Hitler y Stalin

HITLER AND STALIN DICTATORSHIPS, TWO DICTATORSHIP IN COMPARISON: POWER AND
REPRESSION STRUCTURES
According to Cambridge dictionary, repression means: `when people are controlled severely, especially by
force' and power is: `the amount of political control a person or group has in a country'. According to these
meanings this essay is going to show some aspects of how Hitler and Stalinist dictatorships applied them in
their respective countries. We will see how their political ideology already implied it if they wanted them to
work. Throughout the work I will show how repression, manipulation, terror or abuse of power was used in all
structures which compound Hitler's and Stalin's. Those spheres I have talked about are, their ideologies, their
domestic and foreign policies, the different institutions such as, security forces, culture, education or
propaganda and mass media, and finally I will widelly show the extreme cases which were decisive points of
their terrorist policies. Finally a conclussion with a personal opinion about the topic.
Hitler and Stalin's dictatorships are famous because of their repressive and terror policies towards Germany
and USSR society respectively, they persecuted mainly people who belonged to the opposition − which is the
case of both dictatorships− or to those they belonged to an inferior ethnicity −the case of the Nazis. So the
matters I am going to talk about here are: how did they carry out these brutal actions.
Starting with their ideology, from the moment Hitler achieved power in spring 1933 he quickly restricted
democratic rights such as the autonomous workers' organizations where Germany's trade union leaders were
arrested and instead they created the only union organization allowed in Nazi Germany, the German Labour
Front (DAF) or Hitler also created in the same year the Law Against the Formation of New Parties through
which legal opposition was eliminated, so Nazi party would become the only one of the German State and
Hitler would name himself Führer and Reich Chancellor, this is to say, the main power of the State. The
policy which Hitler claimed did not hide the radical rejection towards Jews, Bolsheviks, the hated Treaty of
Versailles, the announced aggressive foreign policy and he also promised reduction of unemployment by
rearmament (production of tanks, explosives, ships and so on).
Maybe Stalin's ideological policy did not seem to be −in theory− as clearly aggressive as that of Hitler.
Stalin's perspectives to Communist USSR, was transforming and modernizing the society in interest of the
people −but imposing his rules−, turning backward, agrarian and bourgeois Russia into a socialist, urbanized,
industrialized giant with modern technology and a literate workforce. Despite the fact that Soviet Communists
did not include in their ideology the leader principle, Stalin behaved in practice like that, like a paternalist
figure towards Soviet population.
So what we can see from Hitler and Stalin's ideologies is that those points they are going to have in common
are on the one hand that they would become the main figure of power of their regimes, also their policy of
discrimination to certain social groups and finally their ambition of improving their countries sometimes using
hard policies towards their people.
Policy of terror in both dictatorships started from the very beginning. After the death of President Hinderburg
in 1934, Hitler, who was already Chancellor, took personal command of the armed forces and named himself
Führer and Reich Chancellor (as it was said before), in that way he would concentrate the main political
power in his hands. In the same year, he replaced the SA −the former army of Nazis which played an essential
role to Nazi's achievement of power− by SS −an elite under control of the SA which behaved as bodyguard
and party's police− in a violent act which lasted 3 days called Night of the Long knives, because Hitler
thought they could be a potential enemy towards the party. Hitler legalized this action through a law which
stated that these acts were justifiable in order to defend the country.
Laws like this were created so thus Nazi leaders were able to make most extreme outrages towards certain
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sectors of the population when they thought necessary and for attracting the Führer's attention, who each time
cared less about the domestic policy. To join together all these people who did not belong to Nazi party, they
already created concentration camps from the same 1933 onwards −firstly for political opponents, later would
join those who did not belonged to the Aryan race− across the whole Germany and later on the occupied
countries.
So we find that the policy of repression and abuse of power in the name of their ideology existed from the
very beginning.
In the case of USSR, when Lenin died and Stalin got the power in 1927, party membership was important to
advance in Soviet Russia. Admittance was not easy, each member was hardly investigated to see if he or she
was a good Communist, also workers and poor peasants were favoured, and however something that was quite
harder for office workers and professionals.
Leaders of the left opposition were also expelled of the party, so right opposition were scared as they thought
things would be worst for them, and then this last group weakened. And if that small opposition, which
remained, did any meeting, was hardly punished as Party considered that they were having anti−Soviet
discussions.
Another repressive point was that before 1920's there used to be political debates about Marxism in Soviet
Union, but from the moment Stalin got the power any critical political theory and ideas against the regime
became dangerous, even for the selfsame Communists.
There were also concentration camps for these people, the Gulags, and also people who was not wanted in the
Soviet USSR was expelled from their houses or deported to Russian North areas.
So from the moment Hitler and Stalin started to rule, they both begun to eliminate those people they thought a
danger to their regimes and as we can see, they carried out a policy of discrimination where use of force and
intimidation was guaranteed.
The economic policy that Hitler used in the new German was the rearmament, in that way he will raise
employment and at the same time he would prepared Aryan Germans to the occupation of other European
countries, this is what Hitler would call the conquest of Lebensraum (living−space), the second important
point of his economic policy was autarchy, which implied the setting on the other countries because Germany
did not have the necessary resources to maintain the different aspects of its economy.
On the other hand opponents and those race considered inferior were not included in Hitler's Germany, so
concentration camps, in charge of Himmler − Chief of the SS−, would became an important part of the
domestic and international structures, as there was plenty of people to distribute among them. These prisoners
were used as labour forces, working long hours under inhumane conditions with very little food, and violence
and tortures were used against them.
Stalin also had to use repressive policies towards society if he wanted his ideological and economic ambitions
to work.
He started with forced industrialization and collectivization of lands, peasants were forced to it and those who
offered resistance were denounced as `kulaks' −5 million were deported to concentration camps (the `gulags')
of east and north ragions or were killed−. The same fate had those who critized this policy such as union
leaders who tried to (in words of Paul Hayes) `give voice to workers' resentment' or non−party intellectuals
who were considered as (according to Hayes) ``bourgeois' elements in every academic, professional and
educational field'. Respecting the programme of industrialization, 19 million peasants migrated to cities in
about 13 years.
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Similarities and differences we find in both dictatorships respecting repression in their domestic policy are the
compulsary service of the population to serve the regimes aims and as it was obligatory the consequent
creation of concentration camps and `Gulags' for those who dare to resist or those who were considered not to
belong to the regimes; Jews and Slav in the case of Germany and kulaks and burgeoisie in the case of USSR.
Both tried to eliminate these people for ideological reasons, Hitler did it mainly because of racial prejudicies
and Stalin because his ideological policies implied this elimination, though Hitler's reasons also imply his
ideology.
Respecting the international policy, what they sought on these lands was (in Fulbrook's words) a
self−sufficient war economy sustained by territorial expansion and exploitation of the raw materials and
labour of conquered territories. They started in 1937, when they were already rearmed. Some countries were
considered as close Aryan cousins, these were Danish, Norwegian, Dutchman and Flemish but most of these
people did not feel comfortable with Nazi policies. Farmers and merchants followed Nazis rules without any
sympathies towards them, feeling frightful of any punishment. The kings of Norway and Denmark tried to
support morally their people, including Jews, for example wearing the yellow star − which was compulsory
for Jews− in an act of solidarity. Holland, despite the fact of being one of the privileged countries, also was
against the Nazi anti−Semitism, finally it was also compulsory for Dutch Jews wearing the distinctive yellow
star. In the case of Belgium people −mainly king Leopold III, elite, the Church and civil servants− they
adapted to the invaders without offering too much resistance especially because they did not want to suffer
again the outrages of the First World War.
The case of France was different from that of the countries Northern countries and the Slaves ones. It
remained divided in two parts, one of them occupied by Germans and the other one remained French. Some
French movements supported the German invasion; the main reasons were − in words of Gabriel Jackson−
`the sometimes enthusiastic, sometimes masochistic acceptance of the defeat and efforts purely opportunistic
to obtain a small piece of power and personal favours of the winners'. Anyway French peasants and civil
officers had to obey also German commands.
Finally the Slav countries were looked down on by Nazis, so when they achieved countries such as Poland or
Hungary, they despised them, they confiscated those necessary resources and food needed. A lot of people
became prisoners and brought to concentration camps leaving them dying, but then Nazis realized they needed
a labour force to maintain those territories, so native people were used for that purpose.
The same as Nazy Germany, also USSR got a great empire. When Stalin got the power Russia already had
many territories annexed from Europe and from Asia inherited, after the Revolution and civil war, from
Romanov empire. On the economical and political level, main administrator territories were those from
Russian ethnicity; but we have to take into account that the original Soviet regime had an internationalist and
non−racist ideology − despite of the fact that there was a certain degree of hiden anti−Semitism.
Stalin's government added in 1940 the Baltic states. During the last phases of the Second World War, the Red
Army occupied Albania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria which would become
satelite states, economically subdued to URSS . According to Yalta's treaty in 1945, those countries had to
choose their new governments in free elections where all non−fascist parties −as these countries belonged to
Nazi Germany− had the right of participating. But few years later Stalin stablished the most strict ideology
and police control. For example demobilized soldiers might be sent to the gulags for telling admiring
comments of things that they had seen at the `liberated' Europe. (Gabriel Jackson)
Stalin's policy was that of puting dictatorships which governements were just disguised Soviet entities, and
presidents, rulers chosen from the Kremlin and which were nucleated at the Kominform −information office
of Communist parties.
So people, for instance from East Germany, just had the choice of accepting the new Soviet regime or leaving
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the country. At Soviet Germany, secret police controlled −as at the other Soviet countries− any expression of
opinions, emigrants lost their properties (as in Nazi times) and authority was imposed everywhere.
The other satelites countries also were mainly dependent from Russian orders, some of them with more or less
repressive distators. Hungary was one of those countries which had a severe dictatorship, where all the
explotation rules and purge of any trade union member who tried to keep the least independence, were
extrictly imposed.
We see here how similar policies were applied in both dictatorships, with an important role of security forces
in both countries and the policy of discrimination again used. Thus any dictatorship where terror policy is
used, security and intelligence service role are very important.
This was the case of Hitler's Germany. The main security forces were the SS, headed by Himmler and the
Gestapo, an important figure in Nazi Germany, he even became State Ministry of the Interior. He was allowed
to arrest, detain, imprison, torture and murder arbitrarily. So fear of arresting, and fear of informers, led to
public conformity and the leading of a double life for many Germans.
Soviet case was not very different. On a way Soviet forces were also arbitrary choosing their victims because
they forced people to state things they have never done. Russian Secret police, the KGB and the CHEKA, as
German SS and Gestapo played a decesive role in internal and external policies of their own countries to make
each countries policies work in people. For example Himler was the one who stablished the main
concentration camp in Dachau. In both dictatorships they were who killed, torture and so on, party dissedents,
which were their main victims for Soviets, and especially Jews which were Nazis main aims. They did the
role of intimidate people and keep their countries `clean' of those who were considered a danger or they were
not seen as members of their regimes.
Science, culture and education also reflected these oppresive regimes. At Nazi Germany, means of
communication, propaganda and culture were controlled from Goebbels' Ministry of Propaganda and
Enlightenment, created in 1933. In this way a lot of acts of repression started, burning of mainly Jews and
socialists books, with the subsequent emigration of many authors, thus cultural life in Nazy German was
reduced to `German art', which was a kind of realism in painting and grandiose scheme in architecture; films
were used as an effective means of propaganda, many times glorifying the Führer, showing adulation of
population and celebrating what the nation had got thanks to the `national awakening' but also showing
anti−Semitism; press was also controlled by Nazis, they controlled editors, journalists, applying censorship
when they thought necessary, it was quite similar with radio.
At the Soviet Union also all these institutions were hardly controlled and manipulated. When Stalin's
dictatorship was consolidated, wisest and older artists changed from expressionism or constructivism style to
the conventional oil portrait of party leaders and exemplary peasants and workers. Soviet films used to show
shining, healthy, smiling peasant and factories girls and both sex workers did not wandered anymore but their
went happily towards future. Politics was also a main issue in films, as in Nazi German, and also experienced
censorship, for example, director Prokóviev showed the heroic Moscow's salvation in XIII century against an
invasion of Teutonic knights; this film, won the Lenin Prize in 1939 and was removed some months later,
when the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the non−agression treaty. This also an example the
dictatorship controversies. Manipu
So we can see often, in propaganda of both dictatorships the glorification of their leaders, also, common
people was represented as happy, healthy (as I said before), proud of that country or regime to which they
belonged.
They both liked to show their strong soldiers, as preapared phisically, morally and ideologically prepared to
fight the enemy. Here these two popaganda pictures show these feelings:
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Education was also manipulized by both regimes. There was a purge of teachers from schools and universities
who were replaced for those who did not belong to the main race in the case of Germany and to those who had
diferent political views, this is the case of both regimes. Many important academics were forced to leave, for
instance, Albert Einstein, from Germany. Subjects such history, biology or German were changed to Nazi
point of views, and a new subject was added called Rassenkunde where Nazi point of views about heredity
and racial purity were shown. Also a new subject was added at the Soviet Union, social science were replaced
by instruction in Marxism−Leninism−Stalinism, a subject which became compulsory for all pupils. By means
of these subjects, regimes ideology could be stablished on their future generations.
Science was a subject and institution where many outrages were made in the name of the ideological regime.
Nazi main manipulation of science and that in which they based their main regime principle was that of
`Evolution of species' by scientific Darwin, Nazi used his ideas applicated to races (despite the fact they were
not the only ones who used these theories, also Western colonialist based on them), so for them the main race
was the Aryan, the more evolutionated from human being, and the worst were Jews. As a consequence of
these ideas, as they were not even considered human beings, most horrifying scientific experiments were done
using this poor people as Guinea−pigs.
Stalinist regime also adapted science to its ideological interest. For example at psychological and psychiatric
field. The Pavlov's theory about the dog which consisted in that the animal was conditioned to salivate not
when it was hungry but when a bell was rung, and systematically starved men and women were likewise
conditioned to behave inhumanly in the hope of being fed. So in 1928, Stalin told Pavlov to write a tour
hundred book about how to control human being through nerves. Which was an inconsistent theory because
human beings have a more complex psyche. Even Soviets also where able to consider politic dissident as
mental sick people and these people were sent to mental hospitals.
One reason why many times scientific theories were manipulated was to give an authority to their inconsistent
or non realistic ideologies.
German concentration camps and Soviet gulags were often where scientific atrocietes were carried out, or
where supposed inneficient mental people were deported to.
In each regime there was a terrifying climax related to use of terror and repression, having as most significant
places these concentration camps and gulags. These outrages happened for different reasons in each one, but
the results were very similar, these results were mass deportations and millions of innocent people killed. The
German case was the Holocaust or Final Solution and the Soviet case was the Stalin purges.
As I said before, Jews were the most hated race by Nazi, but there were also another victims such as Slaves,
homosexuals or hereditarily deseased. Despite the fact that, persecution and deportation had already begun
from 1934; but till 1941 concentration camps had not the primary intention of killing prisoners, besides
euthanasia programme started oficially in 1939. Deportations en masse started to Sachsenhausen, Buchewald
and Dacha. Their leaders thought carefully a more radical and definitive solution about the `Jewish problem'.
From then systematic slaughters of Jews started, included thousands of children, at Estern Europan countries...
In order to make easy the death of thousands of human beings, the RHSA organized trucks, which used to be
to transport mental deseased. These trucks were totally closed and they gave off carbon monoxide inside. In
this way, thousands of deported Jews were killed from Chelmno camp. But this method was quite expensive,
so SS leaders thought about another cheaper method. Thus they decided to use the Cyclon B gas, first
concentration camp where it was used was in Belzec, and then it would extend to the rest. The Wansse
conference in January 1942 planned the acceleration of the `Jewish problem' in Europe. Like this, six million
Jews died from 1941 to 1944.
With Stalin purges, also millions of people died. `In the summer of 1932 Joseph Stalin became aware that
opposition to his policies were growing. Some party members were publicly criticizing Stalin and calling for
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the readmission of Leon Trotsky to the party. When the issue was discussed at the Politburo, Stalin demanded
that the critics should be arrested and executed. Sergey Kirov, who up to this time had been a staunch
Stalinist, argued against this policy. When the vote was taken, the majority of the Politburo supported Kirov
against Stalin.
In the spring of 1934 Sergey Kirov put forward a policy of reconciliation. He argued that people should be
released from prison who had opposed the government's policy on collective farms and industrialization. Once
again, Stalin found himself in a minority in the Politburo.
After years of arranging for the removal of his opponents from the party, Joseph Stalin realized he still could
not rely on the total support of the people whom he had replaced them with. Stalin no doubt began to wonder
if Sergey Kirov was willing to wait for his mentor to die before becoming leader of the party. Stalin was
particularly concerned by Kirov's willingness to argue with him in public. He feared that this would
undermine his authority in the party.
As usual, that summer Kirov and Stalin went on holiday together. Stalin, who treated Kirov like a son, used
this opportunity to try to persuade him to remain loyal to his leadership. Stalin asked him to leave Leningrad
to join him in Moscow. Stalin wanted Kirov in a place where he could keep a close eye on him. When Kirov
refused, Stalin knew he had lost control over his protégé.
Sergey Kirov was assassinated by a young party member, Leonid Nikolayev, on 1st December, 1934. Stalin
claimed that Nikolayev was part of a larger conspiracy led by Leon Trotsky against the Soviet government.
This resulted in the arrest and trial in August, 1936, of Lev Kamenev, Gregory Zinoviev, Ivan Smirnov and
thirteen other party members who had been critical of Stalin. All were found guilty and executed.
In September, 1936, appointed Nikolai Yezhov as head of the NKVD, the Communist Secret Police. Yezhov
quickly arranged the arrest of all the leading political figures in the Soviet Union who were critical of Stalin.
The Secret Police broke prisoners down by intense interrogation. This included the threat to arrest and to
execute members of the prisoner's family if they did not confess. The interrogation went on for several days
and nights and eventually they became so exhausted and disoriented that they signed confessions agreeing that
they had been attempting to overthrow the government.
In January, 1937, Karl Radek and sixteen other leading members of the Communist Party were put on trial.
They were accused of working with Leon Trotsky in an attempt to overthrow the Soviet government with the
objective of restoring capitalism. Thirteen of the accused were found guilty and sentenced to death. Radek and
two others were sentenced to ten years.
The next trial in March, 1938, involved twenty−one leading members of the party. This included Nickolai
Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, Genrikh Yagoda, Nikolai Krestinsky and Christian Rakovsky. They were accused of
being involved with Leon Trotsky in a plot against Joseph Stalin and with spying for foreign powers. They
were all found guilty and were either executed or died in labour camps.
Stalin now decided to purge the Red Army. Leopold Trepper, head of the Soviet spy ring in Germany,
believed that the evidence was planted by a double agent who worked for both Stalin and Hitler. Trepper's
theory is that the "chiefs of Nazi counter−espionage" led by Reinhard Heydrich, took "advantage of the
paranoia raging in the Soviet Union," by supplying information that led to Stalin executing his top military
leaders.
In June, 1937, Mikhail Tukhachevsky and seven other top Red Army commanders were charged with
conspiracy with Germany. All eight were convicted and executed. All told, 30,000 members of the armed
forces were executed. This included fifty per cent of all army officers.
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The last stage of the terror was the purging of the NKVD. Stalin wanted to make sure that those who knew too
much about the purges would also be killed. Stalin announced to the country that "fascist elements" had taken
over the security forces which had resulted in innocent people being executed. He appointed Lavrenti Beria as
the new head of the Secret Police and he was instructed to find out who was responsible. After his
investigations, Beria arranged the executions of all the senior figures in the organization.'
The results of these purges were that about 8 million people were executed or imprisoned in Gulags, where
many of them would die because of the bad conditions of those places.
Similarities about these two great persecutions and executions are abviously death, we could say a lack of any
moral or ethics towards human being, despite the fact that we can take out from these cold actions, that these
people was not seen, by the executers eyes, as human beings.
Referring to the different motives which why these dictators executed these actions. We would say that that of
Hitler was his personal hate towards Jewish culture, this is to say, subject reasons, I think that was also a kind
of fear towards a Community of people who was able to develop efficiently economically with very little
things. Stalin's main motives were basically founded because as he behaved as a totalitarian leader, where
even party's ideology could not be questioned, this brought as a consecuence, a lot of hate again him. He
perceived and just decided to destroy any possible opposition or little criticism.
In relation of the use of terror policies of these dictators, there were not real motives to carry them out, only or
mainly personal reasons lead them to do those outrages, that repression, death and so on. I think there were
only personal ambitions, as becoming well−known in history books, as the one who acchieved a great empire
at the expense of enslaved population, because not only Jews or kulaks were victims, but also `accepted'
Germans and Soviets suffered the humiliations by parties sectors such as the secret police and the treatment as
only instruments, in order to rise just a personal empire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, Oxford, 1999
• Paul Hayes ed., Themes in Modern European History 1890−1945 General editor: Michael Biddiss,
University of Reading, 1992
• Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002
• Isaac Deutscher, (Catalan translation by Joseph Verde i Aldea): Stalin: Una biografía política, 1966.
(Original text: Stalin: A Political Biography, Ed. Oxford University Press, 1949 and 1966)
• Gabriel Jackson (Spanish translation by Carmen Aguilar), Civilización y barbarie en la Europa del
siglo XX (Original titol:Civilization and Barbarity in 20th Europe), 1997
• P. Timothy Bushnell, Vladimir Shlapentokh, Christopher K. Vanderpool, and Jeyaratnam Sundram,
State Organized Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression, Ed. Westview Press, 1991
• Detlev J. K. Peukert, Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Live, Ed.
Penguin Books
• G. Hosking, A History of the Soviet Union, 1917−1991, 1991
• Enciclopedia Universal Multimedia, 2000
• Class photocopies Soviet Union, 1917−1953
• Stalin's Terror: http://www.johndclare.net/Russ12.htm
• Holocaust Chronolgy http://www.mtsu.edu/~baustin/holokron.html
• Stalin's Chronology http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/chrono3.html
• The Gulags http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/russia/cccp2939dom.html
• GESTAPO http://www.us−israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/Gestapo.html
• Anti−Semitic Films http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/pages/t053/t05329.html
• Soviet propaganda
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http://www.artehistoria.com/frames.htm?http://www.artehistoria.com/batallas/contextos/4246.htm
• German propaganda http://www.third−reich−books.com/
• Cambridge dictioanry http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=62015&dict=CALD
• Pavlov's psychology http://freedom.lronhubbard.org.mx/page102.htm
• The `Final Solution':
http://www.artehistoria.com/frames.htm?http://www.artehistoria.com/batallas/contextos/4246.htm
HITLER AND STALIN DICTATORSHIPS, TWO DICTATORSHIP IN COMPARISON: POWER AND
REPRESSION STRUCTURES
Cambridge Dictionary Online: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=62015&dict=CALD
Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, Oxford, 1999, p. 15
Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002
Paul Hayes ed., Themes in Modern European History 1890−1945 General editor: Michael Biddiss, University
of Reading, 1992, p.162
Class photocopies Soviet Union, 1917−1953
Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002, p. 67
Gabriel Jackson (Spanish translation by Carmen Aguilar), Civilización y barbarie en la Europa del siglo XX (
Original titol:Civilization and Barbarity in 20th Europe), 1997, p.260
Gabriel Jackson (Spanish translation by Carmen Aguilar), Civilización y barbarie en la Europa del siglo XX (
Original titol:Civilization and Barbarity in 20th Europe), 1997, p. 390
Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002, p. 60
Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002, p. 62−63
Pavlov's psychology http://freedom.lronhubbard.org.mx/page102.htm
Mary Fulbrook, History of Germany 1918−2000 The Divided Nation, Second edition, Ed. Blackwell
Publishing, 2002, p. 88
Abstract from an article about The `Final Solution':
http://www.artehistoria.com/frames.htm?http://www.artehistoria.com/batallas/contextos/4246.htm
Stalin's Terror: http://www.johndclare.net/Russ12.htm
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