interest, historical, religious and architecture relics.
In order to codify regulation on tourism, the National Assembly Standing Committee (2000) has
approved the Ordinance on Tourism. The Ordinance stipulates that: ‘the State ensures tourism
development toward cultural tourism and ecological tourism” (Article 2), “Organization, individuals
operating tourism business are responsible for protecting, reasonably and effectively exploiting and
utilizing tourist resources and protecting the environment in tourism areas, routes, and sites” (Article
14), “The state invests in basic surveys on tourist resources; placing priority on projects that protect
and restore tourism resources, utilization and development of tourist resources” (Article 16). If tourism
is managed in this direction, coral reefs in tourist sites will be reasonably exploited and conserved.
Decree on Viet Nam’s Marine Police was approved by the Permanent Committee for the 10th
National Assembly and promulgated in 28 March 1998. All 4 clauses that regulate tasks of the Viet
Nam’s Marine Police (Clause 6, 7) also mention the task of marine environment protection “Guarding
against environmental pollution in the territorial seam sea border, Viet Nam’s economic privilege
territory and shelf of ocean bed”.
National policies/plans for environment protection and nature conservation
The 1991-2000 National Plan of Environment and Sustainable Development is a framework plan
that outlines inter sectoral key priorities on environment protection, and it also exhibits Viet Nam’s
environmental commitment to international community. Chapter 11, par 3.4 of the Plan emphasized
on integrated coastal zone management and planning, and the details are to:
-
Protect estuaries and coral reefs;
Protect and reforest mangrove forest
Carry out investigations of sea weeds and grass;
Manage coastal lagoons in Central Viet Nam; and
Protect the coast from erosion and undertake technical solutions for coastal protection.
Biodiversity Action Plan for Viet Nam (BAP) was approved by the Prime Minister of the
Government by his Decision 548/TTg dated December 22, 1995. The objectives of BAP are: Planning
of significant coastal wetland protected area establishment: Ca Mau, Red river delta, Tram Chim, Tam
Giang Lagoon, etc; Establishment of select priority MPAs with highest level biodiversity values;
Implementation integrated coastal zone management in line with the sustainable development
principle. BAP was adopted in due time and its adoption has exhibited an important effort to fulfill the
country’s commitment to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) that Viet Nam ratified in 1994.
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National Strategy on Management of Protected Area System was approved by the Prime Minister
of the Government by his Decision 192/2003/QĐ -TTg dated September 17, 2003 addopted the
strategy to develop Protected Area System of Viet Nam to 2010.
Institutaional Framework
National institutions/ executive bodies
Decree 43/2003/ND-CP of Viet Nam government dated on 2nd May 2003 authorized Ministry of
Fishery to declare list of species needed to be protected, restored and giving silutions for protection
aquatic ecosystems, genetic diversity, aquatic biodiversity. Ministry of Fishery were also authorized to
give regulations on notak-zones, catching limited areas and list of non – imported and non – exported
species, and manage domestic aquatic reserves, marine protected areas.
Decision 08/2003/QĐ-BTS of Minister of Fisferies signed on 5th August 2003 authorized the National
Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection (NADAREP) to oversign and monitor
implementation of regulation on species needed to be protected, non-imported, non – exported
species (exept aquaculture seed), seed conservation and manage domestic aquatic reserves, marine
protected areas.
Although that MOFI now has overall management responsibility for the MPAs system but that sites
with a terrestrial as well as a marine component will be managed by MARD together with MOFI. This
situation is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Management regulations for MPAs are also
under discussion but these are likely to be broad and flexible, in order to allow management
regulations to be tailored to specific geographical areas and management requirements
Legislation at the provincial level
There are 27 coastal provinces, cities in Viet Nam, among which over 10 provinces and cities having
coral reef distribution with varied coverage and diversity. Due to the practice of protection activities of
corals and other aquicultural and natural resources, the provinces has issued a number of different
legislative documents, including decisions and directions. These documents focus mostly on the
implementation of the Government’s policies, legislative documents regarding the protection of
aquicultural resources and corals. In addition, provincial authorities are the major actor to organize the
implementation of enforcing the rule of law not only in the area of protecting corals and aquicultural
resources. As a result, the provincial authorities have issued related regulations, directions such as
exploiting corals; purchasing and transporting corals, destroying corals to plant aquicutural products,
building projects regarding the issues of waste treatment. Some localities have established, at
different levels, zones of marine protection with the focus of protecting coral ecology. Further, more
importantly some local communities with the assistance of the international organizations for natural
preservation and central offices of sciences have committed and organized to protect coral reef
effectively.
In general, the documents issued by the local authorities are characterized as: to solve a typical and
serious case of legal violation at localities such as destroying and exploiting corals in a large scale.
With an aim to organizing forces, collaborating different branches and authorities at levels to enforce
the effective implementation of the rule of law regarding the protection of coral reefs. Issuing general
regulations for a zone of protecting natural resources including coral reefs might be major or minor
element, and to serve sustainable development (tourism, aquicultural resources) for communities.
Having regulations to arrange and plan zones of different functions for territorial water including a
number of islands and coastal areas, and different subjects of protection.
Besides, local legal documents show the active initiatives to solve the problems at hand without
waiting for guidance from the central government: To harmonize the issues of protecting coral reefs
and protecting aquicutural resources, and protecting environment. To solve the relations between
protecting corals and exploiting minerals, planting aquicultural resources, developing communities. To
unify the instructions, collaborate protecting forces within the provincial areas. Some policies and
issues approach the view of intergrated management, linking the protection of corals and economic
development, and issues in mainland. Some regulations have supplemented the management gap
existing at central level, in accordance with the overall policies of the Party and Government.
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Provincial/local institutions
Sustainable management of Viet Nam’s marine resources areas faces a number of institutional
constrains. One of the most significant of these relates to the formal administrative jurisdiction for
marine areas. There is a clear system of jurisdiction and administration for the terrestrial part of Viet
Nam but no such comparable system exits for the country’s marine areas. Coastal provincial
jurisdiction is in practice assumed to end at the limit of the coastline (low water) and there are no
provincial boundaries extending into the marine times area. Where Provincial governments are
involved in marine management they do so on a purely sectoral basic (eg. fisheries, marine
transportation, etc). The result is that the marine zone of Viet Nam is treated as a completely open
access with none of the control of the hierarchical system of government and administration that exist
on the terrestrial side.
At provincial level, offices and branches such as the Department of Fisheries, the branch of
Exploitation and Fishery Resource Protection, the Departement of Natural Resource and Environment
remain under the supervision of expertise by the offices at ministerial level. Thus, there are still
confusing, overlapping issues or some areas lacking the management at central level. However,
under the law provincial People’s Committee is the authority to govern natural resources and
environment within its provincial areas. Specialized offices are the authority to advise the
implementation of tasks assigned by the provincial people’s committee. As such, whenever there a
need to collaborate to solve overlapping issues or lack of management recognized or to assign
responsibility for a specific issue, the provincial people’s committee can actively make decision.
Coral reef monitoring
The need for developing this coral reef monitoring is increasing days after days in line with pressure
put by human beings in Viet Nam. On the world, a great number of rapid methods on monitoring of
coral reefs are built. One objective of the new methods is to try to come up with main indicators
reflecting the characteristics of the population/society and reflecting the impact of human beings on
the coral reefs. One important matter to be considered is how to expand the monitoring scale,
meanwhile simplifying the method in order to shorten the monitoring time under water and involve
many stakeholders, including volunteers and coastal communities.
Reef Check method can be evaluated as the one to response well to some aforesaid requirements,
which is proved through the fact that Reef Check is used with LIT in Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Programme (GCRMN). The foundation of this method is to monitor the characteristic indictors of the
basic proportions living on the bottom grounds of coral reefs (hard corals, soft corals, dead corals,
seaweeds, etc and agenesis creatures), and quantify some organism playing an important role on
reefs economically and in the sense of ecosystems.
Reef Check monitoring also leaves options for selecting more suitable indicators/ instructed species
for different reef areas and can be changed in accordance to the capacity of the participants. For
areas whose ecology progress is paid attention to like Con Dao, the indicators are increased including
the varieties of coral species, bleaching situation against classified units, fish quantity against families.
When establishing community-based monitoring station like the ones in Van Hung (Khanh Hoa), Ninh
Hai (Ninh Thuan), local economically-valued species are added to the list of the instructed species.
The selection of the addition is made by local fishermen with the consultation from scientists. Besides
the monitoring meaning, this way should help with raising awareness of communities on conserving
marine natural resources with the participation from the local people.
Coral reef monitoring in Viet Nam was officially carried out since 1998 in the proximity of different
topics. During the initial period, selected sites depended on the implementation of the projects whose
researching goals may not relate to reef monitoring. Later, monitoring orientation was, step by step,
combined into contents of some projects oriented network system building and more areas set up.
The selection carried out based on the idea of “ network” consisting of ecological stereotype and
management recommendations. Selected sites should be representatives for different marine waters,
for areas with coral distribution and for biodiversity zoning.
As for management, some areas are protected in the proximity of some marine protected areas, some
are open for free exploitation, even exploitation without management. Data collected from fixed
monitoring sites in Nha Trang Bay, Con Dao since 1998 initially shown the changes in the structure of
reef organism population under the natural impact and human impact. However, data collected from
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the permanent monitoring sites are not periodic and continuous due to financial difficulties and human
resources so the effectiveness are not so high. Coral Reef Monitoring with the participation of local
communities is considered necessary and important requirements in order to raising research
potentialities and managing coral reefs in Viet Nam in a near future.
Coral reef rehabiliatation
First trials for coral rehabilitation were carried out in 2000 at Con Dao islands following strong impacts
Lynda typhoon. Some other practices were done during 2002 – 2005 in Van Phong and Nha Trang
bay as experiments with poor data on motality and growth. More extensive rehabilitation was
implemented by the National Project to restore and management of coral reefs in south Qui Nhon bay
(Binh Dinh province) where coral reefs had suffered serious degradation due to coral mining,
destructive fishing, providing systematic data from 2002 – 2004. Coral transplantation with collection
of small part of coral colonies from good reefs was used as technique for rehabilitation with materials
used for attachment of coral pieces including dead coral substratum, cement block, cement tubs, iron
sticks.
The concurrent site management with strong supports from local government and communities has
brought positive effectiveness of reef rehabilitation thank to not only coral transplantation but also
natural recovery. Outputs of rehabilitation in Binh Dinh province indicate that:
-
The species as Acropora nobilis, A. yongei, A. microphtalma obtained quick growth.
Meanwhile Porites nigrescens presented good adaptation to environment seasonal change.
-
Foliose corals belonging to Montipora, Echinopora, Pachyseris, Echinopora and branch
Acropora, Porites play an important role of natural rehabilitation.
-
At one of experiment sites, all restored corals died in rainy season, meanwhile corals growed
well in summer, indicating a big change of fresh water flow and sedimentation which
prevented coral restoration.
Restoration of reef resources was firsly considered by the Institute of Oceanography under the
support by SUMA programme of Ministry of Fisheries during 2002-2004. Reproduction of Top shell
Trochus nilotichus with wild broodstock was successfully practiced to provide spats for resource
restoration with involvement of local community in Ninh Van village (Ninh Hoa, Khanh Hoa province).
Top shell reserved in cages growed well in natural conditions and become broodstock to produce
more spats (F1) for further restoration in Khanh Hoa province in present time.
Establisment and management of marine protected areas (MPAs)
Viet Nam is now in a suitable period to develop the MPA system. On theory, a small part of marine
resources and coastal resources of Viet Nam is protected in the existing MPA system. These MPAs
are currently the focus to protect and conserve biodiversity in marine areas and coastal areas within
the country. While the proportion of different ecosystems has not yet been enough mentioned in the
MPAs system, the awareness of need in defining this proportion in the national MPA system has been
increasing. This can be proved through the fact that Government agencies and the scientist submitted
some national programs to develop MPAs and some proposed plans for each concrete MPA or to
expand the areas of the existing MPAs.
The survey results on local communities in Viet Nam conducted by the project ADB 5712-REG have
shown that coastal communities do not consider protected areas important. In fact, they are very
important. This indicate that marine biodiversity are of high value, natural resources proliferate and
bring economic benefits either directly or indirectly. Moreover, low priority is given to protected areas,
meanwhile, high priorities are given to marine biodiversity and indicate that basic foundation to
maintain, strengthen and expand protected areas in Vietanm is economically-based foundation, not
only based on the value of biodiversity.
At the same time, tourism activities are quickly developing in coastal zone which included existing or
proposed protected areas. Cat Ba, Nha Trang, Con Dao and Phu Quoc together with islands in Ha
Long Bay which is approved as the World Heritage are important areas where tourism activities are
being developed. Tourism can play an important role in developing coastal areas of Viet Nam.
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However, complicated matters still remain. Natural resources restocking in marine waters and coastal
waters of Viet Nam are not in good conditions and being threatened by many factors, including overexploiting, changing land- use methods and by polluting. In the existing protected areas system, there
are great faults, especially of wetland environment, marine and coastal environment. Except some
protected areas, Viet Nam lack of a program for marine/coastal protected areas. National Parks such
as Cat Ba and Con Dao recommended their marine areas be protected and be recognized as such
recently. Even so, these recommended-protected marine areas should be expanded to cover
important marine habitats. Now, on theory, only part of coastal/marine natural resources of Viet Nam
are considered in the existing protected area system.
There is a close relation between Marine/ Coastal Protected Areas with the matter of economic
development in coastal areas. The matters like difficulties/ constraints are also clear and need to be
addressed as follows:
- Biological basis is not strong for the planning of protected area system
- Low financial investment for MPA system
- Low capacity of planning, establishing and managing protected areas
- Legal frame, policies for protected areas in Viet Nam need to be completed
- The matter of developing and improving livelihoods for communities
- Awareness of communities and of managers on conservation
- Existing capacity and managing situation at established Protected areas or to be established.
- The matter of maintain sustainable activities of protected areas.
The challenge is to maintain, manage and reform important habitats on biodiversity which play a key
role to the local and national economy, especially important protected areas, both in conserving
biodiversity and coastal communities whose welfare and sources of income relied upon marine
environment. Investment in conserving biodiversity in Viet Nam can be and should be considered as
important steps to ensure the economic stability at coastal areas and stimulants for better
improvement activities of the environment quality, meanwhile, establishing a conserving community
and a more well-informed people who in reverse support natural conservation activities.
The histories of the Protected areas in Viet Nam are deemed to start from 1986 when natural reserve
areas with priority-given ecosystems (mangroves) were established in Ca Mau, Bac Lieu. Then,
National Parks such as Cat Ba, Con Dao were established and, step by step, they include waters
around islands. Together with WWF - Indochina, the Oceanographic Institute took the initiatives in the
research of the potential of biodiversity in accordance to the guidelines to establish marine protected
areas in some marine waters during 1993-1995. After that, with the investment of the National Centre
of Science and Technology, the Oceanographic Institute continued to build up scientific basis for
plans under current preparation. Some realistic activities in line with guidelines for marine
conservation are being carried out at marine/ coastal protected areas like Con Dao, Phu Quoc, etc.
The project ADB 5712-REG (phase 2) recommend a national system consisting of 30 marine/coastal
protected areas. The management of 6 of them need to be strengthened. Eight of them need
expanding and management need to be increased. 6 of them are newly established. Nowadays, the
Vietnamese Government consigned Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI) to make a plan to develop marine
protected areas. The results of marine parts of the project ADB are incorporated into this plan. 15
areas are listed with the ecosystem given priority to such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. One area
in Spratly is also brought into the plan. With the sponsor of Global Environment Fund, DANIDA and
Vietnamese Government, the Hon Mun Pilot Project and Cu Lao Cham MPA have been operating in
accordance to the strategy of marine conservation. At local levels, provinces and cities also started to
prepare protection plan and managing their coral reefs. The model of coral reef management with
various objectives is applied to coral reefs in Ninh Hai district, Ninh Thuan province in order to resolve
the conflicts between economic stakeholders in using and conserving the local reefs. The plan to
establish “no-take” zones or sanctuaries with small-scales is being made in Ninh Hai (NinhThuan) and
in Van Phong Bay. However, they are only first-step pilot models in order to seek out effective
measures in reaching integrated managing of coral reefs in particular and of marine protected areas in
general in a sustainable way.
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NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
117
The next step towards developing more specific legislation for MPAs has been taken by MOFI through
the development of Draft Regulation on Marine Conservation Area Management (2000/QD-TTg). This
regulation stipulates the general provisions and regulation for MPA management and includes a short
definition of three proposed categories for marine conservation areas (i.e. Marine National Park;
Habitat/species protected areas and Marine Resources Management Areas). It also provides
guidance for formation of MPA Management Board and identifies mechanism for State management
MPA. The regulation provides also the basis for establishing a broader national legal framework for
MPAs.
Following this draft regulation, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for the management of MPAs
including: Development of legal documents and policies related to the establishment of MPAs (official
approval is obtained through the National Assembly); Development of programs and project proposals
to expand the system of MPAs; Establishment of management boards for MPAs under the direct
management of MOFI; Publicity, training and professional development for marine conservation.
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UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project Co-ordinating Unit
United Nations Building
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Fisheries Administration of Cambodia
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
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Research Center for Oceanography – LIPI
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Marine Science Institute
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