A Grammar Companion To Lengua Inglesa I

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Laura Alba Juez
Rubén Chacón Beltrán
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO
LENGUA INGLESA I
Accésit al Premio Unidad Didáctica de Nueva Edición
Convocatoria 2003
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE EDUCACIÓN A DISTANCIA
Dpto. Filologías Extranjeras y sus Lingüísticas
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Texto revisado en septiembre de 2009
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de ejemplares de ella mediante alquiler
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© Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
Madrid 20
WWWUNEDUNEDESPUBLICACIONES
© Laura Alba Juez, Rubén Chacón Beltrán
Ilustraciones: Joaquín Armijo
ISBNELECTRÆNICO 978-84-362- %diciónDIGITAL: NOVIEMBRE de 20
To the memory of María Salomé Juez and Manuel Chacón
“Considerations of what makes for good English or bad English are to an
uncomfortably large extent matters of prejudice and conditioning. Until the
eighteenth century it was correct to say ‘you was’ if you were referring to one
person. It sounds odd today, but the logic is impeccable. Was is a singular
verb and were a plural one. Why should you take a plural verb when the sense
is clearly singular? The answer –surprise, surprise– is that Robert Lowth
didn’t like it. ‘I’m hurrying, are I not?’ is hopelessly ungrammatical, but ‘I’m
hurrying, aren’t I?’ –merely a contraction of the same words– is perfect English. Many is almost always a plural (as in ‘Many people were there’), but not
when it is followed by a, as in ‘Many a man was there.’ There’s no inherent
reason why these things should be so. They are not defensible in terms of
grammar. They are because they are.”
BILL BRYSON, Mother Tongue
Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt.
The limits of my words are the limits of my world.
LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN,
Tractatus Logico Philosophicus.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
Cuando hablamos del proyecto inicial de una gramática de apoyo a las
Unidades Didácticas de la asignatura de Lengua Inglesa I con explicaciones
sencillas y claras que ofreciesen un apoyo teórico como complemento al
enfoque eminentemente práctico del texto base, no podía imaginar que el
resultado sería este libro. La sencillez y claridad en las explicaciones se ha
logrado ampliamente y, sin duda, facilitará la comprensión de los distintos
aspectos gramaticales que aquí se tratan; pero además, a mi juicio, los autores
han conseguido identificarse con las necesidades de los alumnos de esta
materia y esto les ha permitido hacer una gramática realmente práctica y
actualizada.
Me han interesado especialmente los ejemplos que presentan un uso
lingüístico al margen de la norma o trascendiéndola así como el enfoque de
carácter contrastivo que les hace explicar e insistir en aspectos que reconocen como fuente de errores para personas cuya lengua materna es el español.
En definitiva, queda patente a lo largo de todo el libro el dinamismo con
el que se ve la lengua desde esta perspectiva comunicativa que trasciende
la palabra o la frase y nos lleva al marco más amplio de la comunicación.
MÓNICA ARAGONÉS GONZÁLEZ
Profesora titular, UNED
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................
23
PRELIMINARIES ........................................................................................
25
INTRODUCTION: SOME BASIC CONCEPTS ...........................................
29
ABREVIATIONS USED ..............................................................................
35
CHAPTER 1
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -less / -ful ........................................................
2. Adverb formation: -ly ......................................................................
3. Compound nouns ...........................................................................
37
38
39
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Some / any ......................................................................................
Determiners any and no .................................................................
Some / any / no / every (compound forms) .......................................
Some / any
Must / have to ..................................................................................
Comparatives and superlatives ......................................................
Frequency adverbs: ever and never ...............................................
Prepositions ....................................................................................
Preposition into ...............................................................................
Space prepositions .........................................................................
43
45
46
47
50
53
55
56
57
12
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
11.
12.
13.
14.
Frequency adverbs .........................................................................
Prepositional time phrases .............................................................
Definite, indefinite, zero article .......................................................
Linking words .................................................................................
58
59
60
67
CHAPTER 2
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ence / -ance / -ency / -ancy
2. Prefixes: un- / dis- ...........................................................................
3. Prefixes: ex- / in- / pre- .....................................................................
69
70
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The genitive case: ‘s / of .................................................................
Premodification of nouns by other nouns .......................................
Time expressions: long ...................................................................
Prepositions: at, in, on, for ..............................................................
Make / do ........................................................................................
Past Simple / Past Continuous .......................................................
Neither / nor ....................................................................................
Emphatic and reflexive pronouns ...................................................
Definite, indefinite and zero articles
As many / as many as ....................................................................
72
75
76
77
81
83
85
86
88
CHAPTER 3
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Prefixes: pre- / pro- .........................................................................
2. Adjectives / adverbs ........................................................................
91
92
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Zero plural ...................................................................................... 96
Quantifying uncountable nouns ...................................................... 97
Even
Modal auxiliaries: may / might / can / could .................................... 99
Modal verbs
Prepositions: on, in, for
Compound adjectives ..................................................................... 103
Tense .............................................................................................. 104
Definite and indefinite articles ........................................................ 109
13
INDEX
CHAPTER 4
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound nouns ........................................................................... 111
2. Adverbs ending in -ly ...................................................................... 112
3. Abstract nouns ending in: -tion / -sion / -ssion ................................. 113
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Which (relative pronoun) ................................................................
Infinitive / -ing form .........................................................................
More and more ...............................................................................
Past Simple / Present Perfect ........................................................
Past Simple / Past Perfect ..............................................................
Prepositions
Space prepositions .........................................................................
Definite and indefinite articles
Definite article
Position of adverbs .........................................................................
115
116
119
120
121
122
127
CHAPTER 5
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound words ........................................................................... 131
2. The prefixes: dis-, un-, in- / im3. The suffix -ism (noun formation) ..................................................... 133
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
The Past Perfect .............................................................................
Past Simple / Past Perfect
Use of where in dependent subordinate clauses ...........................
Pronouns: personal (subjetive, objetive), possessive, reflexive. Possessive adjectives ..........................................................................
Disjuncts realized by a prepositional phrase: To his own dismay,
To my amazement, etc. ..................................................................
Prepositions: at, in, on, to, with, of, for, from ...................................
Direct and indirect speech ..............................................................
Reflexive pronouns .........................................................................
Repetition of comparatives (more and more / harder and harder,
etc.) ................................................................................................
Verbs of the senses + object + -ing
Articles ............................................................................................
135
136
138
140
141
146
151
151
152
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
CHAPTER 6
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Suffix -en ........................................................................................ 153
2. Suffix -y .......................................................................................... 154
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Passive form of mental process verbs (believe, consider, think,
suppose, etc.) + to infinitive
2. Passive voice .................................................................................
3. Imperative clauses and polite requests ..........................................
4. Modal verbs: mustn’t / needn’t .......................................................
5. Needn’t have (done) / didn’t need to
6. Purpose clauses .............................................................................
7. Emphatic pronouns ........................................................................
8. Time prepositions: since, for, during, by .........................................
9. Time prepositions: since, for, during, by
10. Articles
11. Definite article
12. Time adverbs: yet /still ....................................................................
155
158
161
163
164
165
167
CHAPTER 7
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound words ........................................................................... 171
2. Abstract nouns ending in: -(a)tion / -ment ...................................... 172
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Time prepositions since / for
Present Perfect / Past Simple ........................................................
Expressions with the prepositions for, of, with and from .................
Quantifiers: (a) little / (a) few ..........................................................
Frequency adverbs: often / always / never / occasionally ..............
Relative pronouns: which / who / whom
Time adverbs: yet / still / just / already ...........................................
Expressions with the word time ......................................................
Use of prepositions: about, after, by, for, from, on, until, with ........
Definite and indefinite articles .........................................................
173
174
176
177
179
181
182
186
CHAPTER 8
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -al / -age ............................................................... 187
2. Adjective formation: -al ................................................................... 188
15
INDEX
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Compounds with -ever ....................................................................
Defining relative clauses ................................................................
Pronoun / adverb + else
Comparison of adjectives ...............................................................
Conditional sentences (second type) .............................................
Reflexive pronouns
Present Simple / Present Continuous ............................................
Frequency adverbs
Space prepositions: at / in
Uses of the definite article
Uses of the particle as ....................................................................
189
190
191
192
193
195
CHAPTER 9
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Prefixes re- and de2. Negative prefixes non- and un- ...................................................... 197
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Simple future with will / shall ..........................................................
Comparative and superlative forms ................................................
Use of the time prepositions since, for, until and by
Prepositions forming fixed expressions with other words ...............
Relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which and that ..................
Perhaps as a substitute for may .....................................................
Modal verbs can, may, could, might
Articles
The genitive with ‘s
Quantity and distribution determiners: all, many, much, both, half .
Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns .................................................
199
201
202
203
205
206
209
CHAPTER 10
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Formation of adjectives with the suffixes –y and –ly ...................... 211
2. Noun formation: -ment, -tion, -al, -age ........................................... 212
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Combination of Past Simple and Past Continuous ......................... 215
2. Combination Past Simple / Past Continuous vs Past Simple / Past
Simple ............................................................................................ 216
16
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Modal verbs: ought to / should .......................................................
Verbs of the senses + object + infinitive / -ing participle .................
Preposition + gerund / -ing clause ..................................................
Expressions followed by a gerund ..................................................
Verbs followed by an infinitive vs. verbs followed by a gerund .......
Different uses of either ...................................................................
Prepositions
Prepositions with and without .........................................................
Adverbs ending in -ward(s) ............................................................
Frequency adverbs
Articles ............................................................................................
Exclamations: How + Adj. P / What + NP… ...................................
Connectors: as, then, first, even if, though, still, for ........................
217
219
220
222
223
227
229
230
231
232
233
CHAPTER 11
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Verb formation: -ise / ize and -de .................................................... 235
2. Compound nouns ........................................................................... 236
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Conditional constructions ...............................................................
Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences and Simple Future
Verbs followed by a preposition + gerund ......................................
Compounds with -ever
Future with -will or going to ............................................................
Prepositions: in, around, from, at, on, over
Must and have to
Direct and indirect speech ..............................................................
The zero article ...............................................................................
238
242
243
244
246
CHAPTER 12
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation. -ive and -ous (-ious) ....................................... 247
2. Verb formation: en- (em-) / in- (im-) ................................................. 248
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Use of the infinitive
2. It + be + adjective / noun + to-infinitive ........................................... 250
17
INDEX
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Gerund vs. infinitive ........................................................................
Too .................................................................................................
To-infinitive phrases ........................................................................
Future Continuous ..........................................................................
Direct and indirect speech
Prepositions
Prepositions as / like .......................................................................
Articles
Temporal clauses ............................................................................
251
252
253
254
255
257
CHAPTER 13
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound nouns ........................................................................... 259
2. Formation of adjectives: -ic, -ific, -ive, -al, -able, -ory, -y and
formation of adverbs: -ly ................................................................. 260
3. Compound nouns: N + N, Adj. + N and V + N combinations .......... 261
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Passive voice in scientific / academic texts
Passive voice in ditransitive clauses ..............................................
Prepositional passives
Prepositions: for, from, to, on, in, and into
Time adverbs: yet, still, just, already ..............................................
Compounds of no-, some-, any- and every + -thing, -body and
-where
Noun formation with the suffix -th
Position of adverbs .........................................................................
Position of adverbs in passive sentences
Use of articles
Quantity and distribution: every, many, much and all .....................
262
263
264
266
CHAPTER 14
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: suffixes -ous, -ary and -al .............................. 269
2. Noun formation: suffixes -ent or -ant .............................................. 270
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Plural forms of nouns ..................................................................... 271
2. The oblique (or ‘double’) genitive ................................................... 275
18
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Possessive pronouns
Prepositional phrase: by + -ing forms .............................................
Unstressed, existential there ..........................................................
Indirect questions
Indirect exclamations
The use of the pronoun one ...........................................................
Prepositions
Prepositions: about, by and for .......................................................
Articles
When introducing a dependent clause ...........................................
276
277
278
279
280
CHAPTER 15
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ness and -ity / -ety ............................................... 281
2. -ify / -ize -ise to form verbs .............................................................. 283
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Modal verbs
Word formation: noun / adverb / adjective
Prepositions: with, against , in, about .............................................
Present Perfect / Past Simple .........................................................
Preposition + Noun + Preposition: in… of / on… of / in… to ............
It as subject ....................................................................................
At / to / of / about ..............................................................................
Of / from
Order of adjectives .........................................................................
Nominal -ing clauses as objects .....................................................
Articles
As / like ............................................................................................
285
286
287
288
291
292
293
294
CHAPTER 16
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -able / -ible ...................................................... 295
2. Un- / in- / im- .................................................................................... 297
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Emphatic use of do ......................................................................... 298
2. Introductory it (cleft sentences) ...................................................... 299
19
INDEX
3. Would / used to ...............................................................................
4. Non-defining relative clauses
5. Uses of the infinitive: too + adj. / adv. + for someone / something +
+ to-inf. ...........................................................................................
6. Uses of the infinitive: adj. / adv. + enough + for someone / something + to-inf. ...................................................................................
7. Even / even if ...................................................................................
8. Different uses of so: so / so… that / so that .....................................
9. Prepositions
10. Prepositions: from / out of ...............................................................
11. Articles ............................................................................................
12. Duration adverbials: until… / all day / for years / to this day .............
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
CHAPTER 17
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ist and -er / -ar / -or .............................................. 309
2. Suffix -or ......................................................................................... 311
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
-ing form: gerund and continuous tenses
Verbs followed by the infinitive or the -ing form ..............................
Verbs always taking a gerund or an infinitive
Use of the -ing form after prepositions
-ing form used as an adjective
Definite, indefinite and zero articles
Correlative coordination: not only… but .........................................
Interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs ..........................
Prepositions: in and at
Relative pronouns ..........................................................................
312
313
315
318
CHAPTER 18
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound adjectives: N, Adj. or Adv. + Past participle or adjective
ending in -ed ................................................................................... 319
2. Negative prefixes: in- and un3. Adverbs here / herein and there / therein ........................................ 320
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Past Perfect / Past Perfect Continuous
2. Passive voice ................................................................................. 321
20
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The double or oblique genitive. Use of the possessive pronouns
Different uses of that ......................................................................
Use of the gerund in certain expressions .......................................
Prepositions
Time prepositions ...........................................................................
Articles ............................................................................................
Use of adverbial expressions: a few days after (later), the day after,
in the queue, in the January Sales, outside + NP around + NP, even
for + NP, a year before
10. Rather than… / would rather… than ...............................................
321
322
323
325
326
CHAPTER 19
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Plurals of words of Latin and Greek origin ..................................... 329
2. -ist / -ian (noun / adjective formation) ............................................... 330
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Present Simple / Present Continuous
Order of adjectives
Quantity and distribution .................................................................
-ing clause replacing a relative clause
-ing form after prepositions .............................................................
Prepositions: between / among / within ...........................................
Comparatives and superlatives
Space prepositions: to / from / at / in / into
Articles ............................................................................................
333
335
336
338
CHAPTER 20
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -ive / Noun formation: -tion
2. Adjective formation: -like ................................................................ 339
3. Compound adjectives: Noun / Adj. / Adv. + present participle ......... 340
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Conditional constructions: third type
Cleft sentences
Adverbs so and such: so + adj. / adv. / such (a / an) + adj. + N ........ 342
Verbs make / let + object + bare infinitive ........................................ 343
INDEX
5.
6.
7.
8.
346
9.
10.
21
Attributive adjectives ...................................................................... 344
Predicative adjectives ..................................................................... 345
Prepositions .................................................................................... 346
Movement prepositions: through, across, along, down / up, past, over.
Prepositions: between and among
Articles ............................................................................................ 348
LIST OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS .................................................. 349
CONSULTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................. 355
CONCEPTUAL / WORD INDEX .................................................................. 357
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We want to express our gratitude to Dr. Mónica Aragonés for proposing
that we write this book in the first place, and for trusting in our capacity to
prepare a grammar that could complement the Lengua Inglesa I language
course and at the same time fit the needs of the students. We also owe
a special debt to her for her valuable comments and contributions after
reading the first draft of every chapter and for her kind and helpful disposition
at every moment of the development of this project. In short, we thank her for
helping us turn the initial vision into a reality.
Our thanks also go to our colleagues at the Departamento de Filologías
Extranjeras y sus Lingüísticas of the UNED. In particular we are grateful to Jim
Lawley for always answering our questions about his insights as a British English
native speaker, and to Elena Bárcena, María Angeles de la Concha, Raquel
Varela and Ricardo Mairal for generously sharing some bibliography and for
their words of encouragement. We are also grateful to Elena Martínez Caro
(Universidad Complutense) for suggesting some very interesting bibliography.
Laura Alba Juez would also like to express her debt of gratitude to Dr. Angela
Downing (Univ. Complutense), whose teachings in the fields of Functorial
Grammar and Discourse Analysis have undoubtedly influenced the spirit of this
book.
We are specially grateful to Joaquín Armijo, for his devotion and
enthusiasm in the creation of the artwork for the cover and all the chapters
of this work.
Finally, we want to thank our families, for their constant support and
understanding.
Needless to say, all mistakes and omissions are our sole responsibility.
PRELIMINARIES
1. The aim of this book
Our main objective in preparing this grammar has been to provide our
students with the necessary grammatical information and explanations in
order to successfully complete the Lengua Inglesa I course of the Filología
Inglesa program at the UNED.
All the chapters in this grammar have been carefully planned to accompany
the chapters in the main course book, i.e. the Unidades Didácticas, Lengua
Inglesa I (Filología Inglesa) by Mónica Aragonés & Isabel Medrano (hereinafter
the course book). To that effect, for every exercise in both the Word Formation
and Language Points parts of the book there is a section in this Grammar
Companion devoted to the explanation of the particular grammatical point
covered. Our intention has been to accommodate the actual needs of the
Lengua Inglesa I student by presenting a readily accessible book with easyto-find answers to the questions that may arise when trying to complete the
exercises. This, we believe, will facilitate our students’ task and will make them
save precious time, as well as the effort of trying to find such information in
different grammar books which have not been written with such intention
in mind.
2. Organization of content
This grammar is divided in twenty chapters, and each of the chapters has
two main parts: A) Word formation, and B) Language points. The other two
parts in the course book (Vocabulary and Comprehension and writing) have
not been covered, as it was considered that they were not completely within
the scope of a grammar book.
26
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
The grammatical content of this book has been organized in such a way
that the number of its chapters corresponds to exactly the same number of
chapter in the course book, and, therefore, there are also the following
correspondences:
a) The text used for some of the examples in each of the chapters is always
the corresponding text in the course book, so that when we refer to “the
text” in, for example, Unit 10, we refer to Down the rabbit-hole, which
is the text used by Aragonés & Medrano in the same chapter.
b) The title of the two main parts of each of the chapters (Word Formation
and Language Points) corresponds to the parts under the same name
in the course book.
c) The number of the sections in each of the parts corresponds to exactly
the same number of exercise in the course book. Thus, if the student
wants to find a grammatical explanation for, say, exercise 4 in Chapter 2
of the course book, s/he has to refer to section 4 in Chapter 2 of the
Grammar Companion.
3. The content of this book
The content of this Grammar Companion is completely dependent on its
main aim and organization. Given the fact that the main aim was to provide
the students with the necessary grammatical knowledge to complete the
exercises in the course book, we only cover the grammatical content in relation
with these exercises, and therefore we acknowledge the fact that we may
have missed many major or important aspects of the grammar of English
which are not necessary for the students to fulfill the Lengua Inglesa I course
book objectives.
The first part of each chapter (Word Formation) is devoted to Morphology,
and the second part (Language Points) to Syntax (i.e. to the way words
combine to form phrases, clauses and sentences).
As a general rule, we have tried to include content that is descriptive rather
than prescriptive, including descriptions of Present-day English in its standard
form. However, we agree with Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 5) in that the
difference between the descriptive and prescriptive approaches is “something
of an oversimplification, because writing a descriptive grammar in practice
involves a fair amount of idealization”.
Since our main aim has been to describe those grammatical principles
and uses of the English language that were pertinent for the completion of
the exercises in the course book, we cannot say that this Grammar Companion
PRELIMINARIES
27
defends or illustrates a particular theory of grammar. We have to acknowledge
that we have been eclectic, drawing from different sources, sometimes
resorting to traditional grammar, some others trying to contribute with a more
functional, pragmatic or discourse viewpoint. In general, we have tried to give
simple and to-the-point explanations accompanied by graphical examples,
expanding this basic knowledge, on many occasions, with some comments
about particular interesting aspects of the uses of the point in question which
we considered could contribute to the student’s learning of real language in
use. On other occasions we point to differences between British and American
English, taking into account the fact that these are the two main varieties of
English the student will have to deal with in the real world. The fact that the
great majority of our students are Spanish speakers was never forgotten, and
therefore in many cases the explanations are pedagogically-oriented towards
a contrastive approach.
Finally, we want to remark that we make no claim to originality in the
content of this book. We have drawn freely on the work of many grammarians
and on the teachings of some of our former university professors and present
colleagues. We hope, nevertheless, to have contributed with a book that is in
sync with the needs of our students, by making all this knowledge accessible
to them and by always having their needs in mind. The grammars and authors
consulted are listed in the Bibliography, but, due to the fact that this is a book
to be used in a course, we have not considered it necessary to indicate the
sources of the different grammatical points described in each of its parts and
sections. However, if any author feels that acknowledgement is due, we commit
ourselves to future rectification.
INTRODUCTION: SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
In order to understand the grammatical explanations in each of the chapters,
we recommend that the students revise the following general and basic concepts.
1. Linguistic description: goals and levels of analysis
The task of linguistic description can be faced from different perspectives.
The linguist’s main goal may be to describe human language in general, and
therefore s/he will be concerned with linguistic universals (the properties that
all human languages are supposed to share). A less ambitious perspective
may be concerned with the study and description of individual languages like
Spanish, English or Chinese. In this work we are making an attempt to describe
some aspects of the morphology and syntax of English, so our aim is much
more of a modest one.
Languages may be described from either a diachronic or a synchronic
point of view. A diachronic description deals with the evolution of language
and the changes it has undergone along different periods. A synchronic
description, on the contrary, is concerned with a particular state of a given
language, i.e. with the system of a language as it presents itself at a given
period or time in its history. The aim of this book is not to study the evolution
of English through history, but to describe some syntactic and morphological
characteristics of Present-day English.
2. Levels of linguistic description
Linguists have not yet come to an agreement as to the number of levels
of description to be distinguished. For the aims of this book, suffice it to say
that for English it has been customary to consider at least four levels:
30
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
• Phonological (which studies the sounds of a particular language).
• Morphological (which is concerned with morphemes, the smallest
meaningful units of grammatical description, and therefore with the
formation of words).
• Syntactic (which studies the rules for the combination of words in order
to produce grammatical strings).
• Semantic (which is concerned with the meaning of words and
sentences).
In this book we are mainly concerned with the morphological and syntactic
levels of analysis, although meaning and pronunciation are not disregarded.
In fact, we give great importance to the way in which a change in structure
provokes a change in meaning, and we point to this fact as often as we consider
it necessary. We also pay attention to some differences between British and
American English and we specify differences in register or discourse type
when necessary. Some authors speak of a pragmatic and/or discourse level,
independent of the above ones. However, we do not view it in that light. We
agree with Mc Carthy & Carter (1994) in that the discourse level is not an
independent one; on the contrary, it comprises all four levels and intertwines
with them. We believe that the study of grammar will also help our students
develop their communicative competence, because it constitutes a part of this
broader discourse/communicative competence. However, considering the
modest aims of this book, we cannot say that this is a discourse grammar of
English. We have tried to contribute with some pragmatic and discourse
comments or additions, but the main core of the work is within a syntactic and
morphological frame, following the guidelines of the main course book.
3. Linguistic units of description
The units used for description depend on the linguistic level of analysis. If,
for example, we are working at the morphological level, our unit will be the
morpheme. The syntactic level has traditionally taken the sentence as its starting
point, with other units such as words or phrases constituting its ‘building blocks’.
Sentences consist of words, but these words are related to one another in
particular ways. The order in which the words are arranged in the sentence and
the relations among them is what we call the structure of the sentence.
The sentence can be segmented into parts which are called the
constituents of the sentence. Sentences contain phrases and phrases contain
words. There are different types of phrases and different classes of words.
Phrases are called by the name of the word class to which all their constituents
belong, therefore, we distinguish the following types of phrases:
31
INTRODUCTION
Word class
Type of Phrase
Noun: house
Adjective: nice
Verb: know
Adverb: surely
Preposition: with
Noun Phrase: my house
Adj. Phrase: very nice indeed
Verb Phrase: should have known
Adv. Phrase: most surely
Prep. Phrase: with all my love
4. Functions and categories
It is very important for grammatical analysis to distinguish between the
function and the category of a linguistic unit. We are concerned with the
function of a unit if we look at it as an element that plays a given role in a
larger linguistic structure. If, on the contrary, we look at this unit as an element
that has individual characteristics which are shared with other units of the
same kind, we are dealing with the category or class of the unit. Consider
the following examples:
• He gave me a wonderful diamond ring
• Function: Direct object
• Category: Noun Phrase
• She looks really gorgeous
• Function: Subject Complement
• Category: Adjectival Phrase
It is also important to remark that there is not a one to one relationship
between the function and the category of a unit. This means that we cannot
say that, for example, the subject of a clause is always realized by a noun
phrase, or that the adjunct function is always realized by an adverb or adverb
phrase. The same category may fulfill different functions, and the same function
may be realized by different categories. The following examples illustrate this
fact:
A) My husband did it
A) NP: subject
A) She is a very nice person
A) She is NP: subject complement
A) I want that book
A) I want NP: direct object
A) He gave Peter the present.
A) He gave NP: Indirect object
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
B) Some people don’t like it
B) Subject: NP
B) To be in Rome is like a dream for me
B) Subject: Non-finite, to-infinitive clause
B) Swimming is a very complete sport
B) Subject: Non-finite, -ing clause
B) Now is when I want to do it
B) Subject: Adv. Phrase
The examples in A) show how the same category, a noun phrase, can
fulfill different functions in the sentence, such as subject, direct object, etc.;
and the examples in B) show how the same function (subject) may be realized
by different categories: noun phrase, adverbial phrase, -ing clauses, etc.
5. Sentence and clauses
There are two main types of clauses: dependent and independent
clauses. Independent clauses are complete in themselves, whereas dependent
clauses necessarily depend on an independent clause: they are incomplete.
In this book the reader will see that we sometimes use the words
sentence and clause indistinctly. When we do, we refer to independent
clauses. When we deal with dependent clauses, we always specify the type
we are referring to (to infinitive, -ing, etc.)
Another important distinction is that between finite and non-finite
clauses. If the verb in the clause has tense, person or number we say that
the speaker has chosen a finite form of the verb and therefore the clause is
finite. If the verb form expresses neither tense nor person or number , then
this form and its clause are non-finite. The following are examples showing
both types of verb and clause:
• I saw him yesterday. (Finite, independent clause)
• I don’t want to see him today (Non-finite, dependent clause)
While dependent clauses may be either finite or non-finite, independent
clauses are always finite.
There are two main types of non-finite clauses:
1) Infinitive clauses, which may contain bare infinitives (without “to”) or
“to-infinitives”
INTRODUCTION
33
1) E.g.: To be or not to be, that is the question (to inf. clause)
1) E.g.: Will you help me do the cleaning, please? (inf. without “to” clause)
2) Participial clauses, which may have either the -ing participle or the
-ed participle
1) E.g.: I’m lost! She said, looking desperate (Non-finite, -ing clause)
1) E.g.: Given the facts, there’s nothing you can do (Non finite, -en clause)
Apart from finite and non-finite clauses, we can also find clauses which
have no verb at all, neither in a finite nor in a non-finite form. These are called
verbless clauses and the omitted verb is generally a form of be, which can
be recovered. The following underlined units are examples of them:
• When in Rome, do as the Romans do (= when you are in Rome)
• I’ll do it, if possible (= if it is possible)
Having touched upon these very basic concepts, we now turn to the
explanation of the particular grammar points in the students’ course book.
ABBREVIATIONS USED
Adj.
Adjective.
Adj. P.
Adjectival Phrase.
Adv.
Adverb
Adv. P.
Adverbial Phrase
Am. E.
American English.
Aus. E.
Australian English.
Br. E.
British English.
Cl.
Clause
DO
Direct Object
IO
Indirect Object
N
Noun.
NP
Noun Phrase.
NZ E
New Zealand English.
O
Object
Prep.
Preposition.
Prep. Comp.
Prepositional Complement
Prep. P./PP.
Prepositional Phrase.
S
Subject
V
Verb.
VP
Verb Phrase.
CHAPTER 1
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -less / -ful
1.1. Morphemes, prefixes and suffixes
When studying word formation we are dealing with the minimal unit of
grammatical description, i.e. the morpheme, because words are composed of
morphemes. Words may have one or more morphemes: the word friend is
composed of only one morpheme, but friendly and girl-friend are composed of
two. We distinguish two main types of morphemes: 1) Free, and 2) Bound.
Friend and girl are free morphemes because they can be used independently; -ly,
however, is a bound morpheme because it can not. Compound words (see 3
below) are an example of the combination of two free morphemes in one word.
Bound morphemes belong to the category of affixes, in which we find two main
types: Prefixes and Suffixes.
Prefixes in English are always of a derivational nature, i.e. they are added to the
root in order to produce a new word. E.g.: pre-cook, de-frost, in-sane.
Suffixes may be derivational or inflexional. Inflexional morphemes mark such
distinctions as the singular/plural contrast in nouns (head: head-s), the present
tense/past tense contrast in verbs (walk: walk-ed) , or the positive/comparative
contrast in adjectives (small: small-er). Examples of derivational suffixes are:
child-hood, king-dom, care-less, etc.
1.2. The suffixes -less and -ful
a) These suffixes are normally added to an abstract noun to form adjectives.
Abstract nouns refer to a quality or idea rather than to a physical object.
The suffix -ful is usually added to abstract nouns meaning “having the quality
of” or “full of”:
38
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: delight
delightful
beauty
beautiful
truth
truthful
b) The suffix -less can be added to nouns to form adjectives meaning “not having the quality of”:
E.g.: charm
charmless
breath
breathless
color
colorless (line 7)*
taste
tasteless (line 8)
2. Adverb formation: -ly
2.1. Adverbs in English can be formed by adding the derivational suffix -ly to
adjectives. In most cases, the resulting adverb is an adverb of manner:
E.g.: exceptional
exceptionally (line 34)
complete
completely (line 35)
kind
kindly
suspicious
suspiciously
malevolent
malevolently (lines 14-15)
Note that some adverbs of time (frequency adverbs) can also end in -ly:
monthly, weekly, hourly.
2.2. This type of adverb can be placed in almost any position in the sentence. It
can go in initial position:
E.g.: Carefully, Jane unlocked the door.
Middle position:
E.g.: Jane carefully unlocked the door.
And, final position:
E.g.: Jane unlocked the door carefully.
* The numbers refer to the lines in the corresponding text in the course book (in this case, Tea, in
Chapter 1).
39
CHAPTER 1
3. Compound nouns
3.1. A compound noun is a combination of two words which have independent
meanings (i.e. two free morphemes). They usually have two parts, one of which
modifies the other. The second part identifies the object or person we are talking
about and the first part describes or qualifies the second one.
E.g.: toothbrush: a brush you can use to clean your teeth.
postcard: a card which is meant to be sent by the post.
dining-room: the room where you have dinner.
washbasin: a basin you use to wash your hands, etc. (line 20)
Note that sometimes a new word with a completely new meaning comes up:
E.g.: blueprint: a plan or set of proposals.
breakfast: the first meal of the day. (line 21)
pickpocket: someone who steals things from people’s pockets.
3.2. It is important to take into account the difference between expressions like:
a) a tea cup: a cup in which tea is served;
b) a cup of tea: a cup filled with tea (line 10)
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
c) a milkbottle: a container for milk made of plastic or glass (it can be full or empty)
d) a bottle of milk: a bottle containing milk.
e) a cigarette packet: a small container in which cigarettes are sold
f)
a packet of cigarettes: the packet containing cigarettes.
Note that the apposition of two nouns is used to refer to the container
whereas the of-construction is used to refer to both, the container and the
content.
g) a race horse: a horse that is trained to run in races
h) a horse race: a competition where horses ridden by jockeys run.
3.3. Some common types of compound nouns are:
3.3.1. ADJECTIVE + NOUN / NOUN + ADJECTIVE.
E.g.: Englishwoman (line 35)
greenhouse
handful
wet suit
3.3.2. NOUN + NOUN.
E.g.: river bank
kitchen table
tea-time (line 31)
3.3.3. -ing + NOUN.
E.g.: waiting list
driving licence
gargling-water (line 8)
washing-machine
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CHAPTER 1
3.3.4. PRONOUN + NOUN.
E.g.: he-goat
she-elephant
3.3.5. VERB + NOUN.
E.g.: washbasin (line 20)
grindstone
workbook
travel agent
3.3.6. PARTICLE + NOUN / NOUN + PARTICLE.
E.g.: underwear
passer-by
3.3.7. NOUN + -ing.
E.g.: fox-hunting
fruit picking
weight-lifting
bird-watching
3.3.8. Whole phrases.
E.g.: good-for-nothing
mother-in-law
forget-me-not
3.4. Pronunciation of compound nouns.
There is a distinction between compound nouns and combinations of words that
just come up together. For example, in the adj. + N combination, compound
nouns have only one stress that nearly always falls on the first syllable, whereas
if it is only a noun preceded by an adjective, the noun is usually stressed:
42
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
2Compound2
E.g.: 'greenhouse
'blackboard
'wet suit
2Adjective + noun2
green 'house
black 'board
wet 'suit
3.5. Written form of compound nouns.
3.5.1. Compound nouns are sometimes written as one word (e.g.: yearbook,
screwdriver, etc.), sometimes with a hyphen (e.g.: tongue-twister, coat-hanger,
etc.) and sometimes as two words (e.g.: dance hall, credit card, etc.).
3.5.2. Very common compounds are usually written as one single word, as well
as those consisting of two short words:
E.g.: teacup, handbag, toothpaste, briefcase, outlet, offset, etc.
Notice that new compounds are being invented all the time, and it is
sometimes difficult to know how to write them. If you hesitate, the best
thing to do is to look them up in an updated dictionary.
3.6. The plural form of compound nouns.
3.6.1. Most compound nouns form the plural in a regular way.
E.g.: doorbell
landlady
baby-sitter
grown-up
forget-me-not
doorbells
landladies
baby-sitters
grown-ups
forget-me-nots
3.6.2. If the first element of the compound is a noun followed by a particle, only
the first element takes the plural.
E.g.: father-in-law
hanger-on
passer-by
fathers-in-law
hangers-on
passers-by
3.6.3. If the first element of the compound is man or woman, both elements are
made plural.
E.g.: woman doctor
man-eater
women doctors
men-eaters
43
CHAPTER 1
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Some / any
1.1. The use of some.
1.1.1. The partitive some, as opposed to any, is marked affirmatively and has
the meaning of an indefinite quantity, “a certain number or amount”. It can modify
both countable and uncountable nouns.
E.g.: [...] to show you how low some people can sink. (lines 32-33)
[...] my wife [...] made some cold coffee and put it in the refrigerator...
(lines 34-36)
1.1.2. You use some when you are interested in the quantity but you do not want
(or need) to be very specific. It is pronounced /səm/.
E.g.: Some of my best friends live in Washington D.C.
Some people are always getting into trouble.
1.1.3. Some can also be used when you are interested in the object itself rather
than in the quantity. In this case it would be the plural form of a/an and one with
the meaning of “a number of” or “a few of”. It is pronounced /səm/.
E.g.: Last night I ate some cakes.
I have visited some good friends recently.
1.1.4. As a rule, some is used in:
a) affirmative sentences:
E.g.: He wanted some more meat.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
b) offers and requests:
E.g.: Would you like some wine?
c) questions where the answer “yes” is expected:
E.g.: Why don’t you buy some of those pastries?
1.1.5. Notes:
a) Some is also used to mean “a certain person or an unknown thing and not a
specific one” when it is followed by a count noun in the singular.
E.g.: Some philosopher said that love is blind.
There must be some bookshop in Madrid where you can find that
book.
b) Some can also have the value of “approximately” or “around”. In this case, it
will be used before a count noun in the plural preceded by a numeral.
E.g.: We found some thirty squirrels in the back yard.
c) When some is an adjective it can take either the stressed /sm/ or unstressed
/səm/ pronunciation, but when it is a pronoun, the normal pronunciation is
stressed.
/səm/
E.g.: I want some cheese.
Bake some cookies for the party, please.
/sm/
Please give me some.
Bake some, please.
1.1.6. There is a colloquial use of some with an emphasizing function as in the following examples:
E.g.: He’s 'some crazy guy! (= he is very crazy)
You’re 'some lousy student! (= you are really a
bad student)
He is 'some actor (= he’s a very good actor)
1.2. The use of any.
1.2.1. The word any is also used to refer to an indefinite quantity and is not
marked affirmatively or negatively. It can be used in negative, interrogative and
affirmative sentences.
45
CHAPTER 1
a) As a rule, we use any in negative sentences:
E.g.: There aren’t any customers left in the restaurant.
There isn’t any butter in the fridge.
b) We use any in normal unemphatic questions where both an affirmative and a
negative answer are possible.
E.g.: Are there any new students in this class?
Is there any coffee in the kitchen?
c) We can also use any in affirmative sentences as a determiner referring to
something or someone whose exact identity or nature is irrelevant. In this
case, any will have the meaning of cualquier in Spanish.
E.g.: Nowadays, any teenager can learn English at school.
I just need to write a telephone number; any pen will do.
Notice the use of any in the following examples, where it modifies an
adjective in the comparative form:
I’m not growing any younger! (= I’m definitely growing older!)
I don’t want to play tennis any longer. I don’t like it and I’m not good at it.
If you don’t like my essay look for another person. I can’t write any better.
2. Determiners any and no
In exercise 2, Language Points of the Course book, your attention is called upon
the fact that, for example, the sentence:
She didn’t give us any information
can be also expressed:
She gave us no information
In the text (Tea) the author uses the determiner no in the following clause:
[...] if you have had no tea for some time […] (line 27)
The if clause in the example could also have been expressed by using any:
…if you have not had any tea for some time…
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
By using any here we avoid double or multiple negation, since the negative
particle not has already been added to the auxiliary have. Although it may be
found in casual speech, multiple negation is stigmatized in Standard English.
However, some dialects or varieties of English (such as Ebonics or Black English)
have incorporated multiple negation as an acceptable feature of their grammar.
As you know, double negation is also correct in Spanish and therefore we do not
find a correspondence between Standard English and Spanish in this respect.
Notice the use of the determiner no after the preposition with to express
the same meaning as the preposition without:
I want a coke with no ice, please = I want a coke without (any) ice, please.
She did it with no remorse at all = She did it without (any) remorse at all.
For a detailed explanation of the uses of any, see B1.2. in this chapter.
3. Some / any / no / every (compound forms)
3.1. Some, any, no and every can be combined with -one, -body, -thing and
-where to form compounds.
Some: someone, somebody, something, somewhere.
Any: anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere.
No: no one, nobody, nothing, nowhere.
Every: everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere.
3.2. In those cases where “some” changes to “any”, the compounds with somealso change to any-.
E.g.: A: The book must be somewhere; look for it!
B: I’m telling you it isn’t anywhere!
3.3. Notes:
a) There is no difference in meaning between -one and -body.
b) We often use the compounds of any after the conjunction if.
E.g.: If anyone needs a ride, let me know.
47
CHAPTER 1
c) Anyone means cualquier persona and any one means cualquier/a referring
to things.
E.g.: Anyone can get those medicines without a prescription.
She wants to rent a car for the weekend, any one will do.
4. Some / any
The explanations in B 2 and B 3 are also valid for exercise 4 in the main course
book.
5. Must / have to
When the writer of the introductory text in Chapter 1 (“Tea”) says You definitely
must not follow my example, or You must not refuse any additional cups of tea,
he is making use of the verb must to express modality, i.e. he is trying to convey
some meaning that goes beyond a simple assertion. Modality in English can be
expressed by using both verbal and non-verbal exponents*. We are now going to
concentrate on the type of modality expressed by means of verbs. Must and have
to in the text are used to express obligation, and therefore they are under the category of verbs which are used to express Deontic or Intrinsic modality **.
* Many authors support the idea that there are exponents other than verbs
that can also express modality. For instance, the modal disjuncts probably,
hopefully; the use of hesitation phenomena in speech, the use of certain
types of intonation, like the fall-rise, etc. However, the verb, and
particularly the modal and lexico-modal auxiliaries are the most basic
exponents of modality in English.
** There are two types of modality in English: 1) Epistemic or Extrinsic
Modality (used to express certainty, probability and possibility: will, must,
48
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
should, ought, may, might, could) and 2) Deontic or Intrinsic Modality
(used to express volition, obligation and necessity, ability and permission:
will, shall, must, have to, have got to, should, ought to, can, could, may,
might). Extrinsic modality refers to the logical status of events or states,
generally relating to assessments of probability. Intrinsic modality refers to
actions and events that can be directly controlled by humans or other agents.
5.1. The verbs must and have to are used in English to say that it is necessary
to do something and, therefore, it will definitely happen. They express obligation
and it often does not matter which of the two verbs you use.
E.g.: You must/have to have a visa if you want to travel to the States.
We are going to have another meeting with the lawyer. You
must/have to come back at seven o’clock.
5.2. Although some grammars point out that the difference between these two
verbs is non-existent, there seems to be a slight difference. Must tends to be used
when the speaker is giving his own feelings and the obligation comes from him.
E.g.: There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea,
[...] (line 10)
She has left three messages for you. You must call her back.
5.3. Have to is used when the speaker is not giving his own feelings and,
therefore, the obligation comes from somewhere else, not the speaker. It is also
used when the speaker is just reporting a fact.
E.g.: I’m sorry I can’t go there today. I have to work all day.
In Great Britain, among other countries, you have to drive on the left.
Notice that we tend to use the form have got to instead of have to in
spoken language, for instance: “Wait a minute! I’ve got to get another
ticket”. Also in spoken language, we tend to contract the three words (have +
+ got + to) together and this fact is represented in informal written language
as: “I gotta go...”, “Things I gotta do today...”.
49
CHAPTER 1
5.4. Must can also be used as an exponent of epistemic modality to express
certainty (not obligation in this case):
E.g.: The show must be finishing now.
She must be 50 years old now.
5.5. We normally use must (with the meaning of obligation) to talk about
the present, whereas have to can be used to refer to a past, present or future
situation.
E.g.: We must hurry if we don’t want to miss the parade.
E.g.: She has to be rushed into hospital. (present)
She had to be rushed into hospital. (past)
Have you ever had to be rushed into hospital. (present perfect)
She will have to be rushed into hospital. (future)
She might have to be rushed into hospital. (infinitive)
Note that have to usually takes the do/does/did auxiliary in questions and
negative sentences.
E.g.: Does she have to come to the office next Saturday?
She doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
5.6. In the negative, however, mustn’t and don’t have to are completely
different in meaning. We use mustn’t with the meaning of “you are obliged not to
do something” with a self-imposed obligation, and are not to when the obligation
comes from somewhere else.
E.g.: You mustn’t speak to her again.
You are not to leave before the police arrives.
We use don’t have to with the meaning of “you don’t need to do it”.
E.g.: She works at O’Connell’s but she doesn’t have to be in uniform.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
6. Comparatives and superlatives
Examine the use of the superlatives most eminent and sweetest in the text (lines
1 and 15).
6.1. When we want to compare two or more objects in English we use adjectives
in either the comparative or the superlative form. The comparative denotes a
quality in a higher, equal or lower degree by comparing two things.
E.g.: The weather in Wales is warmer than in Scotland.
The superlative denotes a quality in its highest degree by comparing two or
more things/people.
E.g.: London is the biggest city in Great Britain.
6.2. There are three types of comparison: equality, inferiority and superiority.
We form the comparative of equality by inserting the base form of the adjective
in the following pattern:
as … as
E.g.: My backpack is as big as yours.
Note that when we are comparing people, after the second as we can have either
the subject pronoun, the object pronoun or the subject pronoun with the auxiliary
verb. The last two forms are more common in spoken language.
E.g.: She is as efficient as he. (Not very frequent)
She is as efficient as him.
She is as efficient as he is.
6.3. The comparative of inferiority is formed by introducing the base form of
the adjective in the following pattern:
less … than
not as … as
not so … as
E.g.: He is less hard-working than you.
E.g.: He is not as hard-working as you (are).
E.g.: He is not so hard-working as you (are).
Note that these forms are all acceptable but the last two (negative of the
comparison of equality) carry a different suggestion.
6.4. We form the comparative of superiority and the superlative in English in
one of two ways:
a) We add -er to the base form of the adjective to make the comparative, and
-est to make the superlative.
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CHAPTER 1
b) We put more before the adjective to make the comparative (more … than
…), and most to make the superlative (the most …).
6.5. The following kinds of adjective form the comparative and superlative as in
6.4.a):
a) Monosyllables (i.e. having one syllable).
E.g.: near - nearer - the nearest
long - longer - the longest
small - smaller - the smallest
Note that the superlative is always preceded by the definite article the.
b) Disyllables (i.e. having two syllables) ending in -y, -ly, -ow, -le, -er, and -ure.
E.g.: happy - happier - the happiest
lovely - lovelier - the loveliest
yellow - yellower - the yellowest
simple - simpler - the simplest
clever - cleverer - the cleverest
mature - maturer - the maturest
Happy
Happier
The happiest
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
c) Disyllables stressed on the first syllable, such as: common, pleasant,
quiet, handsome, etc. However, these adjectives can also make the
comparative with more and most, a use that is becoming much more
frequent.
E.g.: commoner or more common
pleasanter or more pleasant
quieter or more quiet
6.5.1. Note the following changes in the spelling of adjectives:
a) Adjectives containing the sequence CONSONANT + SINGLE VOWEL +
CONSONANT in their spelling, double the last consonant.
E.g.: sad - sadder - the saddest
hot - hotter - the hottest
b) Adjectives ending in -y change it into -i- if they are preceded by a consonant.
E.g.: dry - drier - the driest
happy - happier - the happiest
c) Adjectives ending in a silent -e drop it before the comparative/superlative
inflection.
E.g.: large - larger - the largest
nice - nicer - the nicest
d) Irregular comparatives and superlatives are:
good - better - the best
bad - worse - the worst
far- farther/further 1 - the farthest/furthest
much/many - more - the most
little - less - the least
old - older/elder 2 - the oldest/eldest
1
Farther refers to space or time. There is clear tendency for further to be used with abstract
properties and farther with more concrete, real ones. E.g.: Further reading, further comments
(meaning additional), but: My house is farther away from the airport than yours.
2
Elder and the eldest only refer to members of a family. “An elderly person” is a polite/respectful way
of saying “an old person”.
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CHAPTER 1
6.6. The following kinds of adjective form the comparative and superlative as in
6.4.b):
a) All other disyllabic adjectives such as: fruitful, harmless, vital, frantic, private,
stylish, beloved, darling, obvious, pensive, recent, stubborn, solemn, etc.
E.g.: […] a group of the most eminent British scientists […] (line 2)
b) All polysyllabic adjectives (i.e. having more than two syllables) such as:
important, expensive, peculiar, comfortable, horrible, intelligent, etc.
E.g.: I have the most unorthodox and exotic teas even at tea-time. (line 31)
Note that adding the negative prefix un- (or, in general, any prefix) to polysyllabic adjectives does not affect the formation of the comparative.
6.7. In general, adverbs conform to the same rules of comparison as
adjectives.
Monosyllabic and disyllabic adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative and
superlative adding the endings -er and -est.
E.g.: hard - harder - hardest
early - earlier - earliest
Polysyllabic adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative and superlative with
more and most.
E.g.: quickly - more quickly - most quickly
comfortably - more comfortably - most comfortably
6.7.1. Some irregular adverb comparatives and superlatives are:
well - better - best
badly - worse - worst
little - less - least
7. Frequency adverbs: ever and never
The adverb ever shows non-factual meaning as it is used in interrogative
sentences, where the speaker has no certainty of the answer.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
The adverb never, however, expresses a specific and factual meaning in a
declarative sentence. In this case, the speaker is reporting a fact that refers to a
specific object/person/place/etc.
7.1. Ever (“at any time”) and never (“at no time”) are often used with the Present
Perfect and are regularly placed between the auxiliary and the main verb (past
participle):
E.g.: Have you ever met a famous person?
Has she ever been to Scandinavia?
I have never been to Wales.
She has never travelled by plane.
7.2. Although the aforesaid position of ever and never is the most frequent
one, never can go before the auxiliary when we want to reply emphatically:
E.g.: A: Don’t arrive late to work.
B: I 'never do.
I 'never have done so.
I 'never have arrived late to work.
I 'never would arrive late to work.
7.3. Ever can also be preceded by hardly and scarcely, which gives the action
a factual negative meaning (casi nunca, apenas).
E.g.: He hardly ever goes to the gym.
We scarcely ever buy a newspaper.
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55
7.4. Note the following uses of ever and never:
a) E.g.: You are the best friend ever. (ever here replaces the whole subordinate
clause “I have ever had.”)
b) E.g.: I will never ever in my life speak to you again! (ever and never are used
together in an emphatic way).
c) E.g.: Do you ever remember that you have a family? (used in an emphatic
way to express reproach).
8. Prepositions
Focus your attention on the use of the different prepositions in the text (Tea).
8.1. Prepositions are a class of words that may express place and time, as well
as instrument or cause. Apart from the general adverbs of place, by far the most
important words for indicating place are the prepositions. We choose a
preposition depending on how we see an object in space. Thus, we may see the
object as a point in space, as a surface, as a line, as an area or as volume.
❖ at-type prepositions indicate a point.
❖ on-type prepositions indicate a line or a surface.
❖ in-type prepositions indicate an area or a volume.
❖ Some prepositions, such as across or through, belong to more than
one of these types.
8.2. Prepositions may be simple or complex.
❖ SIMPLE prepositions are the one-word, most common ones, such as at,
in, for, on, of, from, with, etc.
❖ COMPLEX prepositions have more than one word, and may belong to
any of the following categories:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
a) Adverb or Preposition + Preposition: as for, away from, up to,
along with, out of, instead of, etc.
b) Preposition + Noun + preposition: in front of, by means of, in
relation to, in comparison with, in place of, etc.
c) Verb / Adjective / Conjunction/ etc. + Preposition: due to, owing
to, because of, apart from, etc.
Note:
❖ The noun in some complex prepositions is preceded by a definite or
indefinite article: as a result of, in the light of, on the verge of, etc.
❖ Simple, monosyllabic prepositions are normally unstressed. Polysyllabic
(simple or complex) prepositions, on the contrary, are normally stressed,
the complex ones taking a stress on the word preceding the final preposition.
9. Preposition into
The preposition into has a meaning of direction. As such, it generally (but not
always) requires a dynamic verb (verb of motion), such as go, fly, move, run, etc.
The verb pour in the following example from the text is an example of a dynamic
verb used with the preposition into:
If you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour a few drops
of cold milk into it […] (lines 5-6)
9.1. It is interesting to note that prepositions also have abstract meanings, and
thus they can be used metaphorically:
E.g.: He got into trouble
In one of the examples taken from the text we find an instance of this
phenomenon:
Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was successfully
transformed into colourless and tasteless gargling-water […] (lines 6-8)
Here the preposition into is not used in literal reference to place, but in an
extended, metaphorical way.
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57
10. Space prepositions
You can examine the use of some space prepositions such as in(to), out (of), on,
etc. in the text (lines 6, 26, 36, 37).
Since we are going to study different prepositions all along this course, we are
now going to concentrate only on those prepositions that are used in Exercise 10
(Language Points) of the course book.
10.1. In front of / behind:
Both in front of and behind express relative position in an horizontal way (in
contrast, above and below are examples of vertical relative position). These two
prepositions can be seen as converse opposites:
The truck is in front of the house = The house is behind the truck
Notice the following:
❖ We cannot translate here in front of into Spanish as enfrente de. The
appropriate translation would be delante de. We can, however, in
examples like the folloming:
He stood in front of the class = Se puso de pie enfrente de la clase.
❖ In American English it is very common to use in back of as a synonym
of behind:
E.g.: There was a big shed in back of the house.
10.2. Out of / into
We have already examined the preposition into (see 9). Out of can be seen as
the converse of into.
E.g.: He stepped out of the train.
He stepped into the train.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Out of has a negative character (He was not on the train), while into has a
positive one (He was on the train (as a result of getting into it))
Notice that there is a parallel cause and effect relation between out of and
the prepositions away from, off and off of (American English).
10.2.1. Out of can also signify material or constituency as in the following example:
E.g.: She made the basket out of straw.
For a comparison between this sense of out of and with, see Chapter 5, B 6.
For the preposition in, see Chapter 2, B4.
10.3. Outside / Inside
Inside can be said to have the same meaning as in, and outside can substitute
for out of. Both prepositions are used with stative verbs, but can accompany a
dynamic verb as well.
E.g.: He went outside the building. (= out of)
I think I forgot my ticket inside the box. (= in)
11. Frequency adverbs
Frequency adverbs belong to the broader category of Time Adverbs. Examples
of frequency adverbs are always, never, sometimes, seldom, often, generally,
hardly ever, weekly, monthly, etc. They answer the question “How many times?”
or “How often?”
11.1. Some frequency adverbs denote definite frequency and they are usually
placed at the end of the sentence:
E.g.: This assembly takes place monthly.
Some others denote indefinite frequency and they normally have mid-position,
although they can also be placed at the beginning or end of the sentence:
E.g.: He generally takes the train at 8:10 a.m.
Sometimes he comes to visit me.
He comes to visit me sometimes.
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59
11.2. It is interesting to note that the same adverb can have different temporal
meanings depending on its context of use. Compare the following examples:
a) Larry always gets drunk at parties.
b) I will always love you.
In a) always refers to frequency (every time Larry goes to parties he gets drunk).
In b) however, always refers to a more permanent, durable condition. While it can
be said that getting drunk is a repeated action in a), the same does not apply to
the verb love in b).
12. Prepositional time phrases
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a complement. This
complement may be realized by the following elements:
a) a Noun Phrase: …in the morning (line 13 in the text)
b) a wh- clause: I’ll do it at whatever time you want
c) a non-finite -ing clause*:
The firefighter was able to save the child by breaking a window and getting
into the house.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
d) a finite clause*: We’ll meet after she comes
* A finite clause is one whose verb phrase has a finite verb as its first or
only word, i.e. a verb which has present or past tense. A non-finite clause
is a clause whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase. Non-finite verb
phrases consist of elements not having present or past tense, such as the
-ing participle, the -ed participle or the infinitive.
Sometimes prepositional phrases have an optional modifier, which is usually
realized by an adverb of degree, as we can see in the following famous rhyme:
There was a little girl
And she had a little curl
Right in the middle of her forehead…
The modifier here is the degree adverb right, and the prepositional phrase
in the middle is in turn post-modified by another prepositional phrase (of
her forehead).
12.1. In this chapter we deal mainly with prepositional phrases of time, such as
the ones we find in the text: after lunch (line 22), after supper (line 22), at eleven
o’clock at night (line 23), during the day (line 30), etc.
These phrases usually occur at the end of the sentence, but, in the same way as
time adverbs, they can also occur in initial or mid-position:
E.g.: We will talk about that at lunchtime.
At lunchtime we will talk about that.
We will, at lunchtime, talk about that.
12.2. Prepositional phrases may fulfill different functions in the sentence, such as
Adjunct, Subject, Object, Subject Complement, Object Complement, etc. They
can also fulfill internal functions within phrases, such as, for instance,
postmodifier in a Noun Phrase:
[The weather in winter] is not very cold in Mexico city.
NP
13. Definite / indefinite / zero article
13.1. The definite, indefinite and zero articles have traditionally been treated
separately as a subgroup within the larger group of determiners. The semantic
function of the articles is to present the noun phrase as definite, indefinite or
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CHAPTER 1
generic. The distribution of the three articles with mass and count nouns can be
seen in the following table (as in Downing and Locke, 1992):
Mass
Singular count
Plural count
Definite
the sugar
the dog
the dogs
Indefinite
-sugar
(some sugar)
a dog
-dogs
(some dogs)
13.2. The English indefinite article has two forms: a/an. A is used before words
beginning with a consonant sound:
E.g.: a cupboard /ə kbəd/
a friend /ə frend/
a university /ə junivsiti/
a one-parent family /ə wn peərənt fmili/
13.3. The form a (/ə/ or /ei/) turns into an (/ən/ or /n/) before words beginning
with a vowel sound.
E.g.: an onion /ən njən/
an SOS /ən es əu es/
an hour /ən auə/
NOTE: the pronunciation /ei/ is used when we want to emphasize the
article for some reason, as in:
That was a /ei/ good idea!
However, some speakers use this pronunciation of the indefinite article
even when no emphasis is intended.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
13.4. The uses of the indefinite article (a/ an).
The indefinite article is used:
a) Before an individual count noun3:
E.g.: I need to buy a new car.
She sent a present for you.
b) Before a singular countable noun which represents a class or group (a
generic use very common in definitions and statements).
E.g.: A doctor heals sick people.
A screwdriver is essential in your tool box.
c) When we refer to names of professions or occupations.
E.g.: He would like to become an actor.
I’m a lawyer.
d) With certain numbers and expressions of quantity like: hundred, thousand,
million, dozen, couple, etc…
E.g.: More than a hundred people attended the lecture.
I have been waiting here for a quarter of an hour.
e) With the meaning of per in the following cases:
E.g.: Twice a week
3 € a kilo
Four times a day
2 $ a meter
Eighty miles an hour
3
Sometimes we can use either a(n) or one. The best thing to do in order to notice the difference
between them is to think of one as a number.
CHAPTER 1
f)
63
In exclamations introduced by what or such before noun phrases with
singular countable nouns:
E.g.: What a nice person!
He is such a successful gambler.
g) Before Mr/ Mrs/ Ms/ Miss followed by the surname. This implies that the
speaker hasn’t met that person but knows of his/her existence. This could be
translated into Spanish as un tal.
E.g.: A Mr Taylor called you this afternoon.
h) In some collocations such as:
all of a sudden
to be in a hurry
to pay a visit
to be in a bad temper
to have a crush on
to have a good time, etc.
i)
The indefinite article can only be used with countable nouns and it requires the
inclusion of other expressions if we want to use it with uncountable nouns.
E.g.: a loaf of bread
a pinch of salt
a glass of wine
13.5. The uses of the definite article (the).
We use the English definite article:
a) Before singular and plural nouns and for all genders. It is pronounced /ðə/
before words beginning with a consonant sound, and /ði/ before words
beginning with a vowel sound.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: The book is too expensive.
I think the children are tired.
He put the apple in the fridge.
The idea is that we all do it together.
NOTE: The pronounciation /ði/ is used with both nouns which start with a
consonant or a vowel sound if the speaker wants to give the noun a sense
of uniqueness. In this case, the definite article is stressed.
He is 'the man for me!
/ði/
b) When an object is known and has already been referred to.
E.g.: I saw some dogs and a cat. The dogs were chasing the cat.
c) When the noun we are referring to is considered to be unique.
E.g.: The Sun, the Moon.
d) To refer to something that can be identified from the situation or context and
can only represent one particular thing.
E.g.: They must be in the kitchen.
You can find the post office right across the street.
e) Before institutions or individuals that have an authority or a title.
E.g.: The Parliament
The Prime Minister
The Captain
The Duke of Edinburgh
Note that we use the zero article when we are referring to an individual
and we use his/her proper name, or we address him/her directly, e.g.:
Captain Ahab, President Carter; Welcome, Captain.
f)
Before the superlative and before only in the following cases:
E.g.: That was the best wine in the world.
This is the only car park in the area.
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CHAPTER 1
g) Before a singular noun to represent a class of animals or things in the
abstract. It can be used both in definitions and statements of opinions or
facts.
E.g.: The Spanish lynx is in danger of becoming extinct.
The use of personal computers is increasing these days.
The elephant is the largest land mammal.
h) Before an adjective to represent the whole class of people the adjective
describes. The meaning of these nominalized adjectives is plural, e.g.: the
rich, the unemployed, the blind.
i)
Before certain proper names:
the National Gallery
the Atlantic
the Sahara
the Republic of Ireland
the North Sea
the Strait of Gibraltar
the South Pole
the West Indies
the River Nile
The Hague
the Gulf of Mexico
Note, however, that the names of individual mountains, islands and lakes take the
zero article:
E.g.: Mount Everest
Shetland Islands
Lake Ontario
j)
With titles and dates using ordinal numbers, but only in spoken English:
E.g.: Written
Spoken
Charles II
22 May/ May 22
Charles the Second
nd
May the twenty-second /
the twenty-second of May
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
13.6. Use of the zero article.
The zero article is used:
a) Before countable and uncountable nouns with a generic sense.
E.g.: Olive oil is very healthy.
Dogs make good pets.
Apples are my favorite fruit.
Gold is a precious metal.
b) Before the names of meals.
E.g.: We had chicken for dinner.
Note that when there is a specific reference we use the definite article, e.g.:
The chicken we had yesterday was really good.
c) Before the words school, court, church, university, hospital, college, market
and prison, when we visit these places for their primary purpose. Similarly,
the zero article is used before work, sea and town. In American English,
however, we use the definite article before hospital, market and university:
E.g.:
British English
American English
She was in hospital for a week
She was in the hospital for a week
My son goes to university
My son goes to the university*
* However, in American English, it is most likely that the speakers will use
the word college here: My son goes to college (in which case the zero
article is used).
d) With the days of the week and the seasons.
E.g. In winter I get up at night.
I’ll visit you on Monday.
Note: The preposition on before the days of the week is very frequently
omitted in everyday language:
E.g.: I’ll visit you Monday.
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67
The definite article is used, however, if we refer to a season or a day of the week
in particular:
E.g.: I met him during the winter of 1980.
e) With family names such as father, mother, uncle, etc.
E.g.: I’ve received a letter from Aunt Shelley.
f)
With time expressions like last week, next month, last year, etc. if the time
referred immediately follows or precedes the time of speaking.
E.g.: The meeting is next week.
g) Before names of languages, e.g.: Norwegian, Swedish, French, Swahili, etc.
E.g.: Her daughter speaks Swedish, Spanish and English.
h) In various fixed expressions:
to shake hands
by day
by night/at night
at dusk/dawn/sunset/daybreak
at midday/midnight/noon
day by day
arm in arm/ hand in hand
etc.
14. Linking words
In the text in Chapter 1 we find several instances of the use of connectors such
as so, otherwise, then, on the contrary, on the other hand. When speaking
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
about the syntactic structure of the sentence, these connectors are called
conjuncts. Conjuncts are units whose main function is to join together two or
more utterances which have a semantic relationship between them. They express
textual relationships. They are connectors of structure, and as such, they can
connect phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs:
E.g.: He was a bank robber and furthermore an assassin. (Noun
phrases.)
Tea was originally a good drink, so a group of scientists made
complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it
(Clauses) (lines 1-3).
He never tried to find his biological mother. On the contrary, she
made all possible attempts in order to find him. (Sentences.)
Typical paragraph connectors are First of all, Second of all (mainly used in
American English), In addition to all this, In conclusion, Finally, etc.
14.1. From the semantic point of view, the main types of conjuncts are the
following:
Additive: and, additionally, in other words, besides, etc.
Causal: therefore, so, thus, in that case, etc.
Adversative: but, on the contrary, on the other hand, instead, otherwise, etc.
Temporal: then, finally, after that, first of all, etc.
In spoken discourse, conjuncts are very frequently used to mark the beginning of
a turn in conversation, and as such, they are also considered to be discourse
markers. Among the most common discourse markers are Well, Now, Now then,
So, Then, etc. all of which can be used to make different types of semantic
connections.
CHAPTER 2
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ence / -ance / -ency / -ancy
In the text in Chapter 2 of the course book (The Secret of the Smile), we find
examples of words having these suffixes. Among them, there are congruence (line
23) and coincidence (line 24). Both congruence and coincidence are abstract
nouns. Abstract nouns refer to a quality or idea rather than to a physical object.
We can form abstract nouns by adding the bound/derivational morphemes 4
-ence, -ance, -ency or -ancy to the following bases:
a) nouns:
E.g.: account
accountancy
b) adjectives:
E.g.: frequent
pregnant
frequency
pregnancy
c) verbs:
E.g.: allow
depend
allowance
dependency
2. Prefixes: un- / disThe word unconvinced in the text (lines 43-44) has the derivational prefix un-,
which normally has a negative meaning. So, unconvinced means NOT convinced.
4
For a detailed explanation of the different kinds of morphemes, see Chapter 1, section A) 1.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
The prefix un- is similar in meaning to the prefix dis-, but whereas un- has an
anglosaxon origin, dis- comes from Latin. These two derivational morphemes are
added to some verbs, adjectives or nouns to make new words with the reverse
meaning.
E.g.: pack
aware
bearable
unpack
unaware
unbearable
connect
advantage
honest
disconnect
disadvantage
dishonest
3. Prefixes: ex- / in- / preIn The Secret of the Smile, we find an example of the same root with different
prefixes: preclude (line 23), conclude (lines 25-6). Adding a different prefix to the
base changes the meaning of the word. Notice that with the same root we also
can form exclude and include.
3.1. The Latin prefixes ex-, in- and pre- are added to English words to form new
meanings, for instance:
a) In the above examples, the meaning of ex- is in opposition to that of in-, exmeaning “out, outside” and in- meaning “inside”. Other similar examples are:
inhibition
inhale
import
-
exhibition
exhale
export
Notice the change of in- into im- before the sound /p/.
b) ex- can also be added to a noun to show that someone used to be but is no
longer what is meant by the noun.
E.g.: president
wife
ex-president
ex-wife
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CHAPTER 2
NOTE: Ex- is a bound morpheme, but the free morpheme former can be
used to convey exactly the same meaning as ex-, e.g.: former president,
former wife.
c) in- can also be added to some adjectives, adverbs and nouns to form other
words that have the opposite meaning.
E.g.: active
inactive
sufficiently
insufficiently
justice
injustice
potent
impotent
moral
immoral
Notice again the change of in- into im- when in- is followed by /p/ or /m/.
NOTE: There are always exceptions to the rules, as can be seen in
famous/infamous, in which case infamous is not the opposite of famous.
The same can be said of the equivalent words in Spanish: famous =
famoso; infamous = infame.
d) pre- is added to nouns, adjectives and verbs to indicate that something
takes place before a particular date, period or event.
E.g.: war
pre-war
Raphaelite
pre-Raphaelite (paintings)
recorded
pre-recorded
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. The genitive case: ‘s / of
Examine the instances in which the genitive is used in The Secret of the Smile
(course book). Some of them are: the wife of Francesco del Giocondo (lines 4-5),
a duke’s widow (line 6), Leonardo’s most famous painting (lines15-16), the right
side of the Mona Lisa (line 22), etc.
1.1. As we can see in the examples in the text, sometimes the construction
NP’s (Noun Phrase + ’s) is used, and some other times the formula NP + of +
NP is preferred. In spite of the fact that there are usually compelling reasons for
preferring one or the other construction in a given case, the degree of similarity
and overlap has led linguists to regard the two constructions as variant forms of
the genitive.
1.2. Both the ’s and the of constructions are traditionally called possessives, but,
if we look at the phenomenon from a broader perspective, it can be understood
that their semantic function goes beyond the meaning of possession. Observe the
meanings that result from paraphrasing the following examples:
• The secret of the smile
• Bill Gate’s company
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Peter’s mistake
America’s most famous singers
The secretary’s application
The teacher’s story
Ten month’s wait
Susan’s dog
The city of Bath
The pleasure of your company
– The smile hides a secret
– Bill Gates runs a company/ Bill Gates
is the C.E.O.5 of a company.
– Peter made a mistake
– The most famous singers in America
– The secretary applied for a job
– The teacher told a story
– The wait lasted ten months
– Susan has a dog
– Bath is a city
– Your company is a pleasure
1.3. In general, the genitive construction ’s (traditionally known as the Saxon
possessive) is preferred for human nouns:
E.g.: a duke’s widow
Leonardo’s mind
5
Chief Executive Officer.
(line 6)
(line 52)
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This construction is preferred to a lesser extent for animal nouns (the cat’s ears)
and human group nouns (the government’s policy).
NOTE: This rule is not always observed, as we can see in lines 4-5 of the
text: the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, where the noun phrase refers to a
human being.
1.3.1. When the noun is plural (regular, ending in -s), we just add the apostrophe ’
and the genitive is not pronounced (zero form).
E.g.: The eagles’ nest.
My friends’ car.
1.3.2. The zero form also occurs with some singular nouns ending in -s, such as:
a) Greek names: Socrates’ ideas; Euripides’ plays, etc.
b) Certain fixed expressions: For goodness’ sake, for conscience’ sake, etc.
1.3.3. With other names ending in –s (Jones, Carlos, etc) the genitive is written
either Jones’ or Jones’s. In speech it is pronounced either /dəunz/ or /dəunziz/,
the latter being the most common.
E.g.: The Jones’s invitation to dinner
Carlos’s house
1.3.4. For the pronunciation of the genitive ending we follow the same rules as
for the pronunciation of the plural:
unvoiced /s/
E.g.: the dentist’s telephone, the vet’s motorbike, the
bat’s eyes, etc.
voiced /Z /
E.g.: the child’s voice, women’s clothes, the bull’s
horns, etc.
voiced /IZ /
E.g.: the horse’s mouth, James’s boat, George’s notebook, etc.
1.3.5. The construction ‘s can also be used:
a) With time expressions such as:
today’s paper
a day’s work
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
a month’s salary
a fortnight’s holiday
yesterday’s newspaper
tomorrow’s weather
in two years’ time
ten minutes’ break
a three hours’ delay
b) With places: New York’s theatres / England’s politicians, etc.
c) With nouns of special interest to human activity: Science’s findings/ Memory’s
selective power, etc.
d) With expressions following the pattern:
for + NOUN + sake
E.g.: for heaven’s sake, for goodness’ sake, etc.
1.3.6. Sometimes the head of the noun phrase may be omitted when referring to
shops, restaurants, colleges and well-known places as well as to avoid repetition
of the thing possessed.
E.g.: the grocer’s
the optician’s
Macy’s
Saint Andrew’s
Mark and Spencer’s
This is my PC and that is my brother’s
Notice the American forms Grocery (store), bakery or pharmacy for British
English grocer’s, baker’s and chemist’s respectively (as well as for other
similar places or shops).
1.4. The construction with of (traditionally known as the Latin possessive), is
generally preferred for inanimate objects, mass and abstract nouns.
E.g.: The left side of the self-portrait (lines 20-21).
The fence of the house.
The progress of science.
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CHAPTER 2
1.4.1. The of-construction is also preferred when the modifying noun phrase is
long:
E.g.: The arrival of the 10:30 plane from Barcelona
NOT: The 10:30 plane from Barcelona’s arrival.
However, it is not uncommon to hear people uttering phrases like the following,
using the ‘s construction instead:
E.g.: The office worker’s duty.
Commander-in-chief’s responsibility.
The person that sent me an e-mail’s idea.
2. Premodification of nouns by other nouns
2.1. Apart from the genitive premodification, we also find in the English language
many instances in which a noun (head of a NP) is modified by another noun.
Consider these two examples taken from The Secret of the Smile:
A Medici mistress (lines 6-7)
Many art experts (line 42)
Here, the head of the first NP (mistress) is modified by the noun Medici, and the
head of the second NP (experts) is modified by the noun art.
2.2. In many cases, noun premodifiers appear to be in a reduced-explicitness
relation with prepositional postmodifiers:
The problem of immigration = The immigration problem
The cover of the book
= The book cover
Many experts in art
= Many art experts
2.3. However, not all noun premodifiers have prepositional phrase analogues:
Woody Allen is an actor and director = The actor-director Woody Allen
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
2.4. It is important to notice that plural nouns usually become singular when they
are premodifying another noun, even those that otherwise have no singular form:
The leg of the pants = The pant leg
A player of records = A record-player
However, the plural forms are used when the referent of the premodifier
has come to be regarded as a collective noun, as in Sports Authority (the
name of a store in America), Winter Games Association, arms traffic, etc.
2.5. When the relation between the modifier and the noun is very cohesive,
they are often fused as a compound noun denoting a single referent. The
combination may be written as a single word (hardware, sportsman), it may be
joined by a hyphen (jet-black, shell-shock), or it may be written as separate
words (credit card, crash barrier).
2.6. Depending on the relationship between the two nouns, the stress may fall on
the premodifier or the head.
E.g.: A metal 'bar
But: A 'love story.
However, the stress on one or the other may also vary depending on sentence
stress and on the rhythm of the whole utterance in connected speech.
2.7. Noun premodifiers generally classify the more permanent characteristics of
the head noun in a NP, and therefore they are called classifiers. The classifier
restricts the class of entity named by the head noun. Therefore, in credit card, the
noun credit rules out any other interpretation of the noun card and restricts it to
the particular class of cards that are used to purchase things. Similarly, Christmas
card is a particular type of card used to send Christmas greetings, and identity
card a class of card used to identify people.
3. Time expressions: long
3.1. In The Secret of the Smile, the word long is used as an adverb of time
meaning “for a long time”:
She has long teased scholars with her mysterious sensuality, […] (lines 1-2).
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3.2. Many adverbs in English are derived from adjectives and are formed by
adding the derivational bound morpheme -ly (kind/ kindly, quick/ quickly, etc.),
but in the case of long, the adverb has exactly the same form as the adjective.
The following are also examples of the same phenomenon:
2Adjective2
2Adverb2
The fast train
A hard job
An early bird
A wrong interpretation
Don’t run so fast.
He works very hard.
The student arrived early.
You’ve done it all wrong.
3.3. In some cases both the adverb with -ly and the adjective form may be used
with the same meaning, the only difference being that the adjective-form adverb
is a feature of more informal language:
E.g.: The witness spoke loud and clear (informal)
The witness spoke loudly and clearly (formal)
Let’s do it quick (informal)
Let’s do it quickly (formal)
3.4. It is very common in everyday American English to substitute the adjective for
the adverb when it is modifying an adjective (especially if the adverb in question is
really). For instance, instead of saying The movie was really good, they say:
The movie was real good.
4. Prepositions at / in / on / for
In this section of Chapter 2 we are going to concentrate on these four
prepositions (at, in, on, for). For generalities about prepositions and other space
prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8, 9 and 10
4.1. The preposition at is used:
a) To refer to a particular time or a point in time: at two o’clock, at noon, at
Easter, at that moment, at night, at present, at Christmas, etc.
b) To refer to a position and to describe where someone/something is, without
mentioning the specific location: at home, at school, at the bridge, at the train
station, etc.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
In is more specific than at and can be interpreted as inside something, e.g.:
in the library, in school.
E.g.: We could meet in the library.
We have some visitors in school today.
c) For cities, towns or villages, either at or in is used, depending on the
speaker’s point of view: At Toledo means we are considering Toledo simply
as a place on the map; in Toledo means we have a “close up” view of the
place as a town covering an area and containing streets, houses, etc. A
very large town or city is generally treated as an area: in New York. With the
verb to arrive, we generally use in for big and/or important places and at for
small and/or unimportant ones: We arrived in Paris very early in the morning.
The children arrived at the station at 3:30 p.m.
d) For continents, countries, states, and other large areas we use in: in Europe,
in Maryland, in Peru.
e) For buildings or groups of buildings either at or in can be used. At is preferred
when the building is thought of as an institution rather than in physical terms:
E.g.: He works at the National Library, but: He left his keys at/in the library.
She studies at Georgetown (the university) but: She lives in
Georgetown (the area/quarter in Washington D.C.).
f)
To describe the final point of a movement when you are not being very precise.
E.g.: Don’t throw the stone at me. (Your intention is to hit me.)
You don’t have to shout at me. (You are being rude.)
At often suggests aggression as opposed to to. Compare:
E.g.: Please throw that pen to me & Don’t throw that pen at me.
He shouted a “hello” to me
& He shouted at me.
CHAPTER 2
g) To refer to an age, degree, distance, temperature, manner, etc.
E.g.: at twelve/at the age of twelve
at full speed
at a distance
Notice:
➢ The difference between surface and volume in:
She sat on the chair (surface: the chair has no arms)
She sat in the chair (volume: it is an arm-chair)
They kissed on the grass (surface: the grass was short)
They kissed in the grass (volume: the grass was long)
➢ And the difference between surface and area in:
In “Cast Away”, Tom Hanks was marooned on a desert island (surface:
the island was small)
He was born in Great Britain (area: Great Britain is a large island and a
unit with boundaries)
4.2. The preposition in is used:
a) To say that something is inside something else or enclosed by it.
E.g.: She stayed in the car for a while.
b) To refer to months, years and seasons of the year.
E.g.: in December
in 1972
in Autumn
c) To refer to periods of time.
E.g.: in the past
in the future
in a lifetime
d) To refer to parts of the day.
E.g.: in the morning
in the afternoon
in the evening
BUT: at night / at dawn/ at dusk/
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
4.3. The preposition on is used:
a) To refer to something that is immediately above a surface or an object.
E.g.: She left her handbag on the floor.
I forgot my keys on the fridge.
b) To refer to days of the week and dates.
E.g.: on Thursday
on May 2nd
on Saturday night
on Christmas Day
c) To refer to a subject matter, meaning about.
E.g.: a lecture on linguistics
a book on gardening
Note that on suggests a formal situation whereas about suggests an
informal one. So, you give a lecture on Modern Art but you have a chat
about Modern Art.
4.4. The preposition for is used:
a) To refer to a period of time
E.g.: for two weeks
for a while
for ten years
for ages
b) To indicate purpose.
E.g.: I think she does it for love.
I don’t like this job, I just do it for the money.
c) To indicate destination.
E.g.: We left for our home country.
He headed for the bus stop.
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d) To indicate support.
E.g.: Are you for or against new technologies?
I’m for abolishing the death penalty.
5. Make / do
5.1. Spanish speakers often have problems distinguishing between make and
do because both verbs can be translated into Spanish as hacer. To make means
to build or produce something and can be translated as hacer in the sense of
fabricar, elaborar. To do means to carry out and can be translated as hacer with
the meaning of realizar, llevar a cabo. Ultimately, the choice of these verbs
depends on the words with which they collocate:
5.2. Some collocations with make:
an accusation
allowances
an appointment
arrangements
an attempt
a bed
the best of …
a cake
certain
a change
a choice
a comment
a complaint
a confession
a date
a decision
a demand
a discovery
a dress
an effort
an enquiry
an estimate
an excuse
a fire
friends (with)
fun of …
a gesture
a fuss of …
a good/bad impression
a journey
a living
a loss
love
a mistake
money
the most of …
a movement
a noise
an offer
peace
a phone call
a plan
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
a point (of …)
a profit
progress
a promise
a proposition
a remark
a request
sense (of)
a speech
a statement
a success of …
a suggestion
sure
tea/coffee
use of
war
a will
a wish
Notice the causative use of make, in the structure make + NP+ infinitive
clause.
E.g.: He made me return the tickets because he didn’t want to go to
the theatre.
❖ Never use do in this construction.
5.3. Some collocations with do:
one’s best
business
a course
the cleaning
the cooking
damage
the dishes
your duty
evil
an exercise
a favor
the gardening
good
your hair
harm
one’s homework
honor
the house
the housework
the ironing
a job
justice
research
right
the rooms
the shopping
a sum
a translation
the washing
the washing-up
wonders
some work
wrong
CHAPTER 2
83
NOTE:
Notice that there are cases in which we use hacer in Spanish that can
neither be translated as make nor as do:
E.g.: Hacer milagros = To work miracles
Hacer pellas = To play truant.
Conversely, there are uses of make and do in English that cannot be
translated into Spanish as hacer:
E.g.: To make a decision = tomar una decision
To do the dishes = lavar los platos
To make a wish = pedir un deseo.
6. Past Simple / Past Continuous
6.1. The Past Continuous tense is very often used in the main clause of a
complex sentence, when the subordinate clause verb tense is the Simple Past.
Consider the following example from the The Secret of the Smile:
Schwartz was testing a new computer program at AT&T Bell Laboratories
when she compared Leonardo’s most famous painting with his only known
self-portrait […] (lines 13-17)
The Past Continuous is here used in combination with the Past Simple to indicate
that an action started in the past and it was interrupted by the action in the Past
Simple. In this case the linking word is usually the subordinating conjunction when.
The following are other examples of this combination of tenses:
E.g.: I was reading a book when someone knocked at the door.
I wasn’t driving too fast when the accident happened.
She fell asleep when she was watching TV with me.
When Patrick arrived, we were having lunch.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
6.2. The Past Continuous gives the idea that an action was in progress during
a particular time in the past. It describes an unfinished or incomplete action.
E.g.: A: What were you doing yesterday morning when I called you?
B: I was reading a book.
6.3. The same idea of something happening in the middle of an on-going past
action can also be conveyed in the following way:
E.g.: As I was reading a book, the telephone rang.
This construction is often used to provide a descriptive background to a narrative
in which events are expressed in the non-progressive past tense.
Notice that:
❖ Instead of the verb to be, we can use forms of come and go + -ing, in
which case the resulting combination may be both perfective and
imperfective.
E.g. The horse went running down the hill. / Mr. Jones came walking
along our street.
In general, we may say that the Past Continuous does not tell us
whether an action was finished or not.
❖ There are some verbs that are not normally used in continuous tenses.
Among them are: know, want, need, prefer, like, love, hate, belong,
remember, forget, seem, understand, have (meaning possess), think
(meaning believe, have an opinion). Therefore, we say:
E.g.: Did you like the sweater I gave you?
She didn’t understand the joke.
Did you have a bike when you were a child?
However, especially in spoken language, these verbs can sometimes occur
in the progressive, thus “stretching” the state they refer to:
E.g.: A: How are you liking your stay in Madrid? (A more indirect and polite
way of asking than the non-progressive How do you like…?)
B: To be honest, I’m loving it!
I’m understanding my mother more and more now. (As time goes by)
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7. Neither / nor
7.1. Notice the use of nor in The Secret of the Smile:
[…] he apparently made no records for the Mona Lisa, nor was he ever
paid for the work (lines 33-35)
This sentence could be paraphrased in the following manner, with the conjunction
neither forming a correlative pair with nor:
He apparently neither made records for the Mona Lisa, nor was he ever
paid for the work.
7.2. The coordinating conjunction neither is used in combination with nor to
express alternatives or choices in the negative. In the affirmative we would use
either … or. This coordination of two structures is called correlative coordination.
E.g.: The doctor said he can neither smoke nor drink.
Neither Tom nor his wife has a driving licence.
7.3. Note that the last noun phrase of a coordinate subject with neither… nor
determines the person of the verb:
E.g.: Neither you, nor I, nor anyone else knows the truth.
However, in spoken language it is also natural to use the plural form:
E.g.: Neither Tom, nor his wife have a driving license.
But, many people find the above sentence unacceptable, and therefore, whenever possible, they prefer to use a modal auxiliary which is invariable for person.
E.g.: Neither my brother nor you will be playing tonight.
7.4. When neither functions as a determiner and is followed by a singular noun,
the verb should be in the singular.
E.g.: Neither tie goes with your shirt.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
7.5. When neither occurs as a pronoun (or in the pattern neither of + plural
noun/pronoun) the verb or predicator usually goes in the singular:
E.g.: Neither is in English. (pronoun)
Neither of these books is in English.
Neither of them wants to pay for the rent.
7.6. Neither may be pronounced either /naiðə/ or /niðə/, the latter pronunciation
being perhaps more common in American English than in British English.
8. Emphatic and reflexive pronouns
8.1. As explained in Chapter 2 of the course book (Language Points, exercise 8),
the pronoun himself is used in the Mona Lisa text (The Secret of the Smile)
both as a reflexive (lines 41-2) and an emphatic pronoun (lines 11-12).
8.2. We use the reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of an
action are the same, i.e., reflexive pronouns replace a co-referential noun phrase,
normally within the same finite verb clause:
E.g.: Sue cut herself while she was cooking.
He looked at himself in the mirror.
I promised myself I would never do that again.
8.3. Check the correspondence among the possessive adjectives, the possessive
pronouns and the reflexive pronouns in English:
1Possessive adjectives1
1Possessive pronouns1
1Reflexive pronouns1
singular
my
your
his (masc.)
mine
yours
his
myself
yourself
himself
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CHAPTER 2
her (fem.)
its (neut.)
hers
its
herself
itself
oneself (impersonal)
plural
our
your
they
ours
yours
theirs
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
8.4. Reflexive pronouns are usually stressed on the second syllable. In
connected speech and when they are contrasted with another pronoun or noun
phrase, they carry sentence stress
E.g.: He bought the book hims
` elf*
Or: He hims
` elf bought the book
8.5. Reflexive pronouns may follow a preposition:
a) when they are preceded by a phrasal verb:
E.g.: Look after yourself.
b) after for:
E.g.: They are grown-ups and they should do it for themselves.
c) after by:
E.g.: We managed to build the hut by ourselves.
In this case the meaning changes, and the pronoun is not a reflexive proper.
When reflexive pronouns are preceded by the preposition by, the meaning
conveyed is alone, with no help from any other person.
d) after of:
E.g.: I think he should be ashamed of himself.
8.6. Reflexives often occur in coordinated phrases, as well as after as, like, but
and except in variation with personal pronouns:
E.g.: Somebody like me / myself cannot bear with such a situation.
My friend and I / myself had a personal interview with the criminal.
* See 8.7 and 8.8 in this section for this particular use of reflexive pronouns.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
8.7. Emphatic reflexive pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are sometimes placed in
apposition for the sake of emphasis and/or end-focus. In this case, and from the
discourse point of view, they cannot be said to be reflexive proper, for they do not
fulfill the object function and convey a different meaning. They are used
emphatically to indicate that someone, and not someone else, did something.
This could be translated into Spanish as uno mismo, en persona.
E.g.: I myself repaired the ceiling.
I repaired the ceiling myself.
A: Can you do the washing up?
B: Why don’t you do it yourself?
8.8. Emphatic reflexive pronouns are also used to make a contrast between
two parts of something:
E.g.: I love Italy but Rome itself is gorgeous.
You will find all these books useful but the dictionary itself is fundamental.
9. Definite, indefinite and zero article
This grammar point has already been explained in Chapter 1, section B 13.
10. As many / as many as
10.1. Examine the use of as many in The Secret of the Smile (lines 4-7). The
meaning of as many in this and the other examples that follow is equivalent to the
Spanish como muchos.
E.g.: As many scientists have shown, aspartame is not good for our
health.
Don’t walk alone at night, because, as many neighbors have already
noticed, there are all kinds of strange people in this neighborhood
after 8 p.m.
Was Mona Lisa the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, as many
scholars believe […]? (lines 4-6).
10.2. If another as is used in correlation with the first one, then we are using the
comparative of equality (in which case, it translates into Spanish as tantos/ tantas
como) as in:
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CHAPTER 2
E.g.: Tom has as many toy cars as Billy.
My sister has visited as many countries as I have.
For a detailed explanation of the use of the comparative in English, see Chapter
1, section B 6.
CHAPTER 3
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Prefixes: pre- / pro1.1. One way to form new words in English is by adding the Latin prefix pre- to
existing words as is the case with: prefabricate, prehistoric, premature, preview,
etc.
This bound morpheme (pre-) is used to form words that indicate that something
takes place before something else. (See section A 1, Chapter 1).
E.g.: These drawings date back to the prehistoric period, for which we
have no written records.
It’s a pity that such a promising career has come to a premature end.
1.2. In some cases this prefix is added to another word and the resulting one
keeps a hyphen between both parts. E.g.: pre-industrial, pre-war, pre-1936, etc.
E.g.: The streets of pre-industrial London didn’t have an effective
streetlighting system.
In pre-war days the world economy underwent deep changes.
1.3. We can also see this prefix linked to other roots in words like prefer,
prescribe, preserve, presume, pretend, predict, etc. In fact, the root of these
words used to have a meaning in their own but they have changed over time and,
now, it is difficult to see a relationship between the root and the original word.
E.g.: He asked the doctor to prescribe him pain-relieving tablets.
The UNO is calling for urgent action to preserve the Amazon.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
His intention was to present one whilst traveling in the other to a
fashionable […] (lines 10-12)
1.4. In the same way, we can also form new words in English by adding the Latin
prefix pro- to other existing roots, for example: pro-democracy, pro-European,
pro-life, etc. This bound morpheme is often used to form adjectives and nouns
that describe people who support, or are in favor of, a person or idea. Its meaning
is, thus, “on the side of”.
E.g.: The pro-democracy movement aims at being legalized in China.
Some pro-life groups complain that our legal system is too lax.
1.5. Sometimes we can see this prefix added as a bound morpheme to
meaningful roots, for example: pronominal, proportional, proclaim.
E.g.: Your wages should be proportional to your income.
The United States proclaimed their independence in the 18th century.
1.6. We can also see this prefix linked to other Latin roots in words like: proceed,
produce, project, promise, propose, provide, provoke, etc.
E.g.: When the lecture finished, he proceeded to raise a question.
He promised we would go to the beach the following day.
2. Adjectives / adverbs
2.1. One way to form adjectives in English is by means of affixation. There are a
number of suffixes that can be attached to nouns to form new adjectives, such as:
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CHAPTER 3
-ive, -y, -ly, -like, -ish, -less, -ed, -ese, -(i)an, -ful, -able, -ible, -al, -ous. At this
point we will only deal with the last five. These suffixes are usually added to
abstract nouns to form adjectives meaning having the quality of. Note that some
spelling changes may be needed.
a) Suffix -ful.
Noun
Adjective
care
careful
respect
respectful
wonder
wonderful
b) Suffix -able / -ible.
Noun
Adjective
comfort
comfortable
response
responsible
peace
peaceable
c) Suffix -al.
Noun
Adjective
critic
critical
essence
essential
preference
preferential
NOTE: Don’t mistake this suffix for the suffix of the same form used to
form nouns from verbs: propose → proposal, dispose → disposal,
arouse → arousal.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
d) Suffix -ous.
Noun
Adjective
Fame
famous
Suspect
suspicious
Error
erroneous
2.2. All of the above adjectives can be turned into adverbs by adding the suffix
-ly to them. These adverbs indicate the manner or nature of something.
Noun
Adjective
Adverb
Comfort
comfortable
comfortably
Critic
critical
critically
Fame
famous
famously
E.g.: If you decide to travel by night, you should drive carefully.
To start the evening in a suitably celebratory manner […] (lines
14-15)
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I don’t like her as an actress; she just reads her scripts mechanically.
Quite erroneously she assumed we would be waiting for her at the
station.
Note that some spelling changes may be needed. The final -e in the suffix
-able / -ible drops before the suffix -ly.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Zero plural
1.1. Some nouns which indicate quantities or measures have the same form in
the singular as in the plural when followed by a noun, for example: dozen, foot,
hundred, thousand, million, etc.
E.g.: Madrid has around four million inhabitants.
He’s seven foot three (inches). [6ft 3in.]
Or to be strictly accurate, two dozen (red) roses. (lines 4-5)
These nouns, however, add the plural -s inflectional morpheme if they are
followed by the preposition of.
E.g.: Dozens of flowers
Millions of people
1.2. Some animal names take the zero plural but can be used with a singular and
plural meaning, for example: cod, deer, salmon, sheep, grouse, etc.
E.g.: One sheep, two sheep, etc.
One cod, a lot of cod, etc.
1.3. Some other names of animals also have zero plural if they are
considered prey, e.g.: herring, pheasant, salmon, trout, etc. However, if they
are used to denote different individuals or species they take the regular plural
inflection:
E.g.: They went hunting and they shot two deer. (Prey)
The fishes of the Atlantic are not as good as those of the Mediterranean. (Species)
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1.4. Other zero plurals include:
a) Some words with bases ending in -s: series, means, species (one series/ two
series, etc.)
b) Nationality words ending in -ese: Portuguese, Chinese, etc. (one Portuguese,
two Portuguese, etc.)
c) Words such as aircraft and dice (one aircraft/ two aircraft, etc.)
2. Quantifying uncountable nouns
In English we can distinguish between countable, or count, and uncountable, or
mass, nouns. The first group comprises those which have singular and plural
forms (e.g.: books, flowers, chairs, etc.) whereas the second group includes
those nouns that do not usually occur in the plural (e.g.: water, sugar, wood, etc.).
A rule of thumb that can help you to distinguish them is that uncountable nouns
answer the question how much and countable nouns answer the question how
many.
2.1. Uncountable nouns are always singular and cannot be used with the
indefinite article a/an. They are often preceded by a general partitive expression
such as bit, piece or item (followed by an of-phrase). These partitive expressions
may be singular or plural, and may refer to a quantity or a quality of the noun they
modify.
E.g.: a bit of bread // two bits of bread
a piece/sheet of paper // two pieces/sheets of paper
an item of clothing // two items of clothing
2.2. Although a general partitive can be used, it is possible, and sometimes
preferable, to use a specific one that collocates with a certain noun. So, in English
you say:
a bar of chocolate
a flake of snow
a bar/cake of soap
a flash of lightning
a blade of grass
a grain of sand, corn, etc.
a block of ice
a lump of sugar
a clap of thunder
a piece of advice
a clove of garlic
a piece of fruit
a cut of meat
a piece of information
a drop of water, milk, etc.
a piece of news
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
a pile of rubbish
a pinch of salt
a sheet of paper
a slice of bread
a sort of silk
a speck of dust
a stick of chalk
a stroke of luck
a suit of armor
2.3. Another way to refer to uncountable nouns is by means of certain
expressions of measurement or containers, such as:
a bottle of vinegar
a cup of coffee
a gallon of petrol
a glass of water
a litre of milk
a meter of rope
a pot of jam
a pint of beer
a plot of land
a spoonful of yeast
a ton of garbage
Notice that in spite of these rules for the use of partitives, they are
sometimes omitted in spoken language. Therefore, although there are some
uncountable nouns that require a partitive, you may hear utterances like:
E.g.: May I have a coffee, please? (cup of coffee)
Two beers and a whisky on the rocks, please! (two
glasses/pints of beer/a glass of whisky)
Yes, coffee with cream and two sugars (two lumps of sugar)
In these examples the uncountable nouns coffee, beer, whisky and
sugar behave as countable.
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3. Even
3.1. We use the concessive adjunct 6 even to suggest that what comes just
after (or sometimes before) it in the sentence is rather surprising. Even normally
precedes a focused part in the sentence. See the following examples from the
text:
E.g.: He even washed out the ashtrays. (lines 36-37)
[…] who found her roses mysteriously looking even fresher than
when she first received them. (lines 72-74)
3.2. Other characteristic uses of even are:
a) We use even to indicate addition:
E.g.: They traveled all over Europe; they even went to Iceland.
He cooked for us last Saturday. After dinner he even drove us home.
b) The conjunction even if is often used to express the ideas of condition and
contrast.
E.g.: Every night I go to bed and read for a while; even if I’m tired.
I love Spanish paella, even if it is cold. (The underlying meaning is
that you wouldn’t expect me to like it when it is cold.)
4. Modal auxiliaries: may / might / can / could
May, might, can and could are modal auxiliaries (see Chapter 1, section B 5. for
an introduction to modal verbs).
6
For a definition of adjunct see Chapter 6, B 6.2.
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4.1. Modal auxiliaries are special verbs which behave in some ways like the
primary auxiliaries be, have and do but which have certain peculiarities. Their
main characteristics are:
a) They form the negative and interrogative according to the normal auxiliary
pattern:
E.g.: I could send you all the information by e-mail.
She got nervous because she could not find her way out.
Can I have one of those biscuits?
b) As with primary auxiliaries, contraction of these verbs is possible in the negative.
E.g.: can’t; mustn’t; couldn’t; needn’t; etc.
Note that the negative form for can is either can’t or cannot / can not
(written as one word or as two separate words).
c) They can be used to form tag questions, such as:
E.g.: You can’t pilot a helicopter, can you?
d) They can be used in short answers, as in:
E.g.: A: Can you speak Japanese?
B: No, I can’t.
e) They can replace a verb or clause that has been referred before and,
therefore, avoid redundancy.
E.g.: She couldn’t withdraw that amount of money from the bank, but I
can.
f)
In contrast with primary auxiliaries, they have no infinitive and therefore they
cannot be preceded by to.
g) They do not add an -s to the third person singular in the present tense.
h) All modal verbs are followed by the bare infinitive, except for ought to and
used to 7 which take to.
E.g.: She might be interested in watching that documentary.
7
But notice that used to is a semi-modal, i.e. it can occur with a primary auxiliary (e.g.: He didn’t use
to play golf as a child) or it can behave as a modal auxiliary proper (e.g.: He usedn’t to play golf as a
child), though the latter is mainly a form of British English.
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i)
These verbs are defective because they only have one or two forms. They
usually lack a form for the future, the conditional and an -ing form.
NOTE: Even though some of the modals have forms for the present and the
past (can/could, will/would, may/might), they are regarded as unmarked
for tense because there are a number of other meanings associated to
them whose main function is not to mark time distinctions but rather express
the speaker’s stance or attitude. For example, modals associated with past
time are also associated with the speaker’s intention to convey different
degrees of politeness, as well as with hypothetical situations.
E.g.: Could you please post this letter for me?
Would you mind if I smoke?
4.2. Although these verbs can have different uses depending on the type of
modality, the following are some common uses:
4.2.1. May.
a) It is often used in questions to grant or ask for permission (intrinsic modality).
E.g.: A: May I borrow your sunglasses?
B: No, you may not. But you may borrow my hat if you want.
b) It is also used to show possibility (extrinsic modality).
E.g.: I have a ticket for the concert but I may not go because I feel tired.
c) May is used in polite requests.
E.g.: May I help you?
4.2.2. Might.
a) Might is used with the sense of possibility.
E.g.: The tourist guide said we might not be back in time to take the train.
b) It is also used to grant or ask for permission and in polite requests.
E.g.: I was wondering if I might talk to you for a moment.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
4.2.3. Can.
a) Can is used to express a natural or learned ability:
E.g.: Leopards can run very fast.
My sister can speak three modern languages.
b) It is also used with the sense of permission:
E.g.: Can I borrow your car next Saturday night?
She said I can use hers if you don’t lend me yours.
Notice that, with this meaning, can is less formal than may.
4.2.4. Could.
a) In the same way as can, could is used to express a natural or learned ability
with the difference that could is associated with the past:
E.g.: When he was young he could swim very well.
In spite of the fact that it was her forth language, she could speak
German fluently.
NOTE: The past of can is either could or was/were able to + infinitive,
depending on whether an imperfective of perfective meaning is intended.
In the case of could the action is viewed as extended in the past, i.e. imperfective.
E.g.: When she lived in Paris, she could see the Eiffel Tower from
her window.
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With be able to the predicated action is achieved, i.e. it is seen as perfective.
E.g.: The people were able to survive the earthquake.
In the negative, however, could and was/were able to are interpreted as
having the same result and are therefore interchangeable:
They weren’t able to survive. = They couldn’t survive.
b) This verb is also used to express possibility.
E.g.: You could talk to a psychotherapist about your problem.
That man could very well be your father, so don’t you dare to date
him!
5. Modal verbs
See B 4 above and Chapter 1 section B 5.
6. Prepositions: on / in / for
For a full account of these prepositions see Chapter 2, section B 4.
7. Compound adjectives
In English, we can form compound adjectives by linking a noun and the past
participle of a verb. These compound adjectives are usually hyphenated and they
have an attributive function, i.e., they are placed before the noun they modify:
E.g.: You like my pictures? I took all of them with a hand-held camera.
The roses were ordered to be placed in a chauffeur-driven Daimler,
reserved recently by one of our clients. (lines 5-7)
Some other compound adjectives are:
battery-powered
computer-assisted
flower-scented
hand-woven
horse-drawn
man-made
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Note that due to frequency of use, these compounds are sometimes
written as one single word, e.g.: handmade (hand-made).
8. Tense
In most languages, including English and Spanish, verbal tense does not
necessarily coincide with real time. Tense is the grammatical category (linguistic
expression) that we can identify as verbal inflection. In English, for example, we
can distinguish two tenses; present and past (English has no future inflected form
of the verb), whereas we, as humans, can identify events occurring in the past,
present or future.
now
past
future
present
In the same way, we can use different tenses to refer to various moments in time;
for instance, we can use the Simple Present forms to refer to a time different from
the moment of speaking.
E.g.: Then the Normans come to England. (Historic Present tense - past
time)
I hear she has graduated from Cornell University. (Present used with
verbs of communication - past time)
She leaves for the airport within an hour. (Present tense - future
time)
If Tom were here today, he would be the first to dance. (Past tense present time)
8.1. Tenses in English.
8.1.1. The primary use of the present tense is to locate the situation in present
time. ‘Situation’ is a general term covering states, actions or processes and
present time is the time of the utterance. In general, the Simple Present
expresses events or situations that exist at the time of speaking, have existed in
the past, and probably will exist in the future.
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now
past
future
a) Static situations extend beyond the moment of utterance. When used for
static situations, this tense refers to general statements or facts and it is
called State Present.
E.g.: The Earth is a planet and the Moon is its satellite.
Vegetables are essential for a healthy diet.
b) This tense is also used to express an everyday activity or an action that
occurs repeatedly. This use is referred to as the Habitual Present:
E.g.: She always has a cup of tea early in the morning.
Everyday I take the train to go to the office.
c) The Instantaneous Present indicates an action or situation that takes place
at the time of speaking:
E.g.: I thank you for all your help with this project.
I’m sorry for being late.
8.1.2. The Simple Past refers to a definite time in the past. It shows that at that
particular time in the past something happened.
now
past
future
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
a) The action in the Simple Past describes a past event that started and finished
at a certain point in the past.
E.g.: Christopher Wren built Westminster Abbey.
She moved to Buffalo when she got married.
Notice that the action in the “when” clause happened first.
b) The Simple Past can also refer to past actions that took place on a regular
basis:
E.g.: We spent our holidays at the beach when we were younger.
As a child, she always attended piano classes.
c) The Simple Past can also be used to express past time schedule of future
situations.
E.g.: The campaign started tomorrow, but this morning they decided to
postpone it.
d) And it can refer to factual remoteness too.
E.g.: If I saw you tomorrow, we could have lunch together.
e) Sometimes the Simple Past can be used in combination with other tenses to
form compound tenses (in this example Past Perfect Continuous) to express
a specific time in the past. Examine the following sentence form the text:
E.g.: Having given his instructions, the gentleman knew […] (lines 18-19)
In this case the Simple Past refers to a time after the previous action, i.e., we
could transcribe this sentence as Once his instructions had been given, the
gentleman knew […].
8.2. Aspect.
While tense primarily relates the event to speech time, or to a reference point in
the past, aspect is concerned with the internal character of the event as it is
presented by the speaker. Aspect can be perfect or progressive and that
depends on the internal character of the event, whether it is completed or
uncompleted. Strictly speaking, English does not have grammatical aspect. A
language has grammatical aspect if it has a system of the verb, marked
inflectionally or by such analytic devices as auxiliaries, where the primary
semantic contrast between the terms is a matter of aspectual meaning.
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NOTE: We can, however, talk of aspectual verbs in English, i.e. verbs
with aspectual meaning (such as begin, start, cease, finish, stop, continue,
keep, etc.), but they do not form a grammatically distinct class and are not
dependent on the verbs with which they enter into construction.
8.2.1. The most frequent expression of the perfective aspect is ‘perfect’ have.
We need to distinguish two cases of the perfect construction: the Present
Perfect, where have carries a present tense inflection (has done, have done) and
the non-present perfect, where have either carries the past tense inflection or
else is non-tensed (had gone, to have gone, may have gone, having gone).
8.2.1.1. The Present Perfect expresses the idea of something that began in a
specified or unspecified time in the past and continues to the present, or is
somehow related to it.
E.g.: She has already worked for that firm before.
Have you ever spent a year abroad?
All perfect combinations (Present Perfect, Past Perfect and Future Perfect)
give the idea that something happened before another time or event.
now
past
future
a) The Present Perfect also refers to an action that began in the past and has
been repeated some times since then.
E.g.: Since I got here I have written four postcards to my best friend.
I have learned many things since I joined this team.
b) This tense is frequently used with time prepositions, adverbs or adverbials
such as: for, since, all day, all night, etc. to refer to a situation that began in
the past and continues to the present.
E.g.: They have been here enjoying the excursions for two weeks.
We have had this same car since we moved to the country.
Notice that, in the second example above, since is functioning as a
subordinating conjunction introducing an adverbial clause of time.
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8.2.1.2. The Past Perfect refers to an activity that finished or was completed
before another activity in the past.
E.g.: The kids had already done their homework when you got home.
She had fallen down before I could notice the gap.
now
past
future
8.2.2. Regardless of the time it refers to (present, past or future), the
progressive aspect indicates that the action is or was not finished and,
therefore, lasts or lasted for some time. It is realized by verbal periphrasis:
some form of be and the -ing participle:
E.g.: I am sure she’s driving home at the moment. (Present + progressive)
We have been working together for three years now. (Perfect +
progressive)
8.2.2.1. The Present Progressive indicates that an action began in the past, is
in progress at the moment of speaking, and will continue in the future.
The traditionally-called progressive or continuous tenses (Present
Continuous, Past Continuous and Future Continuous) are used in English
to give the idea that an action is in progress for some time.
E.g.: She’s watching that new soap opera on TV.
They are still working on the new computer program because they
have to finish it for tomorrow.
now
past
future
This tense can also be used to refer to an activity that is not taking place at the
very moment of speaking but which is in progress.
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E.g.: I’m attending French classes this year.
She joined this course because she’s trying to improve her German.
Note that some verbs are not normally used in the continuous tenses.
See Chapter 2, section B 6.3.
8.2.2.3. The Present Perfect Progressive is usually used to express the
duration of a past activity that continues to the present. Time adverbs that
express the aforesaid duration are frequently used, E.g.: for, since, all day, all
night, etc.
E.g.: It has been snowing all the weekend.
She has been sitting by the riverbank for two hours.
now
past
future
For the Past Progressive, see Chapter 10, B 1.
8.2.2.4. The Past Perfect Progressive refers to an activity that was taking
place for some time before an event in the past.
E.g.: We had been waiting for an hour when you arrived.
They had been mocking me for some time before I realized it.
now
past
future
9. Definite and indefinite articles
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1, section
B 13.
CHAPTER 4
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound nouns
Compound nouns were introduced in Chapter 1, section A 3. In The Royal Pavilion,
again, we can find some instances of combinations of two words which have
independent meanings: grassland (line 11), sea-nymph (line 21) and racehorses
(line 31), which are examples of Noun + Noun compounds, and drawing-room (line
29), which is composed of a Present participle (-ing form) + Noun.
1.1. As a general characteristic of Noun + Noun compounds, the first element
premodifies the second. Their meaning can be paraphrased by means of a NP
containing a relative clause, as in the following examples:
Compound
grassland
racehorse
sea-nymph
burglar alarm
blood donor
youth hostel
contact lens
credit card
Paraphrase
land which is used for growing grass
a horse which runs races
a nymph who lives in the sea
an alarm which is used against burglars
a person who donates some of his blood
a hostel where young people can sleep
lenses that you put on the surface of your eyes
a plastic card that you use to buy on credit
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2. Adverbs ending in -ly
Notice the use of adverbs in The Royal Pavilion: entirely (line 3), conveniently
(line 9), highly (line 26), secretly (line 29), recently (line 30), incurably (line 35).
For an explanation on the formation of adverbs with the suffix -ly, see Chapter 1,
section A 2.
2.1. Although a high proportion of adverbs coming from adjectives are formed
this way in English, it should be taken into account that there are some adverbs
of manner which do not end in -ly. There are some words that can be used either
as adjectives or as adverbs, for example: direct, hard, high, etc.
E.g.: She will arrive on a direct flight from Boston. (adjective)
She can fly direct from Boston to Paris. (adverb)
That is certainly a hard question. (adjective)
She is very well-paid but she is also supposed to work very hard. (adverb)
She has got high expectations on her new job. (adjective)
She shouldn’t be afraid to aim high in it. (adverb)
These adverbs may also take the -ly suffix but their meaning may change:
E.g.: The snake was directly above his head. (right above)
She said she wouldn’t marry him because they hardly knew each
other. (scarcely, barely)
I think he is highly competent and he will do it very well. (very)
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3. Abstract nouns ending in: -tion / -sion / -ssion
Abstract nouns describe qualities or ideas as opposed to concrete nouns
which describe real things. The suffixes -tion, -sion and -ssion can be added to
adjectives, nouns or verbs in order to form abstract nouns. In this case we will
see abstract nouns formed by adding these derivational morphemes to verbs.
(For an introduction to word formation see Chapter 1, A 1.)
3.1. The suffix -tion can be pronounced either /-ʃn/ or /-ʃən/.
Verb
Abstract noun
define
definition
inform
information
moderate
moderation
promote
promotion
3.2. The suffix -sion can be pronounced either /-n/ or /-ən/ and is added to
verbs ending in -de.
Verb
Abstract noun
conclude
conclusion
explode
explosion
invade
invasion
decide
decision
3.3. The suffixes -sion and -ssion are pronounced /-ʃn/ when added to verbs
ending with the suffixes -vert, -d and -de.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Verb
Abstract noun
convert
conversion
proceed
procession
recede
recession
succeed
succession
For more details about these suffixes and other variants, see Chapter 10, A 2.2.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Which (relative pronoun)
Relative clauses are used as postmodifiers to provide information about a noun
or a pronoun within a noun phrase.
E.g.: A rush to the sea began which has never stopped. (lines 2-3)
1.1. In English, we can distinguish two types of relative clauses: defining and
non-defining.
a) In defining relative clauses the subordinate clause (introduced by a relative
pronoun) is essential to understand the head because it identifies or defines
the preceding noun or pronoun.
E.g.: I am grateful to the policeman that (who) helped us.
Is this the armchair which (that) you had repaired?
b) Non-defining relative clauses, however, are not essential to identify the
head, i.e. they do not define the preceding noun but just add some information.
E.g.: The actress, who was arrested for robbery, was sent to prison.
This book, which was originally written in Old Norse, has been
translated into several languages.
1.2. Which is a relative pronoun we use when the antecedent is a thing, an
animal or an entire clause. This relative pronoun can be used to link sentences
and it can function as the subject of the relative sentence.
E.g.: The 5 o’clock train is usually punctual. It was late today.
S
The 5 o’clock train, which is usually punctual, was late today.
It can also be the object;
E.g.: The 5 o’clock train is late today. We usually take it to go home.
O
The 5 o’clock train, which we usually take to go home, is late today.
1.3. Sometimes the relative pronoun is governed by a preposition expressing
place, time, or cause. Then, the preposition comes before which (formal context)
or at the end of the clause (informal contexts). The relative pronoun cannot be
omitted when preceded by a preposition. (See Chapter 7, B 6)
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: That is the train for which we are waiting. (formal)
That is the train which we are waiting for. (informal)
Consider the following examples taken from the text:
[…] a book in which he announced a startling new discovery. (lines 1-2)
[…] a great open space of grassland next to the village, on which the
fishermen dried their nests. (lines 11-12)
For a detailed explanation of all relative pronouns, see Chapter 9, B 5.
2. Infinitive / -ing form
A common problem for Spanish speakers learning English is the distinction
between the infinitive and the -ing form. In Spanish, we do not always use a
gerund in the same grammatical contexts as we do in English. Although this is a
rather complex grammatical point, here are some hints that can help you:
2.1. Non-finite clauses (infinitive/ -ing) can function as subject or direct object in
the main sentence. In the case of a non-finite clause functioning as subject we
may find a to-infinitive clause (which sometimes may be introduced by a whpronoun) or an -ing clause:
E.g.: What to buy for the party is your choice. (what + to-infinitive - subject)
Having to drive all the way back was our main concern. (-ing clause
- Subject)
To tell her the truth is not a good idea (to-infinitive cl. - subject)
I don’t want to tell her the truth. (To-inf. cl. - object)
She doesn’t remember talking to her. (-ing cl. - object)
2.1.1. On some occasions both forms
coincide and there is almost no difference between the -ing and the to-infinitive forms:
E.g.: Driving is dangerous.
To drive is dangerous.
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2.1.2. The -ing form is preferred when speaking generally and the to-infinitive is
used when we are referring to a specific time.
E.g.: Living abroad is always exciting.
To live in a different country from yours is, nowadays, an exciting
experience.
2.2. When a non-finite clause functions as direct object, it can take both the
form of a to-infinitive or an -ing clause:
E.g.: She wanted to meet me at the airport (To-infinitive)
We avoided driving to the airport. (-ing clause)
2.2.1. Some verbs take a to-infinitive, some take an -ing clause and some can
take either of them as an object. See Chapter 10, B 7 for a detailed account of these
verbs.
Notice the following expressions followed by to-infinitive.
to be about
cannot afford
to know how
would like
+ to-infinitive
Notice the following expressions followed by an -ing form.
to be fond of
to be used/accustomed to
cannot help
cannot stand
to feel like
it’s no good/no use
it’s worth
to look forward to
there’s no point in
what/how about
+ Vb-ing
2.2.2. There are some verbs that can take either the to-infinitive form or the -ing
form. There is a difference in meaning between these two, the former expresses
potentiality and the latter actualization.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: Remember to buy a toothbrush for me. (Potentiality)
I remember visiting that place when I was a child. (Actualization)
2.2.3. These verbs which change their meaning according to whether they
govern the to-infinitive or the -ing can be classified into:
a) Emotive verbs. E.g.: like, love, hate and prefer.
b) Verbs of retrospection. E.g.: forget, regret, remember.
c) Verbs of intention and proposal. E.g.: mean, propose, stop, try.
For a more detailed account of these verbs, see Chapter 10, B 7.
Notice the following rules for the formation of the non-finite -ing form.
➢ In general, the gerund is formed with the base form of the verb followed
by -ing.
E.g.: look → looking
read → reading
wash → washing
➢ Those verbs ending in a single -e drop it before the -ing form.
E.g.: drive → driving
love → loving
move → moving
➢ Those verbs ending in a single vowel followed by a single consonant,
usually double the consonant, except for -y, -x and -w. (delay →
delaying, fix → fixing, flow → flowing).
E.g.: dig → digging
sit → sitting
slip → slipping
➢ When the last syllable of a verb is stressed, the last consonant is usually
doubled:
E.g.: pre'fer → preferring
ad'mit → admitting
BUT:
E.g.: 'suffer → suffering
'visit → visiting
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3. More and more
3.1. The comparative of superiority can be used repeatedly to indicate that
something is increasing progressively.
E.g.: Long distance calling is becoming more and more frequent.
Similarly, we can use less and less to indicate that something is decreasing all
the time.
E.g.: Ever since John bought a computer he’s been less and less
enthusiastic about going out.
The simple life became less and less simple. (line 36)
With monosyllabic adjectives we use the comparative of superiority morpheme:
bigger and bigger, fatter and fatter, etc.
E.g.: The Amish community is getting bigger and bigger each year.
Since I stopped playing tennis I’ve been getting fatter and fatter.
Notice the translation of these forms into Spanish:
more and more → cada vez más.
less and less → cada vez menos.
bigger and bigger → cada vez más grande.
fatter and fatter → cada vez más gordo/a.
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4. Past Simple / Present Perfect
Some uses of the Past Simple and the Present Perfect were introduced in
Chapter 3, section B 8. Here we will make some further comments about the use
of these tenses.
The Present Perfect refers to an indefinite time or event that is previous to the
moment of speaking but which is in some way connected to the present. The
Simple Past, however, refers to an event that occurred in the past and which is
disconnected from the present time of speaking. As can be seen in the following
example from the text, these two tenses can be used together to refer to an event
in the past (Simple Past) and its duration to speech time (Present Perfect).
E.g.: A rush to the sea began which has never stopped. (lines 2-3)
4.1. The Present Perfect is often used when the speaker does not want to refer to
the specific moment when some event took place. The action is therefore perceived
as occurring sometime in the past without definite time references. The Simple
Past, however, is used when there is a reference to a specific time in the past.
E.g.: Peter has joined our football team.
Peter joined our football team two weeks ago.
Thus, the Present Perfect cannot be used in a clause with adjuncts that express
a definite time in the past (two weeks ago, yesterday, last month, in 1972,
etc.). Conversely, adjuncts referring to an indefinite time in the past are often
used with the Present Perfect (already, lately, recently, etc., and some
frequency adverbs).
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Notice that the Present Perfect is not normally used in questions beginning
with when and at what time because they refer to a specific past event. The
Simple Past is used instead.
E.g.: When did you go to the bank?
At what time did you get back from the bank?
4.2. For and since are commonly used with the Present Perfect tense. The
difference between adjuncts introduced by these two prepositions depends on the
speaker’s point of view. For + a time reference (for two days, for a fortnight, for a
year, for ages, etc.) indicates that the speaker views the action from the time of
speaking, whereas since + a time reference (last week, yesterday, 1997, etc.)
shows that the speaker views the action from the beginning.
E.g.: Tammy has been in London for two years.
Tammy has been in London since 1999.
(In both cases Tammy is supposed to be there now)
Note that the past time reference can be marked with an adjunct, or, as in
exercise 4, with a simple past verb that refers to the time when something
started.
E.g.: A rush to the sea began which has never stopped. (lines 2-3)
4.3. The Present Perfect is also used to refer to very recent acts or events.
In these cases the adverb just can be introduced. (See also Chapter 7, section
B 7.3)
E.g.: The ambulance has (just) arrived.
A new edition of Hamlet has (just) been published. (Passive form)
5. Past Simple / Past Perfect
Some uses of the Past Simple and the Past Perfect were introduced in Chapter
3, section B 8. Now we shall see other uses of both tenses.
The Past Perfect refers to an indefinite time or event that took place in the past
before other actions or events in the past.
E.g.: The prince’s debts had recently been paid for him by parliament [...]
(lines 29-30)
Tim had already left when Bob arrived.
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5.1. The Past Perfect is sometimes used as the past of the Present Perfect. (See
Reported Speech in Chapter 5, section B 7.3.d).
E.g.: I have met many people since I came here in December. (Present
Perfect)
I had met many people before I came here in December. (Past Perfect)
Notice the difference in meaning between these two examples: In the first
one, the writer meets the people after coming here, whereas in the second
one, the writer met the people at a time previous to his/her coming here.
5.2. The Past Perfect can also be used to express duration up to a point or
event in the past.
E.g.: By the time I decided to join the team, I had played basketball for
eight years.
Notice that when the adverbs before or after are used in a sentence, the
Past Perfect may not be necessary as the time relationship is clear enough.
Therefore, you can say:
The train had left before I arrived. (Past Perfect)
or
The train left before I arrived. (Simple Past)
6. Prepositions
For a general introduction to prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8. For the preposition
into, see Chapter 1, B 9; for an introduction to space prepositions, see Chapter 1,
B 10. For prepositions at, in, on and for, see Chapter 2, section B 4. For
prepositions to, with, of and from, see Chapter 5, B 6. For time prepositions
(since, for, during, by) see Chapter 6, B 8.
7. Space prepositions
For a general introduction to space prepositions see Chapter 1, section B 10.
The following are very frequent space prepositions in English:
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123
7.1. Above and over; below and under.
a) We use the first pair of prepositions to indicate that something is located at a
higher level than something else.
Above and over may both be used when one thing is higher than, but not
right on the other:
E.g.: The children flew the kite over/above our heads.
The hot-air balloon rose above/over our heads.
But over can also be used when we want to express that something covers
something else and it is somehow in contact with it.
E.g.: Barbara put a blanket over the sleeping puppy.
A dense fog came over us as soon as we reached the summit.
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Over can also be used to indicate horizontal movement.
E.g.: The ball rolled over the football pitch
In this sense, the meaning of over coincides with that of across (The ball
rolled across the football pitch)
All over can be used to indicate “every part of”.
E.g.: It was really a pleasure to go for a walk all over the place.
Over can mean “higher than” or “more than”:
E.g.: We paid over $100 for that lamp.
Both over and above may mean “higher in rank”
E.g.: Dennis is above / over me in the company.
Notice that, in the above example, “Dennis is over me” would mean that
Dennis is my immediate superior, i.e., that he supervises my work; while
“Dennis is above me” would not necessarily have this meaning (it would
only mean that he is higher in rank).
Over can be used with drink, food or meals to mean “while”:
We had a long conversation over the coffee.
He told us all his adventures over dinner last night.
Notice that above can also be used as an adjective or adverb meaning
“earlier” (in a book, article, essay, etc.)
E.g.: The above chart shows the final results. (= The previous chart.)
See 4.5. above.
(= See the previous
section 4.5.)
b) The second pair of prepositions –below (≠ above) and under (≠ over)– can
both mean “lower than” and, on some occasions, either can be used. But only
under can indicate contact.
E.g.: — Where do they live?
— I’m not sure. I think they live two or three floors below us. (no
contact)
— Where is the cat?
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— Have you looked under the car? (no contact)
The girl put the doll under her pillow. (contact)
As with over and above, but in an opposite meaning, below and under can
mean “lower in rank”:
E.g.: He is under / below me in the company.
But whereas He is under me would imply that I am his immediate superior,
He is below me would not necessarily imply the same.
Note the curious use of under in the following example, where down under
constitutes the complement of a prepositional phrase:
He is from “down under” (= He is from Australia)
As can be seen, “down under” here is equivalent to a NP (Australia)
7.2. Across: We use across to indicate a position at the other side, or a
movement to reach the other side, of something flat. It can be translated as a
través de and al otro lado de.
E.g.: St. John’s College is right across that bridge.
In spite of the bad weather we sailed across the Channel.
There is a sense of “passage” attached to both the prepositions across and
through.
Note that across implies a surface, while through implies a volume, thus
through can express a movement to the other side of something voluminous.
E.g.: Some people feel unsafe when they walk through a subway.
It was hard to find our way through the crowd.
7.3. Beside: We use beside to mean “at the side of” in order to express the
nearness of one thing to another.
E.g.: He should keep a dictionary beside him when he’s studying English.
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7.4. By: In one of its senses as a preposition of place, by can have the same
meaning as beside.
E.g.: [...] they packed their bags and led the simple life for a while by the
sea. (lines 6-7)
NOTE: With a verb of motion, by can also express the idea of passage:
E.g.: We went by the town very early in the morning.
7.5. Near: This is a general preposition meaning close to. It indicates that things
or people are in the same area. Near embraces the meaning of some
prepositions such as: next to, by or beside.
E.g.: Tom enjoys living near the city centre.
7.6. Next to: The preposition next to expresses that two or more people or
things are side by side in the same line.
E.g.: [...] a great open space of grassland next to the village, [...] (lines 11-12)
7.7. Off: This preposition indicates a movement away from the state or initial
position.
E.g.: He fell off the tree when he was trying to save his pussy-cat.
7.8. On: The preposition on indicates a higher position usually with physical
contact.
E.g.: You can leave the books on the table.
For greater detail about the preposition on, see Chapter 2, B 4.
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127
7.9. Outside: The preposition outside is used when the place is seen as a
volume. It is sometimes used instead of out of. It may also indicate movement.
E.g.: [...] and listened to the band playing outside the new circulation
library. (line 14)
For this preposition, see also Chapter 1, B 10.3.
7.10. Round: The preposition (a)round refers to a surrounding position or motion. It expresses movement with reference to an axis or directional path.
E.g.: Soon people began to build or rent houses round the Steine. (line 17)
8. Definite and indefinite articles
In this chapter we review and exercise the use of the definite, indefinite and
zero articles. For a detailed explanation of the use of the articles in English, see
Chapter 1, section B 13.
9. Definite article
For a full explanation of the use of the articles in English, see Chapter 1, section
B 13.
10. Position of adverbs
Adverbs and adverbials 8 in English can be placed at the beginning, in the middle
or at the end of the sentence.
8
Adverbials add information about the verb in the sentence (manner, place, time, etc.). Adverbials
can have different forms such as:
a) A single word (these are adverbs).
E.g.: never, slowly, very, etc.
b) A prepositional phrase (preposition + noun).
E.g. : by far, in advance, along those lines, etc.
c) A phrase without a preposition.
E.g.: all day long, once a month, every day, etc.
d) A clause.
E.g.: when she was driving back home, after they came back, etc.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: Fortunately I met Jake before he left for the States.
She soon fell in love with him.
I got a loan from the bank and I’m paying it monthly.
We should take into account that adverbs can sometimes go in initial
position for greater emphasis:
E.g.: Yesterday she made all the arrangements for her trip to Istanbul.
Hopefully, I will be back home within a couple of days.
Notice that an adverb or adverbial should not be inserted between the verb
and its direct object, except when the direct object is very long.
10.1. For an introduction to frequency adverbs, see Chapter 1, B 11. See also
Chapter 10, B 12. Here we are just going to add the following:
Frequency adverbs indicate how often something happens in a range of
possibilities between always and never. These are usually midsentence adverbs,
i.e. they very frequently occur in the middle of a sentence, but they can also occur
in initial or final position (see Chapter 1, B 11.1.). Here are some general rules for
their placement (see also Chapter 7, section B 5):
a) They come right before Simple Present and Simple Past verbs.
E.g.: Jennifer hardly ever travels abroad.
b) They go right after to be.
E.g.: Diane is never nervous, not even before exams.
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c) They are placed before the auxiliary and the main verb in compound tenses.
E.g.: John has always been interested in modern Art.
Common frequency adverbs are: always, constantly, frequently, generally, hardly
ever, nearly always, never, occasionally, often, rarely, scarcely ever, seldom,
sometimes, usually, etc.
Notice other phrases which indicate frequency. These expressions usually
go in final position, i.e. after the object or complement.
again and again
time and again
a few times
from time to time
now and again
now and then
10.2. Time adverbs (of which frequency adverbs are a sub-category) can be
placed in different positions. Some of them usually go in final position after the
object or complement. These time adverbs describe a point or period of time:
again, late, now, nowadays, then, today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday, etc.
E.g.: I hope to see you at the party tonight.
You shouldn’t let her do it again.
Some other time adverbs are mobile and can be placed in any of the three
aforesaid positions. These also denote a point or period of time but they refer to
the point from which the time is measured: afterwards, before, earlier, eventually,
finally, first, formerly, immediately, lately, next, once, presently, previously,
recently, since, soon, subsequently, then, etc.
E.g.: That actor was famous once, but nobody remembers him today.
Remember that when two adverbs or adverbials of time come together, the
smaller and most precise unit of time usually comes first.
E.g.: I think we agreed to meet at eleven o’clock on Wednesday.
Notice the case of just. This midsentence time adverb usually goes with the
Present Perfect and is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb. (See
section B 4.3 above)
E.g.: He has just called to say he’ll be late.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
In American English, however, it is frequently used with the Simple Past:
E.g.: A: Do you know where Greg is?
B: Yes, I just saw him in the garden.
10.3. Adverbs of manner. This type of adverbs can appear in any of the three
positions described above (B 10).
If you need more information about the formation and placement of adverbs of
manner, please see Chapter 1, section A 2 and Chapter 4, section A 2.
Notice that if more than one or two adverbs occur together in the same
sentence, the most common order would be:
ADVERB OF MANNER + ADVERB OF PLACE + ADVERB OF TIME
E.g.: She can fly [direct] [from Boston to Paris].
She has to go [to the doctor] [at ten o’clock].
But notice that, with travel verbs, the order may change to PLACE,
MANNER AND TIME:
He went to New Zealand by plane two years ago.
Place
Manner
Time
NOTE:
It should be pointed out that the position of adverbs and adverbials in
English is not fixed and it may change due to some reasons such as
emphasis, hesitant speech in spoken language, irony, etc.
CHAPTER 5
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound words
In Chapter 1, A 3 and Chapter 4, A 1 we studied compound nouns and the
various combinations of word classes that can be made in order to form these
compound words. In the first paragraph of the introductory text of Chapter 5
(Leave my house or I’ll shoot you), we find compound words such as Broadwater
(line 1), firearms (line 3), mainland (line 4), or shotgun (line 8). Broadwater and
mainland are examples of the Adj. + Noun combination, while firearms and
shotgun display the Noun + Noun one.
1.1. Exercise 1 of Word formation in the course book also provides examples of
the Adj. + Adj. combination.
E.g.: redhot
bittersweet
In this case the resulting compound word is an adjective, not a noun.
1.2. There are various other combinations, and the syntactic relations of the
compounding elements may be indicated by paraphrases, as can be seen in the
following table:
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Compound
Structure / combination
Paraphrase
Taxpayer
Noun + agentive or
instrumental noun
X pays taxes
Swimming pool
Verbal noun + noun
The pool is for swimming
Daydream
Noun + verb
X dreams during the day
Sunrise
Noun + deverbal noun
The sun rises
Heartfelt
Noun + -ed participle
X feels it in the heart
Cost-conscious
Noun + Adjective
X is conscious of the
cost
Hard-working
Adv. + -ing participle
X works hard
1.3. Examine now the following compounds, whose elements are either identical
or only slightly different:
Goody-goody (affectedly good)
Nitty-gritty (the realities or
practical details of a matter)
Walkie-talkie
Wishy-washy
Criss-cross
Tip-top
Tick-tock (of clock)
Din-din
See-saw
Willy-nilly (whether one
likes it or not)
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133
These compounds are called Reduplicates, and they are generally highly informal
or familiar. Reduplicates are sometimes onomatopoeic (tick-tock), and are also
used to suggest alternating movements (see-saw), to disparage by suggesting
instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc. (wishy-washy), or to intensify
(tip-top). Many of them derive from baby talk, such as din-din (dinner), pee-pee
(urine), silly-Billy (silly, fool), boo-boo (injury), etc.
Examine some possible uses of these words:
a) He seemed to be such a goody-goody that nobody believed he had been
arrested.
b) The security guard used his walkie-talkie to call for reinforcements.
c) I could hear the tick-tock of the clock.
d) She lives on an emotional see-saw.
e) OK! Let’s go back to the nitty-gritty of finding a job.
f) Ann found herself being dragged, willy-nilly, towards the exit.
g) This may sound rather wishy-washy, but it is effective.
h) This city needs a tip-top museum of modern art.
2. The prefixes dis-, un-, in- / imIn this chapter we focus our attention on these derivational morphemes once
more, and we find an example in the text in the word disorder (line 4). The uses
and meanings of these prefixes were explained in Chapter 2 (A 2 and 3).
3. The suffix -ism (noun formation)
In the text in Chapter 5 (Leave my house or I’Il shoot you), we encounter
the noun survivalism. Here the suffix -ism has been attached to the noun
survival to form another noun. This suffix is added to both nouns and adjectives
and is used to form abstract nouns which usually describe beliefs or
philosophies.
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2Noun/ adjective2
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
2Abstract noun2
(political movement, belief, attitude,
philosophy, school of thought)
Darwin
Darwinism
Communist
Communism
Protestant
Protestantism
Structural
Structuralism
Romantic
Romanticism
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CHAPTER 5
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. The Past Perfect
There are many instances of the use of the past perfect in the text (see lines 3442) (see also Chapter 3, section B 8 in this book).
1.1. The Past Perfect indicates past in the past; it goes back to a remote,
previous time. In Leave my house or I’ll shoot you, the actions of being mugged,
being trashed and buying a gun happened sometime before the point in the
past where the narrator places the main action of the story. The actions in the
Past Perfect express several degrees of remoteness.
Thus, the Past Perfect refers to a time further in the past as seen from a definite
viewpoint in the past.
now
Relevant point
past
future
1.2. When the time relation is not ambiguous, and when we rely on the
conjunction (after, before, when, etc.) to show which event took place earlier, the
Simple Past often replaces the Past Perfect:
E.g.: My mother didn’t tell me that she met him at the Conference.
She said nothing about him before Dad mentioned him.
1.3. The Past Perfect is also used as the past of the Present Perfect. Examine
and compare the situations in the following table:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Present
Past
I don’t want to go to the cinema.
I’ve already seen that film.
I didn’t want to go to the cinema.
I had already seen that film.
The baby is crying. I haven’t
changed his diapers in the last three
hours.
The baby was crying. I hadn’t
changed his diapers in the
previous three hours.
2. Past Simple / Past Perfect
We have already studied the uses of the Past Simple (Chapter 3, B 8) and the
combination of both the Past Simple and the Past Perfect in one sentence
(Chapter 4, B 4). In this chapter we are only going to examine two more
examples for the sake of revision. Compare both tenses:
1) A: Was Jessica there when the train arrived?
B: No, she had already taken an earlier train.
But:
A: Was Jessica there when the train arrived?
B: Yes, but she didn’t take it.
2) Sheila wasn’t at the office when I called her. She was at home.
But:
Sheila had just gotten home when I called her. She had been at the office.
As can be seen and as you already know, we use the Simple Past to refer to a
given point of time in the past, while the Past Perfect refers to something that
happened before that point of time.
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137
3. Use of where in dependent, subordinate clauses
We use where in relative clauses to talk about places:
The city - we met there - was his home town.
The city where we met was his home town.
3.1. The term relative clause is used for various types of subclause which are
linked to part or all of the main clause or sentence by a deictic element, usually
a relative pronoun. In English, the basic relative pronouns are: who, whom,
whose, which, that, and zero (when the pronoun is omitted). But these
pronouns can be replaced by special adjunct (adverbial) forms for place, time,
and cause:
iii. That is the country where I want to live. (place)
iii. That was the year when we lived in that country. (time)
iii. That is the reason why I want to live there. (cause)
NOTE: Some speakers find the use of these adjunct forms somewhat
tautologous if they accompany the corresponding antecedent (country,
year, and reason in i, ii, and iii), and therefore they prefer to use the
wh-clause without antecedent:
That is where I want to live.
That was when we lived in that country.
That is why I want to live there.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
3.2. Examine the use of where in some of the sentences from the text (lines 2227 and 31-34).
a) In the above examples, as well as in the text examples, where is functioning
as a subordinator, introducing a subordinate clause. In both cases in the
text, the clause introduced by where is post-modifying the head of a noun
phrase (shops and estate).
b) The syntactic relationship between the clauses and the main sentence is one
of Hypotaxis, i.e., a relationship of non-equivalence, in which the clauses
have a different status (one is dependent on the other).
c) From the semantic point of view, the information given in the subordinate
clause is often presented as presupposed or backgrounded in relation to
the information given in the main, superordinate clause.
4. Pronouns: personal (subjective, objective), possessive,
reflexive. Possessive adjectives
In this exercise we revise the different uses of the pronouns and the possessive
adjectives. In Chapter 2, B 8.3 we studied the relation of reflexive to possessive
adjectives and possessive pronouns. In this chapter we are going to focus on
the personal (subjective and objective) pronouns and will revise the other
ones as well.
4.1. Personal pronouns: They replace a noun or a noun phrase in a neighboring
(usually preceding) clause:
E.g.: Peter forgot to lock the door before he left the house.
When a subordinate clause precedes the main clause, the pronoun may anticipate
its determining co-referent:
E.g.: When she saw him, Mary realized he was the robber.
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4.2. Personal pronouns have two sets of case-forms: a) the subjective forms
and b) the objective forms.
a) The subjective forms are used as subjects of finite verbs and often as
subject complement:
E.g.: She is beautiful. (Subject)
It was she who did it. (Subject complement)
NOTE: In spite of this rule, in everyday, colloquial English the objective
pronoun (especially the first person me) can be used for both the subject
and subject complement function. Therefore, it is very common to hear
utterances like the following:
A: Who is it?
B: It’s me! (subject comp.)
It was me who did it (subject comp.)
You and me are going to the party (subject)
She did it, or, at least I thought it was her. (subject comp.)
b) The objective forms are used as objects and/or as prepositional
complements.
E.g.: I saw him swimming in the pool. (Object)
They went to the cinema with us. (Prepositional complement)
Especially in informal usage, they also occur as subject complements (as
explained in the note above) and as the subject (mainly 1st. person) of sentences
whose predicates have been ellipted:
E.g.: A: Who called me this morning to the office?
B: Me.
4.3. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns: Possessives in English
may function as determiners before noun heads or as independent noun phrases.
The first function can be fulfilled by any of the possessive adjectives (my, your,
his, her, its, our, your, their) and the second one by the possessive pronouns
(mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs).
E.g.: That is her cellular phone. (Determiner function, possessive adjective)
Hers is the cellular I want. (Subject function, independent NP,
possessive pronoun)
For Reflexive pronouns, see Chapter 2, B 8.1- 8.7.
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NOTE: Unlike Spanish, English uses determiner possessives with reference
to parts of the body and personal belongings. Compare the following:
Spanish
English
Me rompí la pierna
I broke my leg
Le robaron el bolso
They stole her bag
Notice, however, that in English the definite article
is usual in prepositional phrases related to
the object or, in passive constructions,
the subject. For instance:
Her boyfriend took her by the hand
The Captain was shot in the arm during the war
5. Disjuncts realized by a prepositional phrase:
To his own dismay / To my amazement, etc.
In the text we find an example of a disjunct realized by a prepositional phrase:
[…] and to his own dismay, he found himself…[…] (lines 19-20)
5.1. Disjuncts are added to a clause or sentence in an optional way, i.e. they
can be added or omitted without producing an ungrammatical result. From the
syntactic point of view, they remain somewhat separate from the clause or main
sentence, because the message given by them refers to the whole sentence.
This is the reason why they are usually found before or after the main clause.
E.g.: To my amazement, he didn’t apologize.
He didn’t apologize, to my amazement.
5.2. From the textual-semantic point of view, Disjuncts are a comment given by
the speaker or writer about the content of the sentence as a whole.
5.3. Disjuncts can be realized by adverbs, prepositional phrases, finite and nonfinite clauses.
E.g.: Frankly, I don’t believe what he says. (Adverb)
To my astonishment, the demand for weapons had increased.
(Prep. phrase)
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If I may be honest with you, I don’t believe what he says.
(Finite clause)
To be frank with you, I don’t believe what he says.
(Non-finite clause)
In this part of the chapter, we focus our attention on those Disjuncts which are
realized by a prepositional phrase starting with the preposition to, and therefore,
it is worth noticing that these disjuncts, in combination with the main sentence,
can be paraphrased in the following way:
To my astonishment, he didn’t pop the question
↓
I was astonished to see that he didn’t pop the question
To my irritation, he was teasing her all the time.
↓
I was irritated to see that he was teasing her all the time
6. Prepositions: at, in, on, to, with, of, for, from
All these prepositions are used in Leave my house or I’ll shoot you. Here we are
going to concentrate on the prepositions to, with, of and from. For generalities
about prepositions, go to Chapter 1, B 8. For the prepositions at, in, on and for,
see Chapter 2, B 4.
6.1. To: In order to better understand the meaning of the preposition to, it is
necessary to understand the relationship between this preposition and other
prepositions. Thus, it is useful to know that between the notions of static location
and direction (movement with respect to a destination), a cause-and-effect
relationship is obtained:
Direction
Position
Cindy went to the kitchen
as a result:
Cindy was at the kitchen
Sofia fell on (to) the floor
as a result:
Sofia was on the floor
Julian drove (in) to China Town
as a result:
Julian was in China Town
As can be seen, to expresses the meaning of direction. This meaning generally
(but not always) requires a dynamic verb of motional meaning such as go, move,
drive, etc.
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6.1.1. The preposition to is also used to introduce the recipient, goal, or target of
a given action:
E.g. I gave the pictures to your assistant.
For the difference between the prepositions to and at when they introduce an
intended goal or target see Chapter 2, B 4.1 f).
6.1.2. We can also express reaction by using the preposition to followed by an
abstract noun of emotion:
E.g. …to his own dismay, he found himself picking up a knife… (lines 19-20)
To my annoyance, I failed the exam.
As we saw in B 5 (this chapter), this type of prepositional phrase functions as a
disjunct and is comparable with adverbs such as annoyingly, surprisingly, etc.
6.1.3. A to-phrase can also be used to identify the person reacting:
E.g.: To me, his answer was a surprise.
In this sense, to is not limited to emotive reactions; it applies equally to intellectual
or perceptual responses:
E.g.: To a critical mind, his ideas are too flat.
The picture looked to me as a big colored stain.
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6.2. With: The preposition with expresses instrumental meaning:
E.g.: He cut the logs with an ax.
Someone broke the window with a stick.
There is a correspondence between these sentences (which normally require a
human subject and a direct object) and sentences containing the verb use and
the preposition to (which, in this case, expresses purpose):
E.g. He used an ax to cut the logs.
He used a stick to break the window.
6.2.1. With also introduces manner adverbials:
E.g.: We were treated with royal courtesy.
6.2.2. Another of the meanings of with is that of accompaniment:
E.g.: I went to the movies with Jennifer.
Rice with chicken is my favorite dish.
6.2.3. With can also be a synonym of for, to express support, in contrast with
against:
E.g.: Are you with (= for) the Real Madrid or against it?
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
NOTE: For most senses of with, the preposition without expresses the
equivalent negative meaning, but for this particular use, it does not. The
negative meaning is expressed here by the preposition against.
6.2.4. With can also be used to introduce a prepositional phrase acting as
postmodifier of a noun in a noun phrase, to express the meaning of “having”:
E.g.: A woman with a big nose.
A car with leather seats.
(= The woman has a big nose)
(= The car has leather seats)
6.2.5. Another of the uses of with is to indicate an ingredient or material, after
verbs of ‘making’:
E.g.: You make a Spanish tortilla with potatoes and eggs.
The basement of the house was built with concrete.
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Notice:
➢ The difference between with and out of in the following sentences:
Scones are made with flour.
He made the toy plane out of wood.
(flour is one of the ingredients)
(wood was the only material)
➢ The use of with in expressions such as: filled with water, loaded with
hay, paved with brick, crying with fear, crawling with ants, etc.
➢ That there are instances in which the preposition with is not translated
into Spanish as con:
English
Spanish
That was when I was pregnant with
Ellen.
Eso fue cuando estaba
embarazada de Ellen.
The playground was crawling with kids.
El patio estaba lleno de niños.
She was crying with fear.
Estaba llorando de miedo.
6.3. Of: The preposition of generally governs a prepositional phrase used as
postmodifier in a NP, expressing the meaning of ‘having’ 9:
E.g. A woman of courage. (The woman has courage)
NOTE: The difference between of and with in this case is that with is
more general and normally used with concrete attributes, while of is
especially common with abstract attributes.
Compare: A man with long hear / A man of principles.
6.3.1. As we saw in 6.2. in comparison with the preposition with, the prepositions
of and out of indicate material or constituency:
E.g.: One of the three little pig’s house was made (out) of straw.
The church was built (out) of stone.
6.4. The preposition from expresses source, and in that sense it is the converse
of the preposition to, which expresses goal:
E.g. Mr. Williams lent the lap top to me. ↔ I borrowed the lap top from
Mr Williams.
9
For the use of the preposition of with the genitive, see Chapter 2, B 1 in this book.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
6.4.1. From is also used with reference to ‘place of origin’:
E.g.: A: Where is your husband from?
B: He’s from Australia
My Philosophy teacher comes from France
Notice that this type of prepositional phrase cannot only occur as an
immediate constituent of the main sentence (as a subject complement or
adjunct 10 ), but as a postmodifier in a NP: The woman from Budapest, A
friend of his from Japan, etc.
7. Direct and indirect speech
In Leave my house or I’ll shoot you we find both examples of Direct (quoted)
speech (lines 28-30) and of Indirect (reported) speech (lines 43-46).
7.1. In the case of direct speech the words of a speaker are incorporated within
the reporting sentence and retain the status of an independent clause. In writing,
direct speech is identified between quotation marks.
The reporting clause may be classified as a comment clause form the structural
point of view. It may occur before, within, or after the speech itself:
E.g.: “Listen, I won’t do it” she said
She said, “Listen, I won’t do it”
“Listen”, she said, “I won’t do it”
7.2. Direct speech may be introduced by different verbs, such as:
a) Verbs of saying:
• Say, tell
• Verbs introducing questions: ask, demand, inquire, query
• Verbs introducing statements: announce, observe, point out, remark, report.
• Other verbs of communication: boast, declare, affirm, warn, repeat,
object, protest, argue, beg, etc.
10
A Subject Complement is a constituent in the sentence that completes the predication after a copular verb. It specifies an attribute of the subject, its identity, or a circumstance inherent to the predication.
An Adjunct is an optional element of the clause that provides non-inherent circumstantial information.
CHAPTER 5
147
• Verbs of uttering: drawl, shriek, snap, stammer, complain, cry, yell,
whisper, scream, etc.
• Some behavioral verbs which relate to the act of speaking: chuckle,
laugh, pant, gasp, choke, grin, giggle, sob, etc.
b) Verbs of thinking:
• Think
• Other verbs of cognition: ponder, reflect, wonder, etc.
NOTE: In present everyday informal English there is a way of introducing
direct speech which consists in the use of the verb to be + like, as shown in
the following examples:
❖ She was worried about what might happen, and she’s like, “Oh, gosh,
what am I going to do?”
❖ When in the mountains, we asked him if he wanted to go rafting with us.
He has a sort of lassitude when he’s there, so he’s like, “yeah, ready to go”
7.3. There are a series of formal characteristics that distinguish Reported
(indirect) speech from direct speech. All deictic elements (i.e. pointers:
elements that signal a person or thing to which they are related) are shifted,
therefore:
a) First person pronouns (referring to the speaker) are changed to third person:
“I want to go”, she whispered.
↓
She whispered that she wanted to go.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
b) The second person pronoun referring to the listener is shifted to first or third,
depending on the identity of the listener:
He asked, “Would you marry me?”
↓
He asked me if I would marry him. (If I am the listener)
Or:
He asked her if she would marry him. (If the listener is other than the
person reporting)
c) Deictic adverbs such as here, there or now, as well as demonstratives (this,
these, etc.) are replaced by other –generally more remote– forms (that,
those, there, then), but, again, the shift depends on where and when the
speaker is reporting:
Sally said, “We are going to remain here”.
↓
Sally said they were going to remain there. (If the speaker is not where
Sally is)
Or:
Sally said they were going to remain here. (If the speaker is where Sally is)
“I want this job to be done now”, said the boss
↓
The boss said he wanted that job to be done at that moment/then. (If
the speaker is reporting the statement, for example, the following day)
Or:
The boss says he wants that job to be done now (If the speaker reports
the boss’s order immediately after he gives it. Notice that the verb
tense does not change here either.)
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d) Verb tenses are generally backshifted, i.e. they change from present to past:
Present
Past
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
→ Past
Past perfect
Present continuous → Past continuous
E.g.: “I’m fed up with this problem”, he complained.
↓
He complained that he was fed up with that problem.
I’m not going with him to Rome. We broke up last week.
↓
She said she was not going with him to Rome because they had
broken up the previous week.
But, as we saw above, if the reporting verb is in the present and/or the validity of
the statement reported holds for the present time as much as for the time of
utterance, the backshift is not obligatory:
“The man who is tired of London is tired of life”, he said.
↓
He said that the man who was tired of London was tired of life.
Or:
He said that the man who is tired of London is tired of life. (No backshift)
7.4. Questions, exclamations and commands are converted into indirect speech
in the following manner:
a) INDIRECT QUESTIONS: dependent wh-clause or if-clause:
E.g.: Paul asked, “Is she coming?” (Yes/No question)
↓
Paul wanted to know if she was coming.
“When is she coming?” Paul asked. (Wh-question)
↓
Paul asked when she was coming.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Notice also the inversion of the order of the verb: In the direct question the
verb precedes the subject; in the reported version the verb follows the
subject. This rule is not always observed, however, as we can see in this
example from the text:
[…] and asked what else could he do to protect himself and his things.
(lines 43-47)
b) INDIRECT EXCLAMATIONS: dependent wh- clause.
E.g.: “What a beautiful woman you are!” Michael exclaimed.
↓
Michael exclaimed what a beautiful woman she was.
c) INDIRECT COMMANDS: to-infinitive clause (without subject).
E.g.: The teacher said, “Be quiet”.
↓
The teacher told the children to be quiet.
SOME OTHER INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT REPORTED SPEECH:
❖ Free Indirect Speech: There is a kind of indirect speech that is half-way
between direct and indirect speech and is used extensively in writing.
Basically, it is a form of indirect speech, but the reporting clause is
omitted and certain structures of direct speech are retained, such as
direct questions and exclamations, vocatives, tag questions, etc. At the
same time, other features may belong to indirect speech, such as tense
back-shift and the temporal or spatial shifts of deictic words. Writers
many times resort to free indirect speech in their attempt to portray the
stream of thought of their characters.
E.g.: Then that was good old Tom, was it? She well knew he was not that
good, and would try to unveil him before he could get away with his
macabre plans. My God, how could a person be so mean?
❖ Very often, reported speech involves a paraphrase or summary of the
original utterance:
E.g.: He approached the shop manager and shouted: “Dammit! The
washer I bought here won’t work. I want a refund!”
↓
He approached the shop manager and then he cursed and
complained about the washer he had bought there, asking for a
refund.
For further details about this grammar point see Chapter 11, B 9.
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8. Reflexive pronouns
This grammar point was explained in Chapter 2, B 8.
9. Repetition of comparatives (more and more / harder
and harder, etc.)
In Chapter 4, section B 3, we studied how some identical items can be conjoined
an indefinite number of times. With comparatives of adjectives and adverbs
susceptible of intensification or gradability, the effect of the repetition is to express
a continuing increase in degree, as we see in the example from the text (lines 5359) shown in Exercise 9 (Language Points) of the main course book.
9.1. This kind of repetition can also be performed with verbs and the absolute
forms of adverbs, in which case the effect of coordination of identical items is to
express a continuing or repetitive process. This is one of the tools we have to
make language resemble reality, and therefore it can be considered as an
example of iconicity in language.
E.g.: She blew and blew the horn. (She blew it repeatedly)
She cried on and on and on. (She cried continuously)
NOTE: When a noun is repeated once, the effect may suggest that we
should distinguish different types:
E.g.: Well, you know, there are husbands and husbands (= There
are good and bad husbands)
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
10. Verbs of the senses + object + -ing
In Leave my house or I’ll shoot you, we find an example of the use of verbs of
senses (see, hear, smell, watch, feel, listen to, look at) + object + present
participle (-ing form):
When he saw a kid mucking around his car…[…] (lines 39-40)
10.1. The action in the present participle may be either complete or incomplete.
In the above example, we don’t know whether he saw the whole action of
mucking around his car or only part of it.
10.2. The verbs see, hear, feel and sometimes listen (to), notice and watch can
also be followed by object + bare infinitive:
E.g.: a) I saw him wash his car.
b) He heard him make a plan for future action.
Here the infinitive implies that the speaker in a) saw the whole action and the one
in b) heard the whole speech about his plans for future action.
10.3. In the passive the full infinitive is used after verbs of the senses:
E.g.: He was heard to say that his neighbor’s wife was cheating on him.
11. Articles
In this Chapter, as in many others of the main course book, we study and
exercise the use of the definite, indefinite and zero articles. For a detailed
explanation of the use of the articles in English, see Chapter 1, B 13.
CHAPTER 6
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Suffix -en
In the introductory text to Chapter 6 (Oil) we find an instance of this suffix in the
verb harden (line 36).
The derivational morpheme -en is added to some adjectives in order to form both
transitive and intransitive verbs whose meaning is “to become or cause to
become the quality or condition expressed by the adjective in question”.
E.g.: I have to sharpen this pencil. (Transitive)
When he received the news, he immediately saddened. (Intransitive)
NOTE: Do not mistake this suffix for the inflectional suffix of the same
form, which is used to form three of the English irregular plurals:
Ox → oxen
brother(religious community) → brethren
child → children
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
2. Suffix -y
As explained in exercise 2, if we add the derivational suffix -y to nouns, the
resulting word is generally an adjective meaning “having the look or quality of”. It
may also mean “covered with”. Study the following examples:
Noun
Adjective
Meaning
Example
sweat
sweaty
covered with sweat
My hands are all
sweaty.
velvet
velvety
like velvet
Your skin has a
velvety touch.
class
classy
having class, stylish
She is a classy girl.
cushion
cushy
soft, confortable,
That is certainly a
cushy chair.
hair
hairy
covered with hair
Austin Power’s chest
is very hairy.
NOTE: The suffix -y can also be added to nouns to form diminutives, in
which case the resulting word is also a noun. This suffix has also another
form, -ie, which fulfills exactly the same function:
Dad → daddy
Aunt → auntie
Dog → doggy
Duck → ducky
Bob → Bobby
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CHAPTER 6
B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Passive form of mental process verbs
(believe, consider, think, suppose, etc) + to infinitive
We find several instances of this construction in the text (lines 8-10, 11-13, 25-26,
55-56). One of these examples is the following:
An infusion of olive leaves was once considered to be a remedy for high blood
pressure… (lines 8-10)
The active sentence corresponding to this type of passive sentence is one whose
verb takes a complex transitive complementation. Complex transitive verbs are
those which take an object and an object complement. The object complement
may identify the object or it may refer to an attribute or a circumstance of the
object (SVOC = Subject + Verb + Object + Complement):
They considered an infusion of olive leaves (to be) a remedy for high blood pressure.
Direct object
Object complement
The passive is commonly used in these cases in order to give prominence to the
object, which is the most important participant involved. Consider these other
examples:
2Active2
2Passive2
The people believed him to be a thief.
He was believed to be a thief.
She assumed the little girl to be his sister.
The little girl was assumed to
be his sister.
As you can see in exercise 1, the same idea can be expressed by means of an
extraposed clausal subject (that clause) replaced by anticipatory it:
It is considered that an infusion of olive oil is a remedy for high blood pressure.
It is believed that he is a thief.
It is assumed that the little girl is his sister.
2. Passive voice
We saw a special use of the passive voice in exercise 1 above. Now we are going to study the generalities of the passive voice in English.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
2.1. The most common type of passive structure is formed with the auxiliary be
followed by an -ed participle. This type of construction is generally possible with
transitive verbs. The direct object in the active construction becomes the subject
in the passive one. Therefore, from the active:
a) They are encouraging us to eat more complex carbohydrates,
we obtain:
b) We are being encouraged to eat more complex carbohydrates […] (lines 3739 in Oil)
The subject in the active version can be included in a by-phrase (a prepositional
phrase whose complement NP is referred to as the agent) in the passive one:
c) We are being encouraged to eat more complex carbohydrates by them/ the
doctors.
The previous example (c) is an instance of the so-called long passive. In contrast,
b) is an example of the short or agentless passive, which is used when the
speaker considers it unnecessary to name the agent because it is unknown or
irrelevant to the purposes of the ongoing discourse. The agentless passive is the
most frequently used one, since the passive is especially associated with
impersonal style (e.g. in official or scientific writing).
2.2. In SVOO (Subject + Verb + Object + Object) constructions, there are two
possible passive counterparts. Both the direct and indirect objects may become
the subject in the passive construction.
E.g.: Active:
My brother gave
me
this bracelet.
Indirect object
Direct object
Passives: I was given this bracelet by my brother.
This bracelet was given to me by my brother.
2.3. The passive auxiliary can sometimes be get, as can be seen in the following
examples:
The little child got hurt when he tripped and fell down.
He got dressed in no time when he saw how late it was.
NOTE: However, the get passive is rare and occurs mainly in conversation,
though an occasional example can be found in colloquial fiction (Biber et al,
1999).
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CHAPTER 6
SOME OTHER INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE PASSIVE
➢ Passive constructions and be + predicative adjectives with stative
meaning structures can be confused. There are participial forms which
are clearly adjectival rather than passive verbs, such as the ones used in
the following examples:
We are delighted to announce the birth of our son.
Aren’t you excited about it?
There are, however, some borderline forms, such as frozen and broken,
which are usually interpreted as stative in meaning, but at the same time
it is not impossible to infer an agent in some cases.
E.g.: The window was broken.
The window was broken by the boys.
➢ The short, agentless passive is widely used in academic writing to omit
mention of the specific researcher(s), in order to show an objective
detachment from what is being analyzed or described.
➢ Some verbs normally take the passive voice, while other verbs, such as
agree, climb, hate, wait (for), etc. only rarely do so.
➢ A few verbs, such as be born and be reputed occur only in the passive.
➢ Even though passives are not very frequent in conversation, a few
passive verbs are more frequent in conversation than in the written
registers. One of these is the fixed phrase can’t be bothered.
E.g.: Your dad can’t be bothered now. He’s working.
➢ One variant of the passive occurs with prepositional verbs. It is possible
for the prepositional object to become the subject in the passive
sentence.
E.g.: Someone has to deal with this issue.
This issue has to be dealt with by someone.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
3. Imperative clauses and polite requests
Imperative clauses generally express a command or a request. From the
structural point of view, imperative clauses have four main characteristics:
a) The lack of a subject.
b) The use of the base form of the verb.
c) The absence of modals.
d) The absence of tense and aspect markers.
Some examples are:
Stand up!
Get your hands off me!
Don’t forget to post the letter.
Hold on a minute.
Bear in mind that all vegetable oils are highly calorific…[…] (lines 64-5)
3.1. Although the addressee is normally apparent in imperative clauses,
sometimes it is specified in the form of a subject or a vocative. The adding of a
vocative or subject may have a softening or a sharpening effect, or it may simply
single out the addressee.
E.g.: You stop talking and get into bed.
(Subject - singles out the
addressee)
Jack, come here immediately.
(Vocative - singles out the
addressee)
Don’t you dare to do that, you rat.
(Subject and vocative the vocative sharpens the
command)
Don’t be naughty, you sweet boy.
(Vocative - softens
the command)
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CHAPTER 6
3.2. A different type of imperative is formed with the verb let and a first person
plural pronoun (the personal pronoun us is usually contracted to ‘s). This
construction generally expresses a suggestion involving both the speaker and the
addressee(s).
E.g.: Let’s go (and) see Harry Potter II this weekend.
3.3. As noted in exercise 3, in order to soften the command or the request, a
speaker may make it more indirect by using some politeness markers such as
Please, would you mind…?, Will you please…? etc. As a result, the level of
imposition on the addressee is lowered and in most cases the imperative form
disappears:
Please, give me that ring / Give me that ring, please.
Would you mind giving me that ring?
Could you (please) give me that ring?
I wish you would give me that ring.
Will/would you please give me that ring?
Would you be so kind as to give me that ring?
I wonder if you’d mind giving me that ring.
The above forms are typical of spoken English. In written and more formal
language, some other formulae are used, such as:
I would really appreciate it if…
Would you kindly…
I would be extremely grateful if…
SOME OTHER INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT IMPERATIVES
➢ Imperatives can also be modified by the tag will you. This form, in spite
of being interrogative, does not soften the command. On the contrary, it
makes it more insistent, and sometimes rude.
E.g.: Shut your mouth, will you?
➢ Imperative clauses are not only used to express commands and
requests. They can also be used to express suggestions or invitations:
E.g.: Please, come to the theatre with me.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
➢ Sometimes imperative clauses are coordinated with other clauses to
express a conditional relationship.
E.g.: Touch me and I call the police
(= If you touch me, I will call the police)
➢ Imperatives are very frequently used in discourse to regulate the
conversational interchange.
E.g.: Wait a minute, who do you think you are speaking to?
Look, if you continue bothering your sister I will have to time
you out.
Mind you, this is not a joke.
➢ Though less frequently than second person and first person (in the form
Let’s…) imperatives, third person imperatives can also occur.
E.g.: Somebody get me out of this place!
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4. Modal verbs: mustn’t / needn’t
4.1. In Chapter 1, B 5 we saw how the verb must can be used to express
obligation or compulsion (deontic/intrinsic modality). In this chapter we are going
to focus on the following facts, pointed out in exercise 4.
a) The negative form of must does not remove the meaning of compulsion. On
the contrary, it turns the utterance into a prohibition (or “compulsion not to do
something”).
E.g.: You mustn’t feed the animals here. (= It is prohibited to feed the
animals here)
Notice the following:
❖ The negative form of must, as well as any verb form expressing
obligation and prohibition, can also have the effect of a command:
E.g.: You mustn’t speak inside this temple.
(= Don’t speak inside this temple)
❖ A mild prohibition can be expressed by using other modals, such as
oughtn’t to, shouldn’t or had better not.
E.g.: You shouldn’t interrupt his lecture.
We’d better not smoke in here.
He oughtn’t to use that bad language.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
b) If the speaker wants to remove the idea of compulsion, the negative form of
the verb need is used:
E.g.: You needn’t hand in the paper this week. You can wait until next week.
(= There’s no obligation for you to hand in the paper this week)
As we can see, need not also expresses the speaker’s authority or advice.
➢ Notice that need can be constructed both as a modal auxiliary and as a
main verb. The modal auxiliary construction is mainly restricted to
negative and interrogative sentences, but the main verb construction has
no sentence-type restrictions:
2Modal auxiliary2
2Main verb2
She needn’t come.
She needs to come.
She doesn’t need to come.
Need she come?
Does she need to come?
Needn’t she come?
Doesn’t she need to come?
➢ Non-assertive forms of the modal construction may, however, occur in
the positive construction:
She need make no effort.
They need write but one essay.
➢ In clauses where the corresponding positive form is must, need may be
a non-assertive auxiliary in British English:
2American English2
Does he need to attend
the
Does he have to attend
lecture?
64748
A: Need he attend the lecture?
14243
2British English2
B: Yes, he
must
has to
4.2. Obligation/necessity modals such as must and need are used less
frequently than those marking permission/possibility and volition/prediction. In
conversation, have to (see Chapter 1, B 5) is the most common form used to
mark personal obligation. Should is also used for personal obligation and it is
also relatively common.
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5. Needn’t have (done) / didn’t need to
5.1. In exercise 5, your attention is called upon the difference in meaning
between the negative modal form of need (needn’t) and its main verb
construction counterpart (don’t need to) in the past tense. Consider these other
examples:
a) The teacher needn’t have explained that grammar point twice. (To explain the
grammar point a second time was not necessary but the teacher did it
anyway.)
b) The teacher didn’t need to explain that grammar point twice. (Since it was
unnecessary to explain the grammar point another time, the teacher most
probably didn’t.)
c) You needn’t have bothered to buy flowers for me. (It wasn’t necessary for
you to buy the flowers but you did buy them anyway.)
d) You didn’t need to buy flowers for me. (It was unnecessary for you to buy
flowers for me and so you didn’t buy any.)
5.2. In spite of the above, some people use didn’t need to for actions that were
performed, in which case the word need is usually stressed.
E.g.: You didn’t `need to give him my telephone number! (Although
it was unnecessary and not required, you gave him my telephone
number)
6. Purpose clauses
6.1. Circumstancial elements in English cover a great variety of meanings. One
of those meanings is purpose, and it can be expressed by means of a subordinate clause introduced by to:
He did it to show that he was powerful.
Roman women used it to keep their hair lustrous […] (lines 6-7)
To attain a healthy diet, we are being encouraged […] (lines 37-38)
6.2. Adverbials of purpose belong to the category of adjuncts. Adjuncts are
optional elements that can be added or omitted without affecting the
grammaticality of a sentence. As such, they provide circumstancial information
and are realized by adverbs or adverbial phrases, prepositional groups and
clauses. (See Chapter 7, B 5).
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6.3. Adverbials of purpose are usually realized by a to-infinitive clause, but finite
clauses introduced by so that can also be purpose clauses:
He got up at 6:00 a. m. to catch the early bus.
=
He got up at 6:00 a.m. so that he could catch the early bus.
NOTE: In order that is a more formal alternative for so that.
E.g.: In order that they should know about it, it is convenient for
them to attend the lecture.
6.4. In the to-infinitive construction, in order (a more formal alternative) and so
as can precede to:
He got up at 6:00 a.m. in order to catch the early bus.
He got up at 6:00 a.m. so as to catch the early bus.
7. Emphatic pronouns
In the introductory text for Chapter 6 we find, once more, examples of the use of
emphatic pronouns:
The oil itself, when combined with aromatic herbs [...] (lines 11-12)
As you already know, the Spanish equivalents of these pronouns are the
subjective pronouns (yo, tu, él, ella, nosotros/as, vosotros/as and ellos/as) +
mismo(s)/ misma(s). On some occasions, as exemplified in exercise 7, the
translation may vary a little, and, for example, myself can be equivalent to por mi
parte, or himself may be el mismísimo, etc.
For a more detailed account of emphatic pronouns, see Chapter 2, B 8.
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8. Time prepositions: since, for, during, by
8.1. Since
When used as a preposition, since occurs almost exclusively as a preposition of
time.
E.g.: I haven’t seen Thomas (ever) since he moved to New York.
8.1.1. Since may be followed by:
a) A noun phrase: since last year, since the war.
b) A non-finite* -ing clause without subject: since moving to the new house.
c) A finite* clause: since the war started.
8.1.2. Time adverbials introduced by since normally require the Present Perfect
(perfective aspect) in the verb of the main clause.
E.g.: My father hasn’t seen his relatives in Boston since 1970.
You haven’t visited your home country since you left elementary
school.
8.1.3. Since may mean either a) duration or b) time-when, depending on the kind
of verb used in the main clause:
a) My grandmother has lived in the same town (ever) since she was born.
(Stative verb → duration)
b) They have moved four times since 1995.
(Dynamic verb → time-when)
Notice that since may be also a conjunction of reason and therefore
introduce reason adverbials: (See Chapter 7, B 1.)
E.g.: Since you don’t know the place, you can’t say whether you
like it or not.
8.2. For
The uses of this preposition, including those in time expressions, were explained
in Chapter 2, B 4.4.
* For the definition of finite and non-finite clauses, see Chapter 1, B 12.
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8.3. During
During has a similar meaning to that of in when in is used with its temporal
meaning. However, during tends to be used in sentences where the verb phrase
denotes a state or a habit, thus implying duration. Compare the following:
They fell in love in the summer of 1996.
They were so happy during the summer of 1996.
8.3.1. During means in the course of and therefore it can be used before nouns
referring to an event lasting some time (stay, visit, conference, meal, etc.).
E.g.: They had a long talk during the meal.
She took her children to the Smithsonian Museums during their
stay in Washington D.C.
NOTE: During the day/night can be replaced by the idioms by day and by
night when used with some activities such as travel or go to bed:
E.g.: He had to travel by night to avoid the heavy traffic.
In winter I get up at night,
and dress by yellow candlelight.
In summer quite the other way,
I have to go to bed by day.
8.4. By
As a preposition of time, by normally refers to the time at which the result of an
event can be seen or perceived.
E.g.: By the time he arrived I was fast asleep (= I fell asleep before he
arrived and was still asleep when he arrived)
Could you have the proposal ready by the end of the month?
(= I would like the proposal to be ready no later than the end of the
month).
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167
8.4.1. Since by generally specifies a commencement point, it normally does not
co-occur with verbs of durative meaning, but see the note in 8.3.1 above for an
exception to this rule.
Notice that:
➢ by can have other meanings which do not refer to time. As a preposition
of place, it may indicate relative position (She was standing by her
mother) or relative destination or passage (She walked by the palace
gardens). It can also express means or instrument (He goes to school by
bus / He made all that money by working hard), and it is also used to
introduce the agent in a passive sentence, as we saw in B 2 in this
chapter.
➢ The Spanish equivalents of by may be different prepositions, depending
on how it is used. If we look at the examples above, we will see that it
can be translated as para, por, al lado de, en, or even no preposition at
all, as in the case of:
He made all that money by working hard = Hizo todo ese dinero Ø trabajando duro.
9. Time prepositions: since, for, during, by
See B 8 above in this chapter.
10. Articles
For explanations and examples concerning the articles go to Chapter 1, B 13.
11. Definite article
For explanations and examples concerning articles go to Chapter 1, B 13.
12. Time adverbs: yet / still
Both yet and still are adverbs of time, but while yet means “up to the time of
speaking” and is mainly used with the negative and interrogative, still emphasizes that the action continues and is mainly used with the affirmative or interrogative. (See also Chapter 7, B 7.) Compare the following examples.
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… and the ancient diet of grain, grapes and olives still forms the basis of
Mediterranean cuisine. (lines 17-19)
Daniel is still waiting for his girlfriend. She hasn’t arrived yet.
NOTE: Still can be used in a negative sentence when the speaker wants to
emphasize the continuance of a negative action. Thus, the choice of either
yet or still depends on how the speaker looks upon the action described.
Compare:
She still doesn’t want to eat vegetables.
(The negative action of ‘not eating vegetables’ continues)
She doesn’t want to eat any vegetables yet.
(The positive action of ‘eating vegetables’ has not started yet)
12.1. Yet is normally placed after the main verb or after the objects or
complements:
I haven’t given Mary the bracelet yet.
John hasn’t finished (his homework) yet.
However, if the object is made up of a large number of words, yet can be placed
before or after the main verb:
Debby hasn’t yet acknowledged that she is not the right person for that job.
Debby hasn’t acknowledged yet that she is not the right person for that job.
NOTE:
➢ Yet requires the perfect aspect when occurring with an event verb.
However, it can occur with the present tense with stative verbs or with
the progressive aspect. Compare:
He hasn’t given his lecture yet.
He is not living in New York yet.
➢ In spite of the above, some speakers (especially of American English)
tend not to use the perfective aspect when yet accompanies event
verbs, using the simple past instead, as in the following example:
Did you eat yet? (= Have you already had dinner/ lunch?)
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12.2. Still is normally placed after the verb be but before other verbs.
E.g.: She is still taking a shower, so wait for a few minutes if you want to
talk to her.
After twenty years of marriage, she still thinks that Robert is the
most handsome man in the world.
12.3. As time adverbs, both still and yet fulfill the function of adjuncts (see 6.2. in
this chapter) in the sentence and they are similar to time duration adjuncts (such
as since, recently, lately, always, etc.) in that they express duration up to or before
a given time.
Notice that both yet and still can also be used as linking adverbials
(concession conjuncts), as in the following examples:
He was a despicable man, yet she loved him.
That morning it was chilly; still she felt like going for a walk along the
shore.
CHAPTER 7
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound nouns
Compound words were presented in Chapter 1, A 3, Chapter 4, A 1, and Chapter
5, A 1. Now we shall expand on three types of compound already introduced in
Chapter 1. Some more examples are provided for the following types of
compounds: NOUN + NOUN, ADJ./ADV. + VERB and ADJ. + NOUN.
1.1. NOUN + NOUN. As was explained in Chapter 1, A 3, these combinations are
sometimes written as two separate words, as one single word (when the
semantic relation between both nouns is very tight, both nouns merge together),
or they can also be joined by a hyphen.
E.g.: cameramen (line 7)
lamp holder
traffic-light
1.2. ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + VERB. When the second part of the component is
a verb, it tends to be a present or past participle.
E.g.: impossible-looking (line 49)
well-adjusted
good-looking
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1.3. ADJECTIVE + NOUN. An adjective that originally premodified a noun,
eventually became part of the noun. On some occasions the resulting lexical unit
has a new meaning or referent.
E.g.: blackboard
wet suit
wildlife (line 5)
2. Abstract nouns ending in: -(a)tion / -ment
As was anticipated in Chapter 4, A 3, abstract nouns describe qualities or ideas,
as opposed to concrete nouns, which describe real things. The suffixes -(a)tion /
-ment can be added to adjectives, nouns or verbs to form abstract nouns.
2.1. The suffix -(a)tion can be pronounced either /-ʃn/ or /-ʃən/. It is added to
verbs to express the action or condition of. Notice the following examples.
Verb
evolve
imagine
locate
Abstract noun
evolution
imagination (line 32)
location (line 4)
2.2. The suffix -ment is pronounced /-mənt/. It is added to verbs to express the
action or result of something. Notice the following examples.
Verb
adjust
excite
pay
Abstract noun
adjustment
excitement
payment
For more information about these two suffixes, see Chapter 10, A 2 and Chapter
4, A 3.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Time prepositions: since / for
The time prepositions for and since have already been introduced. (See
Chapter 2, B 4.5 and Chapter 6, B 8.1).
Notice that since can be either a preposition or a conjunction and, therefore, it is
important to pay attention to its function within the sentence. In the text we can find
some instances of the conjunction since (conjunctions are connectors of structure).
Study the following examples taken from the text (Lights… camera… revelation!):
E.g.: Since what they do in their various homes can be of key importance
[...] (lines 17-19)
Since such young cubs are not yet able to regulate their body
temperatures, it was assumed that [...] (lines 65-67)
As you can see, in both cases the conjunction since has the meaning of
“because” or “considering that” and has nothing to do with the time preposition. In
these examples, since is a subordinating conjunction introducing an adjunct.
Broadly speaking conjunctions can be divided into: simple (consisting of a single
word) complex (consisting of two or more words) and correlative (consisting of
two or more terms located in different positions within the sentence). Some
instances of conjunctions are:
a) Simple: as, (al)though, because, but, if, once, since, etc.
b) Complex: as if, as though, as long as, provided that, rather than, etc.
c) Correlative: either...or, as...as, whether...or, no sooner… than, etc.
2. Present Perfect / Past Simple
Review the different uses of the Present Perfect and the Past Simple in Chapter
4, B 4. Then, examine the following examples taken from the text:
a) Present Perfect:
[...] a succession of cameramen have sought to get themselves or their
cameras into the most unlikely situations, [...] (lines 7-9)
[...] they have inevitably come across (and, with luck, filmed) behaviour and
even species that [...] (lines 10-12)
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b) Past Simple:
In 1953, Heinz Sielmann persuaded a pair of woodpeckers to accept [...]
(lines 25-26)
[...] and through this he witnessed for the first time their behaviour in the
nest. (lines 28-29)
The verbs in in these examples are regular. For the past of irregular verbs, see
the list in the appendix.
3. Expressions with the prepositions for, of, with and from
Some words in English are often followed by the same preposition. The following
list contains some of the most common combinations between adjectives/verbs
and the prepositions for, of, with, from. In these cases, the meaning of the lexical
verb does not change as it may happen with phrasal verbs. If you need additional
examples, check your monolingual dictionary.
Notice the following patterns which are sometimes different from the patterns you
may find in Spanish:
a) VERB/ADJECTIVE + for:
account for
act for (someone)
apologize for
apply for
ask for (something or somebody)
blame (someone) for
beg for
call for (= require)
charge for
excuse for
exchange A for B
fight for
forgive for
grateful for
be intended for
be known for
long for
hope for
pay for (something)
be prepared for
provide for
be remembered for
be responsible for
search for
substitute A for B
thank (someone) for
wait for
vote for
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b) VERB / ADJECTIVE + of:
accuse (someone) of
approve of
be afraid of
be aware of
beware of
be capable of
be composed of
consist of
be convinced of
convince (someone) of
cure (someone) of
disapprove of
dream of
be envious of
be innocent of
be jealous of
be made of
be proud of
repent of
get rid of
be scared of
smell of
take advantage of
take care of
taste of
be terrified of
suspect of
think of
tire of
get tired of
warn (someone) of
c) VERB/ADJECTIVE + with:
acquaint (someone) with
be afflicted with
agree with (someone)
be angry with
be annoyed with
be associated with
begin with (something)
be blessed with
be bored with
be charged with (crime)
communicate with
compare A with B
compete with (or against)
comply with
conflict with
confuse A with B
A contrasts with B
be coordinated with
cope with
correspond with (someone)
be crowded with
be familiar with
fill with
be finished with
help (someone) with
be inflected with
interfere with
be patient with
be pregnant with (a baby)
be threatened with
part with
provide with
quarrel with
fight with (or against)
reason with (someone)
be satisfied with
be upset with
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d) VERB / ADJECTIVE + from:
be absent from
abstract from
borrow from
demand (something) from (someone)
differ from
discourage (someone) from
distinguish A from B
divorce from
draw (money) from
emerge from
escape from
exclude from
hide from
hinder from
prevent (someone) from
prohibit from
protect from
recover from
refrain from
rescue from
separate A from B
stop from
suffer from
Notice that some adjectives or verbs may take more than one preposition
depending on the meaning the speaker is trying to convey. If you hesitate,
the best thing to do is check your dictionary.
E.g.: Some people have compared flamenco to jazz. (to see how
they are alike or different)
She cannot compare with my aunt as a cook. (not as great as)
4. Quantifiers: (a) little / (a) few
As was explained in Chapter 3, B 2, there are mass and count nouns. The type of
quantifier we use with the noun depends on this general characteristic. Few and
a few are used with count nouns whereas little and a little are used with mass
nouns.
The distinction between one or the other within these two pairs (few/a few; little/
a little) is based on the speakers’ positive or negative way of looking at things:
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a) The indefinite determiners a few and a little are used when the speaker
sees the situation from a positive point of view:
E.g.: Bob moved to London ten years ago but he still has a few friends in
Birmingham. (= several)
Our train leaves within a couple of hours. You have a little time to buy
souvenirs. (= some)
b) Conversely, few and little are used when the speaker perceives the situation
from a negative point of view:
E.g.: Few people can afford a house in that area. (= almost none of them)
Since our baby was born, we have little time for reading. (= hardly
any time)
Notice the following expressions with (a) little / (a) few:
every few days (once in a few days)
a good few / quite a few (a considerable number)
little by little (slowly)
little or nothing (hardly anything)
not a little (a great deal of)
5. Frequency adverbs: often / always / never / occasionally
Adverbs and adverbials can be classified as Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts,
according to the speaker’s intention and their function within the clause or
sentence. Adjuncts modify the verb and, therefore, are part of the basic structure
of the clause/sentence. Frequency adverbs and adverbials are Adjuncts which
answer the question How often? or How many times?.
Frequency adverbs and adverbials are not all alike and they can be placed in a
continuum with two ends: from most frequent to least frequent.
MOST FREQUENT
always
nearly always, almost always
usually, normally, generally, regularly
often, frequently
sometimes
occasionally, now and then
rarely, seldom
ever, hardly ever, scarcely ever
never
LEAST FREQUENT
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For an explanation on the position and other aspects of frequency adverbs and
adverbials, see Chapter 1, B 11, Chapter 4, B 10 and Chapter 10, B 12. In this
chapter, we are going to add the following remarks:
5.1. Frequency can also be expressed more precisely by means of adverbs
and adverbials formed in one of the following ways.
a) With the adverbs once/twice.
E.g.: once a day, once a week, once a year, once per year (more formal),
twice a month, twice a year, etc.
b) With the noun times.
E.g.: three times* a week, four times a month, five times a year, etc.
* Thrice is a form which is also used to mean three times.
E.g.: He trains thrice a week.
c) With the indefinite determiner every.
E.g.: every day, every week, every year, etc.
d) With an adverb ending in –ly.
E.g.: daily, monthly, weekly, fortnightly, etc.
Notice the following adverbials expressing frequency:
at times (sometimes)
at all times (always)
every now and again
every now and then
once in a while
once in a blue moon (very rarely)
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6. Relative pronouns: which / who / whom
For an introduction to relative clauses and pronouns see Chapter 4, B 1. See also
Chapter 9, B 5. Here we are only going to make the following remarks:
6.1. Sometimes the relative pronoun is governed by a preposition expressing
place, time or cause. In those cases, the preposition comes before the relative
pronoun (formal context) or at the end of the clause (informal contexts). This rule
applies to the relative pronouns which, who and whom but it does not apply to
that. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted when preceded by a preposition.
Check the following examples:
Diane is the friend from whom I got that piece of advice. (Formal or writen
language)
Diane is the friend (whom) I got that piece of advice from. (Informal)
They have already repaired the new car for which they paid so much.
(Formal)
They have already repaired the new car (which) they paid so much for.
(Informal)
That man over there is the director with whom I work.
(Formal)
That man over there is the director (who(m)) I work with.
(Informal)
Notice that sometimes the preposition can be placed at the end or at the
beginning of an interrogative sentence (wh-question), just like in relative
clauses:
E.g.: Who are you going with?
With whom are you going?
(Informal)
(Formal)
7. Time adverbs: yet / still / just / already
7.1. The time adverb yet is generally used in negative sentences and in
questions (non-assertive contexts). It usually goes after the verb, object or
complement. See Chapter 6, B 12.
E.g.: Has she arrived yet?
They have not decided yet.
We haven’t had the chance to greet our guests yet.
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Notice that in British English yet is usually used with the Present Perfect or
the Past Perfect. In American English it is also used with the Simple Past.
E.g.: We haven’t received an invitation for their wedding yet. (BrE.)
We didn’t receive an invitation for their wedding yet. (AmE.)
Yet is also used in American English as a substitute for already:
E.g.: Have you already read that book? → Did you read that book yet?
7.2. The time adverb still (todavía, aún) is mainly used in positive sentences
(assertive contexts) and in questions. It usually goes after the verb to be (when it
is the main verb) or before the main verb.
E.g.: John is still at work.
Do you still go jogging early in the morning?
We have already made a decision but we can still change our minds.
Note that still can also be used immediately after the subject in emphatic
sentences to express surprise, anger or worry that something or someone
is late.
E.g.: We still are waiting for her.
Note that yet and still can also be conjunctions. In that case they are
placed in initial position and they mean sin embargo in Spanish.
E.g.: My sister had a car accident last week. Yet, she has not
stopped driving.
She hasn’t treated you properly; still, she’s your best friend
and you should help her.
See also Chapter 10, B 15.
7.3. We normally use the adverb just to express the idea that something
happened immediately before the time being referred to (acabar de).
E.g.: I have just come across an old friend.
The concert had just started when her cell phone rang.
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Note that just tends to be used with compound verb tenses such as:
Present Perfect, Past Perfect, etc. But see note in Chapter 4, B 10.2
Notice that just can also be used to reinforce the imperative:
E.g.: Just call her back!
Just do what you are supposed to do!
7.4. The adverb already is used with perfect tenses in affirmative sentences
(assertive contexts) or in interrogative sentences expecting an affirmative answer.
It is used to express that something has occurred in an unspecified time before
now.
E.g.: He has already gone home.
Have you already been to the new fairground?
But note that in every-day American English it can be used with the Simple
Past:
E.g.: He went there already / He already went there.
8. Expressions with the word time
Notice the following expressions containing the word time.
• on time (neither late nor early, at the correct time)
E.g.: I usually take the high-speed train because it is always on time.
• in time (not late). It also means sooner or later/eventually.
E.g.: In spite of the traffic jam, she got to the theatre in time to see the
play. (not late)
He just joined the firm but he will get a better position in time. (sooner
or later)
• at the time (when, in that moment)
E.g.: Charles was still working on the new computer program at the time I
arrived.
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• at one time (at some period in the past)
E.g.: At one time my parents used to take us to the beach in the Summer.
• at times (sometimes)
E.g.: When she was abroad she was homesick at times.
Consider these other expressions which include the word time.
• ahead of time (before than expected)
• at a time (in sequence, separately)
• for the time being (until some other arrangement is made)
• from time to time (now and then)
• it’s high/about time (when something should have already happened)
• in good time (early)
• in no time (very quickly)
• ahead of one’s time (having ideas too advanced with respect to one’s
contemporaries)
• time after time (repeatedly, on many occasions)
• to have the time of one’s life (to experience exceptional enjoyment)
• an experience of a lifetime (one that happens only once in one’s life)
9. Use of prepositions: about, after, by, for, from, on,
until, with
Prepositions can have a number of slightly different meanings depending on the
context they appear. It’s hard to classify all of them but here you can find some of
the most common uses and meanings of about, after, by, for, from, on, until and
with. Yet, a more detailed description can be found in a good monolingual dictionary.
9.1. About.
a) “In connection with somebody or something, concerning somebody or something”.
E.g.: Pat has always been very careful about her personal appearance.
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b) “Here and there in a place”.
E.g.: When I got there I found all my books strewn about the room.
c) “Near a place or point”.
E.g.: Ann dropped her earring somewhere about the main entrance.
9.2. After.
a) “Following something in time; later than something”.
E.g.: Right after lunch he went to the office.
b) “Following somebody or something.”
E.g.: Don’t forget to lock the door after you when you go out.
He was running after the girl.
c) “Eagerly trying to get something or somebody for oneself”.
E.g.: George has been after that manuscript for years.
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d) “In the style of somebody or something”
E.g.: At the moment they are trying to write a European constitution after
the French model.
9.3. By.
a) “Near/ beside somebody or something”.
E.g.: Stand by me and you will have no problem.
b) “Indicating a means of transport”.
E.g.: We haven’t decided yet if we will go by train or by plane.
c) “No later than a specified time; before”.
E.g.: By this time next month we will be on holidays.
d) “According to something”.
E.g.: You could tell by the look of his face that something was wrong with
him.
9.4. For. (See also Chapter 2, B 4 and Chapter 3, B 6.)
a) “Indicating purpose or function”.
E.g.: I find it hard to believe that he is learning Japanese for pleasure.
b) “Indicating destination or target”.
E.g.: Could you tell me which the bus for Nottingham is?
c) “Because of something; on account of something”.
E.g.: She is doing it for love.
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185
d) “In defense or support of someone or something”.
E.g.: Robert said he was speaking for everyone in the team.
9.5. From. (See also Chapter 5 B 6.)
a) “The place or direction from which something starts”.
E.g.: Is that the plane from New York?
b) “The time at which something starts”.
E.g.: She is the kind of person that works from dawn to dusk.
c) “Where somebody or something originates”.
E.g.: Those tribes came from the north in the 6th century.
d) “The material used to make something, when the material changes in the
process”.
E.g.: Bread is made from flour, water and yeast.
e) “The basis for making a judgement”.
E.g.: From what I heard, she will graduate next year.
9.6. On. (See also Chapter 2, B 4 and Chapter 3, B 6.)
a) “In or into a large public vehicle”.
E.g.: At this time she must be on the plane.
b) “At or immediately after a specific time”.
E.g.: On arriving at the office she was told she had been promoted.
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c) “Eating or drinking regularly”.
E.g.: Robinson Crusoe lived for a long time on fruit and water.
9.7. Until.
a) “As far as the specified time or event”.
E.g.: Until last week I had never used a computer.
9.8. With. See also Chapter 5 B 6
a) “In the company or presence of something”.
E.g.: Could you put these boxes with the others in the backyard?
b) “The tool or instrument used”.
E.g.: We had to break the lock with a hammer.
c) “Because of something; on account of something”.
E.g.: She was sitting next to me and I could see her tremble with fear.
10. Definite and indefinite articles
For a full account of the definite, indefinite, and zero articles see Chapter 1,
section B 13.
CHAPTER 8
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -al / -age
The Latin prefixes -al and -age can be added to verbs in order to form abstract
nouns. Generally, they add the meaning of “the process or state of” or “the action
or result of”.
Verb
Noun
arrive
arrival
deny
denial
propose
proposal
refuse
refusal
survive
survival
Verb
Noun
anchor
anchorage
cover
coverage
pack
package
post
postage
waste
wastage
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1.2. The suffix -age can also be added to nouns in order to form new nouns,
as in:
Noun
Noun
bag
baggage
peer
peerage
store
storage
For a general introduction to the process of affixation and derivational
morphemes see Chapter 1, A 1 and Chapter 3, A 1. For more information about
the noun-forming suffixes -al and -age, see Chapter 10, A 2.
2. Adjective formation: -al
There is another derivational morpheme -al (which has two more variants: -ial,
-ical) that can be added to nouns (not to verbs) to form adjectives meaning
“concerning”.
Noun
Adjective
comic
comical
form
formal
crime
criminal
magic
magical
parent
parental
nonsense
nonsensical
editor
editorial
Notice that in some adjectives, -ic has a different meaning than -ical:
E.g.: An economic decision. (Regarding economy)
An economical motorbike.
(Money-saving, because it does not need a lot of fuel)
E.g.: A historic town. (With a history)
Historical studies. (Concerning or pertaining to history)
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Compounds with -ever
The adverb ever is sometimes added to relative pronouns (who, which and what)
and some adverbs (where, when and how) to form compounds such as:
a) whatever “no matter what; regardless of what”.
E.g.: Whatever you decide I will support you.
b) whoever “no matter who; regardless of who”.
E.g.: Tell whoever you like, it’s not classified information.
c) whichever “no matter which; regardless of which”.
E.g.: It costs 90 , whichever car you rent.
d) wherever “at any place; regardless of where”.
E.g.: We need to contact him now, wherever he is.
e) whenever “at any time; regardless of when”.
E.g.: We can meet whenever it is a good time for you.
f)
however “in whatever way; regardless of how”.
E.g.: However we approached the mathematical problem, we couldn’t
figure it out.
1.2. Emphatic forms of interrogative pronouns.
The interrogative pronouns who, what and which can be used in English as
emphatic forms in exclamations or interrogative sentences to express surprise. In
that case, the word ever needs to be added to them: whoever, whatever,
whichever.
E.g.: Now we have lost the last plane; whatever next?
Whoever did that must be crazy!
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what
who
which
144424443
Notice the emphatic use in colloquial language of the following expressions:
on earth! // in heaven’s name!
where
when
how
E.g.: When on earth are we leaving?
(¿Cuándo demonios nos vamos?)
A more vulgar version of these expressions would be who / what/ which,
etc. the hell. This expression can sound less vulgar if we use the corresponding euphemism what / who / when, etc. the heck.
E.g. What the heck are you doing here? I didn’t expect to see
you.
For a full account of the uses of the time adverb ever, please see Chapter 1,
B 7.
2. Defining relative clauses
Relative clauses have already been dealt with in previous chapters. For an
introduction to relative clauses and pronouns see Chapter 4, B 1 and Chapter 9
B 5. For an analysis of relative pronouns dominated by a preposition see
Chapter 7, B 6.
Remember that when the relative pronoun is immediately followed by the
subject of the relative clause, it can be omitted. However, it cannot be elided
if it is preceded by a preposition (formal language).
E.g.: That is the house (which/that) I want to buy.
Jonathan is the employee with whom I did the job.
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3. Pronoun / adverb + else
The adverb of exception11 else can occur as a post-modifier of a pronoun, a
quantifier or an adverb:
a) It can modify the quantifiers much and little, as in:
E.g.: There is little else I can say after what has happened.
We had some provisions and a tent for the expedition, and not much
else.
b) It often follows pronouns ending in -body, -one, -thing, as in:
E.g.: Does anybody else want to join this project?
c) It can follow adverbs ending in -where.
E.g.: Next year we should go somewhere else for our holidays.
d) It can modify the interrogative pronouns who and what and the interrogative
adverbs where and how.
E.g.: Who else was at your birthday party?
How else would you do it?
4. Comparison of adjectives
Notice the use of the comparative in the following examples taken from the text
(Landscape).
[...] crowded places which are seldom as comfortable as the homes we left.
(line 16)
[...] a poor house in good surroundings will sell for a higher price than a better
house in poor surroundings, [...] (lines 22-23)
The former example is an instance of the comparative of equality, and the latter
is an instance of the comparative of superiority. For a full explanation on the
different types of comparative and their uses, please see Chapter 1, B 6.
11
It is considered an adverb of exception because it indicates “subtraction from the total”.
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NOTE: There are some adjectives which, due to semantic reasons, do not
normally have degrees of comparison, such as:
• annual
• round
• eternal
• silver
• monthly
• square
• perfect
• wooden, etc.
5. Conditional sentences (second type)
There are three types of conditional clauses in English. A general introduction to
them is provided in Chapter 11, B 2. In the text you can see an instance of
conditional sentence (second type):
[...] but if that were all, then holidays at home would do us, and we could save
ourselves all the effort and expense [...] (lines 14-15)
This type of conditional clause is known as hypothetical conditional because
the meaning of the sentence expresses a hypothesis, i.e., an idea or a
suggestion that is based on known facts but which is unlikely to happen. These
conditional sentences are composed of a main clause, which in this case, takes a
modal auxiliary in the past, and a subordinate clause introduced by the
conjunction if, which takes a Simple Past.
Study the following examples:
E.g.: If you studied English, you would find a job more easily.
PAST
would+V
If I were you, I wouldn’t buy that house
PAST
would+V
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6. Reflexive pronouns
Consider the following examples taken from the text:
[...] the only species which deliberately alters the design of its environment for no
other reason than to give itself aesthetic pleasure. (lines 1-3)
[...] then holidays at home would do us, and we could save ourselves all the effort
and expense of crowded travel [...] (lines 1-15)
As you can see in exercise 6 in the course book (Language Points), there are
certain verbs that are typically found in reflexive constructions. You need to pay
attention to the group of verbs that are reflexive in Spanish but not in English. For
more details on reflexive pronouns, see Chapter 2, B 8.1- 8.7.
NOTE: Reflexive pronouns can be used emphatically. So, they can be
placed right after a noun phrase, or another pronoun.
E.g.: My car broke down and I repaired it myself.
I would like to know how she herself plans to
do it.
The company is in serious financial
problems; the manager himself told
me.
Emphatic reflexive pronouns sometimes go at
the end of the sentence.
E.g.: Mark found out the solution himself.
She told us so herself.
7. Present Simple / Present Continuous
One of the main uses of the Present Continuous (or Present Progressive) is to
express an action which is taking place at the time of speaking. Consider the
following example:
E.g.: –What are you doing?
–I’m writing a paper for my biology class.
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7.1. The Present Continuos may also refer to something that is going on during
this period of time, at present. Consider this example:
E.g.: –What are you doing this year?
–Well, I am studying Physics at Stanford University.
7.2. Another frequent use of the Present Continuous is to express a future action.
It usually refers to an action occurring in the near future, which has been scheduled
previously. (The Future can also be expressed with going to, see Chapter 11, B 5.)
E.g.: –What are you doing tonight?
–I’m having dinner with a couple of friends at home.
7.3. A less frequent use of the Present Continuous is when we want to describe
an action which is temporary, i.e., it is true at the time of speaking but not later.
E.g.: Wait a minute, you young man, you are being very rude with me and
I’m not going to accept that!
Notice the difference with the Simple Present, which indicates a permanent
fact or state.
E.g.: He is normally very kind, (permanent fact)
...he is being rather rude at the moment. (temporary fact)
7.4. This combination of present tense and progressive aspect is sometimes
used to refer to a series of events that take place constantly. Frequency adverbs
are often included.
E.g.: She is always telling me what to do.
Robert is constantly telling the same old stories.
7.5. The Present Continuous can be used to indicate one’s intentions as in:
E.g.: –Are you staying?
–No, I’m leaving in a few minutes.
NOTE: There are some verbs that are not normally used in the continuous
tenses. Among them are: know, want, need, prefer, like, love, hate, belong,
remember, forget, seem, understand, have (meaning possess), think
(meaning believe, have an opinion). (See Chapter 2, B 6.3.).
CHAPTER 8
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8. Frequency adverbs
Frequency adverbs have been widely explained in previous chapters. For an
explanation on the position of frequency adverbs and adverbials within the
sentence see Chapter 4, B 10.1. and Chapter 7, B 5.
9. Space prepositions: at / in
Space prepositions at and in were explained in Chapter 2, B 4.1-2.
10. Uses of the definite article
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero article see Chapter 1, B 13.
11. Uses of the particle as
The word as can have a number of functions, some of which are presented in this
section:
a) It can be a conjunction expressing:
• time, as in: She waved at us as she was getting into the car.
• manner, as in: Do as I say and go to bed.
• comparison, as in: Ann is not as hard-working as Bob.
• reason, as in: As it was too late, we decided to go home.
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b) It can be a preposition:
As human beings we have many specific qualities [...] (line 7)
c) It can form part of a complex conjunction: as if, as though, much as, so as
(not) to, as well as, such as, so/as long as, so/as far as, so/as soon as, as
much...as, as many...as, etc.
d) It can be part of a complex preposition: as far as, as for, as to, as of, as from,
as against, as per, etc.
Notice the following expressions containing the word as.
as and when (“referring to an uncertain future event or action”)
E.g.: We’ve got to decide as and when we should do it.
as it is (“taking present circumstances into account”)
E.g.: I thought I would be promoted soon but, as it is, I think I will
have to wait.
“As is” (“the state in which something is found at the moment of purchase”)
A: What if the engine breaks down?
B: Madam, the car is sold “as is”, so no complaints are accepted
after the purchase.
CHAPTER 9
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Prefixes re- and de1.1. The bound morpheme re- is considered to be a prefix of time and order. It is
generally attached to verbs and abstract nouns to mean “again” or “back”. It can
be added to a root which is a free morpheme, as in rebuild or resettlement (re- +
V: build; re- + N: settlement) or to one that is a bound morpheme, as in receive
(re- + bound morpheme -ceive).
Other examples are found in the following words:
Re-enact - reincarnation - recollect - reject - resume - resist
For an introduction to affixation see Chapter 1, A 1.
1.2. The bound morpheme de- is a reversative or privative prefix whose meaning
is “to reverse action”, as can be seen in the following examples:
Defrost - deform - deforestation - detach - defamation
As with the prefix re-, de- can be added to both free and bound morphemes.
Examples of the former case are: deconstruct, de-rig, depersonalize
Examples of the latter case are: deceive, defect, deprive
2. Negative prefixes non- and unThe negative prefix non- is a bound morpheme that means “not” and is always
attached to free morphemes which belong to different classes of words, as can
be seen in the following examples:
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non + N:
non-smoker, non-concomitance, non-event
non- + V:
non-drip (paint), non-skid (tyres)
non + Adj.: non-existent, non-fattening, non-flammable
Notice that the combinations non + N and non- + Adj. result in the same
class of word, i.e. a noun and an adjective respectively, but the combination
non- + V results in an adjective, not a verb.
E.g.: non-drip paint (here non-drip is modifying the noun paint, and
therefore it is functioning as a premodifying adjective)
2.2. The negative prefix un- also means “not” or “the opposite of”. It is also a
bound morpheme that is attached to free morphemes which are generally
adjectives or participles. Consider the following examples:
unfair - unexpected - unknown - unwanted - uneasy - unbelievable
unequal - unethical - uneven - unemployed -
However, it can also be added to verbs, as is the case with undo, unmake, unlock,
unload, etc. or to adverbs, as in: undoubtedly, unmistakably, unmeaningly, etc.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Simple future with will / shall
1.1. From the grammatical point of view, there is no future tense in English
because there is not an inflection for the future as there is for the past and
present. Instead, we speak of many possibilities for denoting future time. One of
the alternatives is the traditionally-called Simple Future, formed with the
auxiliaries will and shall to refer to some event that has not happened yet and will
happen at a given time in the future.
now
past
future
E.g.: Sarah doesn’t feel very well, so I think we will stay at home this
weekend.
According to the Politburo, this year’s grain harvest will be higher than
last year’s 191.7 m tonnes which was well below target. (lines 42-45)
According to the weather forecast, it will be sunny tomorrow.
1.2. Will can be used in all persons in present-day English, but shall (for 1st
person) is mainly restricted (in the future usage) to southern British English.
E.g.: O.K., I will go and talk to her only because I want to do you a favor.
(Am. E)
Well, then I shall not comply with his wants. He is too dominant.
(Southern Br. E.)
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1.3. As was mentioned in 1.1., there are other possibilities of expressing future
time in English, such as:
a) Be going to + infinitive: Sarah is going to have a baby.
(See Chapter 11, B 6.1)
b) Present Progressive: I’m moving to Zurich next week. (See chapter 8, B 7.2)
c) Simple Present: Tomorrow is Sunday.
d) Will/shall + progressive: Will you be coming with us to the theatre?
e) Be to + infinitive: They are to be interrogated at the police station.
f)
Be about to + infinitive: We are just about to get there.
g) Have to + infinitive: She has to go to the dentist’s
1.4. The future and modal functions of shall and will are very difficult to separate.
So, besides their future meaning will and shall have the following uses:
1.4.1. Will
a) Polite requests:
E.g.: Will you please hold on for a while?
b) Expression of intention:
E.g.: I won’t (= will not) make you wait more than two minutes
c) Making predictions:
E.g.: It will snow tomorrow
d) Emphasis or expression of insistence (and therefore it is always stressed and
non-contracted). Compare the following:
E.g.: She `will go, whatever you say (= She insists on going)
She `shall go, whatever you say (= I insist on her going)
Notice the main differences between will and be going to:
➢ Be going is characteristic of relatively informal style. Will is neutral in that
respect.
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➢ Be going occurs in a wider range of environments than will, because the
be component of the idiom has the full set of inflectional forms, and
therefore we may find sentences like: She may be going to dump him, in
which will could not be used.
➢ In some cases will conveys dynamic volition, while going to in the same
situation would rather convey intention. Compare:
They asked him to join the club but he won’t (= He doesn’t want to)
They asked him to join the club but he is not going to (= He has
no intention
of joining
the club)
➢ Be going is not generally used in the main clause of conditional
sentences. Will or shall is preferred instead:
E.g.: If you go to Rome with me, you’ll never forget it.
1.4.2. Shall
a) Expression of willingness and/or insistence on the part of the speaker in 2nd
and 3rd person:
E.g.: You shall do exactly as I tell you.
b) Expression of intention on the part of the speaker (especially in Br. E):
E.g.: I shall now proceed to make a comparison between the two theories.
c) Asking for instructions:
E.g.: Shall I call you tomorrow to know the results?
d) Use in legal and quasi-legal injunction:
E.g.: The tenant shall pay the utilities and the landlord shall be
responsible for lawn care.
2. Comparative and superlative forms
In the introductory text of this chapter (A fine time for vegetarians) many
comparative forms are found, such as better than (line 14), less reliable (line 34),
higher prices (lines 38-39), cheaper oil (line 59), etc. Examine the examples in
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the text and then go to Chapter 1, B 6 in this book, where you will find an
extensive explanation of comparatives and superlatives. See also Chapter 8, B 4.
3. Use of the time prepositions since, for, until and by
Examine the use of these prepositions in the text (for example, line 48 and line 73).
All these time prepositions have been studied in previous chapters. For the
preposition for, go to Chapter 2, B 4.5. For prepositions since and by see
Chapter 6, B 8.1-4 and Chapter 7, B 1. See Chapter 7, B 9.7 for the preposition
until.
4. Prepositions forming fixed expressions with other words
In the introductory text we find some examples of these fixed expressions, such as:
Already, at least in the capital, the food supply is a bit better […] (lines 13-14)
In fact, competition from the new cooperative stores, […] has helped to
keep a brake on prices. (lines 22-26)
4.1. As explained in exercise 4, sometimes prepositions collocate with certain
words, forming an idiomatic prepositional phrase or expression. These
idiomatic phrases may be governed by:
a) a simple preposition: in brief, on the basis, for fear, in order, on condition, to
the effect, in case, for example, on purpose, under the weather, in sum, under
protest, in fact, at least, for certain, in vain, for sure, in private, etc.
b) a complex preposition: out of order, up to a certain extent, for the sake of X,
in terms of X, out of control, on top of it all, for want of something better, in the
name of God, etc.
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Here are examples of the uses of some of them:
E.g.: Her efforts may have been in vain from your point of view, but I
know for sure that she learned from the experience.
E.g.: She demanded hard work and responsibility from her employees,
but, on top of it all, she wanted respect.
E.g.: The child was completely out of control, so she decided to consult a
psychologist for the sake of the child’s and her own mental health.
5. Relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which and that
For a general introduction to relative clauses, see Chapter 5 B 3.1; B 3.2 and
Chapter 7, B 6. In this chapter we are only going to add a few more facts about
this type of clause and the pronouns used to introduce it.
5.1. As we already know, relative clauses are related by their form to an
antecedent. The relative pronoun is an anaphoric element (i.e. an element that
relates to an antecedent) which may be:
a) a wh- relative:
That is the man who I love.
b) a that relative (non-wh-): That is the man that I love.
c) a bare relative (ø) :
That is the man (ø) I love.
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5.2. Relative pronouns may be personal or non personal, genitive, nominative or
accusative, as shown in the following chart:
NON-PERSONAL
Plain
Genitive
which / that
whose /
of which
PERSONAL
Nominative
who / that
Accusative
(objective case)
whom / who /
that/zero
Genitive
whose
5.3. Who and that may both be used for human subjects in restrictive relative
clauses:
E.g.: People who/that hate animals should never live in the country.
In non-restrictive relative clauses, however, that is not accepted:
E.g.: The people next door, who hate animals, should never live in the
country.
5.4. The same applies to which and that with non-human subjects:
Restrictive clause:
The College which/that you want to attend is a
very expensive one.
Non-restrictive clause: Harvard University, which is very expensive, offers
high-quality education.
5.5. The genitive relative whose can be used for both human and non-human
antecedents:
E.g.: The car whose engine was broken is now being repaired.
The lady whose son is a painter is Mrs. Ross.
NOTE: When the antecedent is non-personal, some speakers tend to
avoid the use of whose by using the of-phrase, which results in an
awkwardly formal construction:
E.g.: The car the engine of which was broken is now being repaired.
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5.6. If the personal relative pronoun functions as object or as complement of an
end-placed preposition, there is some choice between who and whom which
depends on levels of formality. If the relative pronoun is the subject, there is no
such choice; the pronoun has to be who:
They found the man who robbed the bank.
They found the man who she loves.
They found the man whom she loves.
They found the man who I spoke to.
They found the man whom I spoke to.
They found the man to whom I spoke.
(Subject)
(Object, informal)
(Object, formal)
(Prep. complement, informal)
(Prep. comp., more formal)
(Prep. comp., most formal)
5.7. As shown above, that is used with both human and non-human reference
but it is not usually used in non-restrictive relative clauses. Another restriction for
that is that, in contrast with whom and which, it can not follow a preposition.
5.8. The zero relative pronoun has the same uses as that, with the exception
that it cannot be the subject of a clause:
The book that you bought has been a best seller for years.
The book (ø) you bought has been a best seller for years.
The woman who/that bought the book knew it was a best-seller.
(Zero relative is not possible here)
6. Perhaps as a substitute for may
For an introduction on modal verbs, see Chapter 1, B 5.
May is a modal verb used to express both extrinsic and intrinsic modality. We find
examples of this modal verb in the introductory text:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Russians…may be in for a somewhat faster-food future. (lines 10-12)
They may not have considered coffee essential. (lines 61-62)
In both cases may expresses possibility, and therefore it constitutes an example of
intrinsic or epistemic modality. As noted in the main course book, when expressing
possibility, may could be replaced by the adverb perhaps, in which case we are
facing a case of modality expressed by an exponent other than a verb (see Chapter
1 B 5). The following pairs of sentences, therefore, express very similar ideas.
Notice that sometimes a change in the verb tense or form is necessary:
He may come tomorrow. = Perhaps he will come tomorrow.
She may be earning a lot of money. = Perhaps she is earning a lot of money.
They may have lost the keys. = Perhaps they have lost the keys.
Tom may not have finished it yesterday. = Perhaps Tom did not finish it
yesterday.
7. Modal verbs can, may, could, might
These modal auxiliaries have already been covered (Chapter 3, B 4). For a
general introduction to modal verbs, see Chapter 1, B 5.
8. Articles
For a comprehensive treatment of articles see Chapter 1, B 13.
9. The genitive with ‘s
This point has also been explained in a previous chapter. See Chapter 2, B 1.
10. Quantity and distribution determiners: all, many,
much, both, half
“Determiners are function words which are used to specify the reference of a
noun” (Biber et al, 1999: 258).
The basic determiners all, many, much, both and half form part of a group of determiners called quantifiers. They take that name because they specify nouns in
terms of quantity. They combine with both indefinite and definite noun phrases.
When combining with a definite noun phrase, they are generally followed by of.
Compare the following examples:
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Definite NP
Indefinite NP
many of the children
many children
all (of) the children
all children
much of the water
much water
10.1. All and both belong to the inclusive type of quantifiers. All combines with
both countable and uncountable nouns and it refers to the whole of a group or a
mass. Both is only used with plural countable nouns, and with reference to two
exponents or entities:
E.g.: All the people in the area of Washington D.C. were terrified by the sniper.
All passengers are kindly requested to fasten their seatbelts.
The children ate all the jelly.
Both (of the) contracts were signed in front of the attorneys.
Notice that, if the head of the NP is a pronoun, their position is immediately after the pronoun:
We all went to the theatre.
(Subject)
He invited us all to his party. (Object)
They both wanted to attend the meeting.
(Subject)
We prompted them both to attend the meeting. (Object)
10.2. Half refers to a fraction of the NP and may occur with both countable and
uncountable nouns:
E.g.: Wait for me. It’ll only take me half an hour to finish with this letter.
(Singular count noun: hour)
Half (of) the students flunked the exam. (Plural count noun: students)
Half (of) this milk is going to be delivered among the poor.
(Non-count noun: milk)
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NOTE:
➢ We can say half of the pizza, but NOT *a half the pizza, and only
undetermined half can occur before indefinite a: Half a sandwich, NOT
*one half a sandwich.
➢ It is very frequent in American English to hear people say “a half hour”,
while British speakers tend to say “half an hour ”, as in the following
examples:
E.g.: See you in a half hour.
(American English)
See you in half an hour. (British English)
10.3. As seen above, all, both and half may occur with of-constructions which
are optional with nouns. However, these constructions are obligatory with
personal pronouns. Compare:
All (of) the wine
All of it
Both (of ) (the) books
Both of them
Half (of) the cake
Half of it
10.4. Many and much belong to the large quantity type of quantifiers, because
they specify large quantities. Many is used with plural countable nouns and
much with uncountable nouns. Both of them are typically used in negative
contexts:
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E.g.: There weren’t many apples left in the basket.
He behaved like a clown, so he never got much respect from his
peers.
Notice that much and many can be neutral words of amount when used in
comparisons (as much/many as) and in questions (how many/much?).
11. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns
We use the reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.) as objects of a verb when
the action of the verb returns to the doer and therefore the subject and the object
are the same person:
E.g.: Susan and Mary blamed themselves for having done that.
(Susan and Mary = themselves)
If we replace the reflexive pronoun by the reciprocal pronoun each other, the
meaning changes:
E.g.: Susan and Mary blamed each other for having done that.
(= Susan blamed Mary and Mary blamed Susan)
For more details about reflexive pronouns, see Chapter 2 B 8.
11.1. Reciprocal pronouns
Each other and one another are the two reciprocal pronouns in English. They
express a mutual relationship between two or more entities which are their
referents. These referents are generally in a preceding noun phrase within the
same clause, usually in subject position.
11.1.1. When there are only two referents, each other is preferred, but one
another can also be used:
each other.
E.g.: Molly and Bruce love
one another.
11.1.2. One another is preferred when there are more than two referents:
E.g.: All the students helped one another in the task.
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Notice, also, that one another is characteristic of academic prose and
fiction, and therefore it is perceived as a form used in careful writing and not
in casual speech.
11.1.3. Both each other and one another can be used in the genitive case:
E.g.: Tim and Angela like each other’s car very much, so Tim usually drives.
Angela’s car and Angela drives Tim’s.
CHAPTER 10
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Formation of adjectives with the suffixes -y and -ly
The bound derivational morphemes -y and -ly are generally used to form
adjectives from nouns.
1.1. The basic meaning of -y is “full of”, “covered with” or “having the quality of”.
This suffix also has a considerable number of verb bases with the meaning
“inclined or apt to”.
1.2. The basic meaning of -ly is “like” or “characteristic of” . This suffix is also
found with adjective bases. Consider the following examples:
Base word
Derived adjective
sleep (v)
cream (n)
hair (n)
stick (v)
sleepy (line 6)
creamy
hairy
sticky
coward (n)
dead (adj)
man ( n)
love (n)
cowardly
deadly
manly
lovely
Note: Do not confuse this suffix with the
-ly used to form adverbs studied in
Chapter 1, A 2.
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1.3. Only a few of the adjectives ending in -y have adjective bases, like purply
(from purple).
Some of these adjectives are used in an informal tone, like nosy, piggy, etc. This
suffix is one of the most productive in the English language. It is widely used in
child language and also found in several neologisms, as seen in the following
words: yummy, yucky, gutsy, trendy, classy. It is curious to see that in gutsy, the
derivational suffix -y follows an inflectional one (gut → base + -s → plural
inflectional morpheme + -y → derivational, adjective forming morpheme).
1.4. A variant for -y is used when the base ends with y, or for retention of basefinal e . The variant here is then -ey, as seen in the following words:
Clay → clayey
Cage → cagey
Grape → grapey (also grapy)
2. Noun formation: -ment, -tion, -al, -age
The derivational morphemes -ment, -tion, -al and -age are all used in general to
form action/state/process nominalizations (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002).
2.1. -ment
This is a suffix of French origin, used to form nouns from both French and English
bases. This derivational morpheme occurs:
❖ With verbs containing the prefixes en-/em- and be-: encouragement, embodiment, bewilderment, etc.
❖ To form abstract nouns: improvement, astonishment, etc.
❖ To form nouns with concrete meanings: advertisement, embankment, etc.
❖ To form nouns denoting location: settlement, encampment, etc.
2.2. -tion
This derivational suffix has several variants: -ation, -ion, -ition, -sion, -tion,
-ution. The only one which is English in origin is -ation, while the others are
restricted to words from Latin or French origin (confusion, perdition, compulsion,
solution, absorption). They generally occur with verb bases.
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2.2.1. This suffix occurs:
❖ In established nouns whose verb base has no suffix:
E.g.: experiment → experimentation
mature → maturation
starve → starvation
form → formation
❖ With verbs having the suffixes -ize, -ate, and -ify (in a very productive way):
E.g.: dramatize → dramatization
alternate → alternation*
clarify → clarification*
* Note that -ate is dropped in alternation and a c is added in clarification,
as it is also the case with other verbs ending in -fy.
2.3. -al
The derivational morpheme -al usually occurs with disyllabic verbs that bear a
stress on the final syllable, to form nouns. See Chapter 8, A 1 and 2.
E.g.: a'rrive → a'rrival
de'ny → de'nial
re'fer → re'ferral
NOTE: 'Burial is an exception to this rule, for the verb 'burry is stressed on
the first syllable.
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2.4. -age
This derivational morpheme is French in origin and it occurs in a great number of
nouns. It is generally attached to nouns and verbs, although it is also found with
adjectives. It has several meanings, like: “state”, “condition”, “rank”, “charge”,
“place”, “result”, “collectivity”, etc, as shown in the following examples:
Base word
Resulting noun
bag (n.)
baggage
marry (v.)
marriage
short (adj.)
shortage
post (v.)
postage
orphan (n.)
orphanage
stop (n.)
stoppage
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Combination of Past Simple and Past Continuous
We studied the Past Simple in Chapter 3, B 8.3.2. In this chapter we are going to
study the Past Continuous and, in special, one of its uses in combination with the
Simple Past.
1.1. The past tense, as well as the present tense, can form combinations with the
progressive aspect 12. One of the possible combinations results in the Past
Progressive or Continuous, which is used to refer to an activity in the past that
was temporary and need not be complete. Therefore, we may say:
— Stative verb:
She was living in Sidney five years ago.
(But I don’t know whether she’s still living there or not.)
— Dynamic verb: They were painting the house last week.
(But I don’t know whether they are still painting it or not.)
1.2. The Past Progressive and the Past Simple can be used in the same
sentence to refer to two actions that occurred at the same time in the past, but
one of them began earlier and was still in progress when the other action
occurred.
now
past
future
E.g.: I was talking on the phone when I heard a terrible crash of thunder.
While I was watering my plants it began to rain.
12
For a more detailed explanation of the progressive aspect see Chapter 3, B 8.2.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
1.3. The Past Continuous can also be used to indicate “gradual development” if
used without a time expression.
E.g.: She was getting older
It was getting darker
Notice that a Past Progressive can be used in both parts of a sentence
when two actions run simultaneously for some time.
E.g.: While I was hoovering the carpet, my wife was doing the
dishes.
NOTE: If used as an alternative to the Past Simple, the Past Continuous
may indicate a more casual action.
E.g.: I was talking to my students yesterday and…
This use of the Past Progressive tends to remove responsibility from the
speaker, giving the impression that the action was very normal and not
remarkable at all, and leaving the question about who started the
conversation open to the hearer’s interpretation. If, on the contrary, the
speaker used the simple past, as in:
I talked to my students yesterday and…
the hearer (s) would understand that the speaker took the initiative.
2. Combination Past Simple / Past Continuous vs
Past Simple / Past Simple
As seen in B 3 above, we use the combination Past Simple/ Past Continuous in
order to refer to an action that was in progress when another action occurred. If,
instead of using the Past Progressive or Continuous we use the Simple Past, the
meaning changes. Compare these two examples:
a) When the pretty woman dropped her handkerchief he was looking at her.
b) When the pretty woman dropped her handkerchief he looked at her.
In a) the action of looking had started before the woman dropped her handkerchief
and probably continued afterwards, while in b) the action of looking came
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immediately after she dropped the handkerchief and most probably did not last
long. Consider now, the following alteration of the above example:
c) When he looked at her, the pretty woman dropped her handkerchief.
In this case, the order in which the actions happened changes: the action of
dropping the handkerchief occurred immediately after the action of looking. The
order of occurrence of these actions would not change, however, if we placed the
wh- clause at the end:
d) The pretty woman dropped her handkerchief when he looked at her.
Main clause
wh-clause
Thus, in this type of sentences, the action mentioned in the wh-clause always
occurs prior to the action in the main clause.
For other uses of the Simple Past, see Chapter 3, B 8.3.2.
3. Modal verbs: ought to / should
For general considerations about modality and modal verbs, see Chapter 1, B 5.
3.1. Both ought to and should are exponents of deontic or intrinsic modality,
used to express an obligation or necessity that constitutes an inescapable duty or
requirement, or to indicate a correct or sensible action.
E.g.: Peter ought to quit drinking
Politicians should be more honest
3.2. When should and ought to are followed by have + -en, the speaker implies
that the obligation was not fulfilled:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: Peter ought to/ should have quit drinking (but he didn’t)
They ought to/ should have invited us to the party (but they didn’t)
It occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at this (lines 1112) (but she didn’t wonder)
NOTE:
➢ When used with the continuous infinitive, ought to and should express
the idea that the subject is not acting in a sensible way, or that he is not
doing what s/he was expected to be doing:
E.g.: He ought to/ should be working now
(but he isn’t).
You shouldn’t be wearing those
ridiculous clothes.
You should/ought to be wearing a
tuxedo.
3.3. Ought to and should can also be used to express advice.
E.g.: You ought to/ should watch that movie. It’s very good.
3.4. Should (but not ought to) is normally used in formal notices or information
sheets in order to express obligation in a more gentle way than must.
E.g.: Those interested in the job should present the following documents…
American citizens should call the embassy between 9 and 11 a.m.
3.5. In negative clauses, ought to has two constructions:
a) The auxiliary construction:
E.g.: You oughtn’t to say that to him.
She, of all people, ought not to complain.
b) The lexical verb construction (only with the past tense form of do):
E.g.: He didn’t ought to be working in such a filthy place.
We didn’t ought to have let him go.
This construction, however, is very rare in all registers of the English language.
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219
4. Verbs of the senses + object + infinitive / -ing participle
The verbs of the senses (see, hear, etc.) and sometimes listen (to), notice and
watch may in some contexts be followed by object + bare infinitive and in some
others by object + -ing participle.
4.1. When followed by object + bare infinitive, the infinitive implies that the action
is complete:
E.g.: I saw him eat a big bowl of salad. (= I saw the whole action)
The man saw the pretty woman drop the handkerchief. (= The man
saw the whole action)
Alice…[…], and was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit-hole
under the hedge. (lines 14-17) (= Alice saw the whole action of popping)
4.2. When followed by object + -ing participle the action in the present participle
may be either complete or incomplete.
E.g.: I watched the kids skating at the Rockefeller Center. (I may have
watched the whole action or only part of it)
The teacher heard some students using bad language at the end of
the corridor. (May be the teacher heard all the bad words or may be
s/he heard only some of them)
NOTE:
➢ The -ing participle form is generally considered more useful precisely because of the fact that it can refer to both complete and incomplete actions.
➢ However, the infinitive is very useful when the speaker wants to
emphasize that the action was complete, and is also a better option
when there is a succession of actions:
E.g.: The police saw him buy the drug, put it in a bag, go to his
apartment and consume it all in two hours.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
5. Preposition + gerund/ -ing clause
5.1. It is a rule of the English language that verbs placed immediately after
prepositions must be in the -ing form.
E.g.: Thanks so much for lending me your car.
Please, call me before leaving the office.
He left the room without saying good bye.
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the
river bank, and of having nothing to do;…[…] (line 1)
…Alice had not a moment to think about stopping herself before
she…[…] (lines 21-22)
There are, however, two prepositions which take the bare infinitive: except and but.
E.g.: She could do nothing except comply with his wishes.
There was nothing I could do but cry.
Notice that, when but is used as a conjunction, it may be followed by either
a full infinitive or a gerund:
E.g. Being a housewife is a tough job, but being a housewife and
working outside the house as well is twice as tough.
To say it is one thing, but to do it is another different thing.
5.2. There are a number of verb + preposition/adverb combinations that take the
gerund. Some of them are:
He is looking forward to meeting his sweetheart.
She had to put off writing a new novel until she solved her personal problems.
Do you care for waiting a few minutes?
He insisted on buying a new apartment.
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In all the above cases the gerund refers to the subject of the sentence. However,
if the verb or verb + preposition is followed by a possessive adjective or an
objective pronoun, the gerund refers to the person denoted by that possessive
adjective or pronoun.
E.g.: He insisted on my/me wearing the red dress for the party. (I wear
the dress, not he)
She disliked his/him coming so late. (He came late, not she)
NOTE:
The word to may cause confusion because it can be either a preposition or
a part of an infinitive. The following are some hints for you to be able to
distinguish between the two:
➢ To is placed after the primary auxiliary verbs be and have and the
modal auxiliaries ought and used, as well as after going. In these
cases, to is part of the infinitive of the following verb.
E.g.: In another moment down went Alice after it, never once
considering how in the world she was to get out again. (lines 18-19)
I have to say good-bye now.
They ought to hand in the essay tomorrow morning,
Stella used to play golf when she was in her twenties.
They are going to present a wonderful proposal.
➢ To is also placed after some verbs to avoid repetition or a previously
mentioned verb. To is also a part of an infinitive here.
E.g.: A: Are you coming with us?
B: Oh, I’d love to (come), but I have to study. Thanks, anyway
for the invitation.
➢ When a noun or pronoun follows a verb, and we want to replace that
noun or pronoun with a verb, we must nominalize the verb, and
consequently we should use the gerund, which is the verbal noun.
Consider the following:
I am looking forward to the holidays.
NP
I am looking forward to meeting you during the holidays.
Gerund / -ing clause
I am committed to this cause.
NP
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
I am committed to helping them in this cause.
Gerund/ -ing clause
➢ Do not confuse used to (which is used to express a habit or routine in
the past), with be used to (which means “to be accustomed to” or “to be
familiar with”. The “to” of used to is part of an infinitive; whereas the “to”
of be used to is a preposition that has to be followed by a gerund.
E.g.: When I was a little girl, I used to sit with my mother in front of
the fireplace before going to bed.
Don’t hesitate to call him. He is used to receiving calls at
home at very late hours.
(Notice that, in the last example, we could replace the -ing clause by a noun
phrase: He is used to late phone calls.)
NP
6. Expressions followed by a gerund
6.1. There are some expressions that are normally followed by a gerund or -ing
clause, such as can’t stand, can’t help, it’s no good, it’s no use, there’s no point in,
it’s (not) worth, or what’s the use of….
Here are some examples:
I can’t stand waiting here for so long.
She couldn’t help laughing at him when he proposed to her.
It’s no good having such a negative approach to life.
It’s no use crying over spilt milk.
There is no point in repeating your warning so many times.
What’s the use of buying so many pillows?
It’s not worth spending so much money in that picture.
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7. Verbs followed by an infinitive vs. verbs followed
by a gerund
7.1. There are some verbs in English that are normally followed by an infinitive
and some others that are normally followed by a gerund. A number of these
verbs can take both the infinitive and the -ing constructions, but there is, in many
cases, a difference in meaning between the two. See the following table:
Verbs normally followed
by the gerund
Verbs normally followed
by the infinitive
Verbs accepting both
constructions
Admit
Agree
Advise
Anticipate
Aim
Agree
Appreciate
Appear
Allow
Avoid
Arrange
Begin
Consider
Ask
Cease
Delay
Attempt
Continue
Deny
Bother (negative)
Dislike
Detest
Care (negative)
Forget
Dislike
Choose
Hate
Dread
Claim
Intend
Enjoy
Consent
Like
Escape
Decide
Love
Excuse
Remember
Mean
Fancy (= imagine)
Resolve
Mean
Finish
Seem
Need
Forgive
Swear
Permit
Imagine
Tend
Prefer
Involve
Threaten
Propose
Keep (= continue)
Trouble (negative)
Recommend
Loathe
Try (= attempt)
Regret
Mean (= involve)
Undertake
Remember
Mind (= object)
Volunteer
Stop
Miss
Vow
Try
(next page)
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Verbs normally followed
by the gerund
Verbs normally followed
by the infinitive
Verbs accepting both
constructions
Pardon
Decline
Start
Postpone
Determine
Require
Practice
Plan
Want
Prevent
etc.
etc.
Propose
Remember (= recollect)
Resent
Resist
Risk
Save
Stop
Suggest
Understand
etc.
Here are some examples of the use of some of the above verbs:
I don’t remember having seen her at the party. Was she really there?
Do you enjoy listening to classical music?
She was determined to leave her job.
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225
Are you planning to make a trip to the Amazon?
I don’t like playing tennis.
I like to play polo best.
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the river
bank…[…] (line 1)
[…] -fancy curtseying as you’re falling through the air! (lines 49-50)
7.2. The verbs regret, forget and remember are followed by an -ing form when
the action expressed by the gerund is previous to the action they express:
E.g.: I regret sending him that letter. (The action of sending the letter is
previous to the action of regretting)
7.2.1. Forget + gerund is normally used with the verb forget in the negative.
E.g.: I will never (= will not) forget watching that sunrise.
7.2.2. When regret, forget and remember express the previous action they are
used with an infinitive.
E.g.: Please, remember to buy me some candles for the cake. (The action
of remembering is previous to the action of buying)
I regret to tell you that you did not get the prize.
7.3. The verbs advise, allow, permit and recommend are followed by the infinitive
if the person concerned is mentioned.
E.g.: My mother advised me to quit that job.
He recommended me to buy that brand.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
The gerund is used, however, if the person is not mentioned:
E.g.: They don’t allow parking here.
She advised starting as soon as possible.
7.4. The verb agree always takes the infinitive, but it can be followed by a
gerund in the structure agree to (preposition) + possessive adjective + gerund.
E.g.: Susan agreed to do the job in two days.
The boss agreed to our leaving earlier that day.
7.5. The verb mean may take the infinitive or the gerund, depending on its
meaning. When it means “intend”, it is followed by the infinitive, as in:
I mean to finish this chapter this weekend.
When it means “involve”, it is followed by the gerund, as in:
She will stand by her man even if that means losing contact with her
family.
7.6. The verb propose may mean “intend” or “suggest”. When used with the
first meaning it usually takes the infinitive:
She proposed to start a new project next week.
But when it is used with the second meaning (suggest) it takes the gerund:
I propose going to the cinema tonight.
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7.7. Notice now the difference in meaning between the two uses of the verb stop:
I asked her to stop doing that because it was harmful. (Stop = cease)
On our trip, we stopped to refuel only once. (= We stopped in order
to refuel)
7.8. The verb try may mean “attempt” or “make an experiment”. When it means
“attempt”, it is followed by the infinitive, as in:
I tried to get in touch with him but it was impossible.
But when it means “make an experiment”, it takes the gerund, as in:
A: There’s a terrible smell of paint in this house. I don’t know what to
do to make it disappear.
B: Why don’t you try leaving the windows open for two days?
8. Different uses of either
As we saw in the main course book, either can have different meanings
depending on how it is used. Let us examine each of them.
8.1. Either … or (correlative coordination)
Either… or are correlative conjunctions that can be used to coordinate both
phrases and clauses.
E.g.: Either John or Mary will go. (Coordination of NPs (subject))
That man is either stupid or crazy. (Coordination of Adj. Ps (subject
complement))
Either she will call you or she will leave a message. (Coordination
ofsentences/clauses)
NOTE:
➢ When the correlative conjunctions either … or are used to join two noun
phrases, the verb takes the number of the last noun phrase by the
proximity rule:
E.g.: a) Either the children or Mary has drunk all the juice.
b) Either the boiler or the radiators are not working well.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Notice that even when the proximity rule is applied in a), some speakers
feel that it is an awkward construction and therefore they prefer to use an
auxiliary verb which has the same form for both singular and plural. Thus a)
would be:
Either the children or Mary must have drunk all the juice.
➢ These coordinators are characteristically binary, i.e. there are generally
two coordinates; however, multiple coordinations are also possible, as in:
Either Tom, Susan or Mark will be here tonight.
If someone breaks into the house, I will either scream, call a
neighbor or call the Police.
8.2. Either as a determiner.
8.2.1. As a determiner, either is always used with a singular countable noun.
E.g.: A: Which of the two do you like?
B: I don’t like either car.
8.2.2. Either has, like any, a non- affirmative meaning and a free choice one.
E.g.: She didn’t want either dress. (Non-affirmative meaning = In Spanish:
ninguno)
You can eat either cookie. (Free choice meaning = In Spanish: cualquier)
Note:
The difference between:
a) You can have either cookie,
and
b) You can have any cookie,
is that in a) either presupposes a selection
from a set of two that is identifiable by the addressee. Thus, either cookie
would be equivalent to either of the two cookies (that you can see on the
plate), while any in b) does not presuppose the same: there may be more
than two cookies, not necessarily identifiable by the hearer.
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229
8.3. Either as a negative addition to a negative remark.
In the following sentence from the text, either is used as a negative addition to
the previous negative remark (meaning “tampoco” in Spanish):
Alice had not the slightest idea what Latitude was, or Longitude either, but she
thought they were nice grand words to say. (lines 43-44)
These additions can include also subject + negative auxiliary + either, or subject
+ whole verb + object + either.
E.g.: A: I don’t feel like going to the theatre tonight.
B: I don’t either.
A: I don’t mind listening to some music now.
B: We don’t mind it either.
Notice the two possible pronunciations of either: /aiðə(r)/ or /iðə(r)/
9. Prepositions
For a general introduction to prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8. For the preposition
into, see Chapter 1, B 9. For space prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 10. The
prepositions at, in, on and for are explained in Chapter 2, B 4 and to, with, of and
from in Chapter 5, B 6. In Chapter 6, B8, see time prepositions since, for, during
and by.
10. Prepositions with and without
We have already seen the meaning and uses of the preposition with in Chapter
5, B 6. Here we are going to see the preposition without.
10.1. Without
The preposition without expresses the equivalent negative meaning to most
senses of the preposition with, as can be seen in the following table:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Positive meaning:
Negative meaning:
WITH
WITHOUT
SENSES
I drew it with a
protractor
I drew it without
a protractor
Means, instrument
She wants to go with
you
She wants to go
without you
Accompaniment
Couples with children
Couples without
children
Having, possession
You make a cake with
flour
You make soup
without flour
Ingredient, material
As noted in Chapter 5 B 6, the meaning of without can be also expressed using
the combination with + no.
E.g.: I want a coffee with no sugar, please.
11. Adverbs ending in -ward(s)
The derivative suffix -ward(s) is generally added to nouns and prepositions to
form adverbs of manner or direction. As seen in the main course book, the
general meaning of these adverbs is movement towards or away from a place.
Therefore, from the bases on the left, we get the adverbs on the right:
Back
For
In
Out
Up
→
→
→
→
→
backwards
forwards
inward
outward
upwards
Sea
Home
On
After
North
→
→
→
→
→
seawards
homewards
onward
afterwards
northwards
E.g.: You don’t have to move backwards when you do this exercise.
The therapist helped me go inward instead of outward, as I had
always been doing.
This train takes you northwards, to Scotland.
We headed seawards, as we needed a rest.
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12. Frequency adverbs
Frequency adverbs answer the question “How many times?” or “How often?” For
a general introduction to this type of adverbs, see Chapter 1, B 11.
12.1. A specific type of frequency adverb tells us exactly how many times the
action is repeated, such as once and twice in the following excerpt from the text:
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the river bank, and
of having nothing to do; once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister
was reading…[…] (lines 1-3)
As explained in the main course book (Chapter 10 note for the vocabulary), this
type of adverb (ending in -ce) can only be used for numbers 1, 2 and 3. For three
times we sometimes say thrice, although it is not as frequent in use as once and
twice. For the other numbers, we simply have to say four times, five times, six
times, etc.
12.2. Notice these other frequency adverbs, some ending in -ly:
weekly
every other day
daily
once in a blue moon
monthly
every once in a while
Notice that the adverbs ending in -ly are equivalent to the Spanish -mente
frequency adverbs (diariamente, semanalmente, mensualmente), whereas
every other day can be translated as “un día sí y otro no” (or “día por
medio” in American Spanish) and once in a blue moon would be “muy
rara vez” or, in a more informal and colloquial Spanish style, “cada muerte
de Obispo”. Every once in a while is equivalent to “de vez en cuando”.
E.g.: She shampoos her hair daily.
He goes to visit his grandmother once in a blue moon.
She has her French lesson every other day.
13. Articles
For a full account of the definite, indefinite and zero articles in English, see
Chapter 1, B 13.
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14. Exclamations: How + Adj. P / What + NP…
The basic exclamatory structures in English are formed by placing an object, a
complement (or any element that the speaker wants to make prominent) of a
declarative structure at the beginning of the sentence or clause, and preceding
this element by What or How. What precedes noun phrases and How precedes
adjective or adverb phrases.
Declarative structure
Exclamative structure
That was a funny joke.
What a funny joke that was!
NP
He is clever.
NP
How clever he is!
Adj. P
Adj. P
She paints very well.
Adv. P
How very well she paints!
NP
14.1. On some occasions the aspect that the speaker wants to make prominent
is left implicit. Thus, if we say:
What a man!!
there could be more than one declarative meaning hidden behind the
exclamation:
The man is bad.
The man is good.
The man is handsome, etc.
The choice of one or the other will depend on the context of discourse.
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14.2. The above structures are special exclamatory ones, but exclamations can
be expressed by other clause types or structures, such as the following:
Isn’t he cute!
Imagine him wearing that ridiculous hat!
He’s a despicable rat!
Oh Gosh!
(Interrogative clause)
(Imperative clause)
(Declarative clause)
(Non-clausal forms)
15. Connectors: as, then, first, even if, though, still, for
For a general introduction to linking words/ connectors, see Chapter 1, B 14.
15.1. Consider the following examples, some of them from the text:
a) As
He looked at the girl as she was passing by
[…] she tried to curtsey as she spoke (line 49)
b) First and then
Ladies and gentlemen: First, I want to thank you for your support and ask you to
please visit our exhibition; then, I would like to invite you all to a drink in the main hall.
First, she tried to look down and make out what she was coming to… then she
looked at the sides of the well… (lines 25-26)
c) Even if
I would never leave my children, even if they were criminals
I wouldn’t say anything about it, even if I fell off the top of the house (lines 33-34)
d) Though/ still
Though he has always been a rich person, he is very humble.
She was always in the High Honor Roll; still, she had an inferiority complex.
[…] though this was not a very good opportunity for showing off her knowledge, […]
[…] still it was good practice to say it over (lines 39-41)
e) For
He could never betray you, for he is a very loyal person.
… as well as she could, for the hot day made her feel very sleepy and stupid […]
(line 5)
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15.2. In all the above examples the connectors are linking clauses, and, from
the semantic point of view, they could be classified according to the following
table:
Connector
Type and meaning
AS
Temporal (“at the moment, during the period”)
FIRST
Temporal (“to begin with”, first conjunct in an
enumeration)
THEN
Temporal (“After that”. It is generally a medial position
conjunct in an enumeration)
EVEN IF
Concessive / conditional (“Even when”. It expresses
both the dependency of one circumstance upon
another and the surprising nature of its dependence).
THOUGH
Concessive / adversative (“in spite of this/that”)
STILL
Adversative / concessive (“in spite of this/that”)
FOR
Causal (“because”, “that is the reason why”)
NOTE:
➢ As can also be a causal connector.
E.g.: He never wanted to hurt her; as he loved her.
➢ When these connectors function as conjuncts, they normally occur in
initial position. They are usually separated from the rest of the clause by
a comma in writing and by a tone unit boundary in speech. Sometimes,
though not very frequently, conjuncts can occur in medial or final
position. Though is one of the connectors appearing most frequently in
final position.
E.g.: She wanted to call him after the argument. She didn’t have
the guts to do it, though.
➢ Then can also have other meanings, like the inferential one, as in:
He was not in town the night of the attack. Then he cannot be the
murderer.
CHAPTER 11
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Verb formation: -ise / -ize and -de
Some nouns in English can be turned into verbs by changing the suffix -sion
(commonly used for the formation of nouns) for the suffixes -de or -ise/ize
(common verb endings). But verbs in -ise/-ize can also be derived from nouns
having other endings than -sion, as well as from adjectives. In fact, when the verb
derives from a noun in -ion, in most cases the ending -ise is considered to be part
of the base, more than a suffix.
Noun
allusion
decision
inclusion
provision
Noun
television
Verb
allude
decide
include
provide
Verb
televise
revision
revise
analysis
analyse (Br., Aus & NZE)
analyze (AmE)
computer
computerise / -ize
apology
apologise / -ize
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1.1. With adjective bases the meaning is usually “make —-“. E.g.: italicize,
legalize, liquidize, equalize. There are, however, more specialized meanings,
like penalize, rationalize, visualize.
NOTES:
➢ -ise and -ize are variant spellings of a single suffix. Both are widely
used in British English, and while American English always uses -ize,
Australian and New Zealand English increasingly prefer -ise. The
variation does not occur with words ending in an ise or ize that is not a
suffix but part of the base, such as: advise, circumcise, despise,
exercise, improvise, surprise, televise, etc., or capsize, size, etc.
➢ This bound morpheme is considered to be the most productive suffix for
forming verbs in Present-day English. Relatively recent examples are:
computerize, hospitalize, itemize, pasteurize, terrorize, standardize, etc.
➢ The suffix -ize/-ise is in competition with other verbalizing processes, and
that is the reason why we sometimes find some bases with different
formations for the same meaning. E.g.: legitimize/legitimate;
syllabize/syllabify. However, in some cases the different endings are
used to express contrasting meanings, as in equalize, equal, equate.
For a general introduction to word formation and affixation see Chapter 1, A 1.
2. Compound nouns
Compound nouns were presented in previous chapters. For a general
introduction to compound nouns, please see Chapter 1, A 3, and for further
instances of compound nouns following the pattern NOUN + NOUN, see Chapter
4, A 1 and Chapter 7, A 1.1.
In exercise 2 (main course book) some compounds following this pattern are
presented. The first noun modifies or completes the meaning of the second. It
generally indicates “purpose”.
E.g.: tennis-court
car park
shop assistant
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237
Notice that, apart form the formation of compounds, in English, as in any
other languages, there are words that collocate with other words, that is,
they tend to come up together on a regular basis. These collocations are
words that are used together very frequently and, eventually, they may
form a new word. So, in English you would never say a *tennis field nor a
*tennis course, but you say: a tennis-court, a cricket field and a golf-course.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Conditional constructions
A conditional construction consists of a matrix clause containing and adjunct. The
subordinate clause functioning as a complement of if is called the protasis, and
the matrix clause is the apodosis. The prototypical conditional adjunct consists of
a prepositional phrase with if as head and a content clause as complement:
E.g.: If you tell him,
I will never ever talk to you again
Subordinate clause
Matrix (main) clause
(adjunct) PROTASIS
APODOSIS
Conditional sentences are generally used to show how an event or action depends
on another. The speaker’s attitude is expressed by means of modal auxiliaries
(can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would, etc.), which
indicate the degree of probability for something to happen. Traditionally, and based
on the degree of probability, we can distinguish three types of conditional
sentences, as we shall see in the following sections. However, many other
combinations are possible, though some are much more frequent than others.
1.1. The first conditional is used to talk about something that is possible and
likely to happen. If the action expressed in the subordinate clause takes place,
then the action in the main clause will probably be fulfilled. This type of conditional is often used to give advice, to warn or persuade someone, or to make a
promise (open condition).
if + PRESENT TENSE + MAIN CLAUSE
E.g.: If he passes the exam, he will go to the university.
Present
will (future)
If you get there ahead of time, give me a call.
Present
Imperative
If Tom and Ann feel like it, we can go camping next weekend.
Present
Modal Auxiliary (Present tense)
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1.2. The second conditional refers to something that is possible to be fulfilled,
but rather unlikely (hypothetical condition).
if + SIMPLE PAST + MAIN CLAUSE { WOULD / COULD + V}
E.g.: a) If I won a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
Past
Modal auxiliary (PAST) + VERB
b) If my friend from Ireland came to see me, I could practice my English.
Past
Modal auxiliary (Past) + Verb
Note that example b) expresses less certainty than a).
For more examples and further explanations on this type of conditional sentence,
see Chapter 8, B 5.
1.3. The third conditional is used to talk about something that cannot be fulfilled
because it refers to a past event. This type of conditional is often used to express
one’s regrets, missed opportunities and criticism of others (impossible or ‘remote’
condition).
if + PAST PERFECT + MAIN CLAUSE { WOULD / COULD + Pr. Perfect}
E.g.: a) If you had arrived earlier, you would have met her.
Past perfect
Would + Present perfect
b) If you had only asked me, you could have got there on time.
Past Perfect
Modal auxiliary + Present perfect
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Note that example b) expresses less certainty than a).
Note that when the subordinate clause (if ) comes first, it is followed by a
comma, but when the main clause comes first, there is no comma. This
rule applies to the three types of conditional sentences.
E.g.: If I had the opportunity, I would get a job abroad.
I would get a job abroad If I had the opportunity.
For more examples and further explanations on the third type of conditional
sentence, see Chapter 20, B 1.
1.4. Other subordinators expressing a condition.
There are some conjunctions that can be used to express a condition, for instance:
as long as, in case, on condition that, provided that, in case of (formal use), etc.
E.g.: As long as you play fair with them, they will respect you.
I’ll give you my number in case you have any problem.
You can go now on condition that you will behave yourself.
I’ll help you with your paper provided that you help me with mine.
In case of emergency, call the police.
1.5. Negative conditions expressed with unless.
Unless can also be used to indicate negative condition, as in:
E.g.: Unless something unexpected happens, our team will win the
league.
You will be late for work unless you hurry up.
SOME OTHER INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT CONDITIONALS
➢ Negative hypothetical conditions can be expressed with:
but for + Noun Phrase
E.g.: But for Ronaldo, we would have lost the championship. (If it
hadn’t been for him, ...)
But for the humanitarian aid, many more children would
have died in Africa last year. (If it hadn’t been for the aid,...)
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➢ The so-called ‘quasi-modal’ be (be + to) occurs in open (probable) and
remote conditionals with an idiomatic use:
E.g.: If he is to cry, I won’t take him to the cinema.
If he were to cry, I wouldn’t take him to the cinema.
➢ There is a special conditional use of should which is found in both open
and remote conditionals:
E.g.: If Peter should die, he will have to be cremated. That’s his
wish.
If Peter should die, he would have to be cremated. That’s his
wish.
➢ Under certain conditions, the protasis can take the form of an
ungoverned content clause with subject-auxiliary inversion:
E.g.: Had I known this, I would never have come. (= If I had
known…)
Were he to sign the document, we would be in trouble. (= If
he signed…)
➢ Some constructions do not have the form or literal meaning of
conditionals, but they serve indirectly to convey conditional meaning.
This is the case of the following coordinate and juxtaposed
constructions:
E.g.: Open your mouth again and you’re fired. (Coordinate)
(= If you open your mouth again, you will be fired)
Either he complies with our requirements or he’s not
hired. (Coord.)
(= If he doesn’t
comply with…, he
won’t be hired.
Come on! Do it!
You’ll see how mad
the boss will get.
(Yuxtaposed)
(= If you do it, the
boss will get mad)
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2. Conditional sentences
See section B 1 right above.
3. Conditional sentences and Simple Future
For an introduction to conditional sentences (first, second and third type) see
section B1 above. For an introduction to the Simple Future, see Chapter 9, B 1.
4. Verbs followed by a preposition + gerund
Prepositions are generally placed before a noun phrase or sometimes before an
-ing clause.
E.g.: Please apologize to the committee for my absence.
She apologized for being late.
These verbs are usually followed by a preposition and an -ing clause:
accuse of
to be bad at
to be accustomed to
to be afraid of
believe in
concentrate on
confine someone to
congratulate on
discourage from
dream of
get used to
to be good at
improve by
to be involved in
look forward to
object to
prevent from
to be reduced to
resort to
resign oneself to
to be suspect of
talk about
thank someone for
think of
to be tired of
to be used to, etc.
Notice the difference between to as part of the infinitive in:
E.g.: My wife wants me to buy a new car.
and to as a preposition in:
E.g.: Janet is used to going abroad every summer.
For a more complete account of this topic see Chapter 10, B 5, 6 and 7.
CHAPTER 11
243
5. Compounds with -ever
As was explained in Chapter 8, B 1, the adverb -ever is sometimes added to
relative pronouns. Review this grammar point in Chapter 8 and if you are
interested in other uses of the time adverb ever, see Chapter 1, B 7.
6. Future with -will or going to
As was explained in Chapter 9, section B 1, in English there is no future tense
from a grammatical point of view. Instead, there are some possibilities for
denoting future time, such as the so-called Simple Future (shall / will).
6.1. Just as in Spanish, there are other ways of expresing the future, such as:
SUBJECT + PRESENT OF TO BE + GOING TO + BASE FORM
This expression is used to show (a) the speaker’s intention of doing or not doing
something and/or (b) the speaker’s certainty that something is to happen soon.
E.g.: a) I’m not going to pay for the broken chair, it was not my fault.
b) Bob said that he is going to move back to the States.
Notice that going to is preferred to will when we predict that something will
happen because we have some evidence for it.
E.g.: She just got her driving licence and she is going to buy a
second-hand car.
However, if we make a prediction based on our own opinion, we use will.
E.g.: I don’t think she will accept that kind of job.
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NOTE: You should take into account that the difference between will and
going to is sometimes very subtle.
E.g.: We are going to meet at the airport.
We’ll meet at the airport.
Going to is preferred in spoken English (pronounced / ɒnə/; you may find it
in written informal form as gonna) whereas will is common in written formal
English.
7. Prepositions: in, around, from, at, on, over
In the text (Husbands and lovers) all these space prepositions are used. If you
need any explanation of their use, see: Chapter 1, B 8; Chapter 2, B 4; Chapter
4, B 7; Chapter 5, B 6; Chapter 7, B 9.
8. Must and have to
The difference between these two English verb forms was introduced in Chapter
1, section B 5.
9. Direct and indirect speech
For a full account of direct and indirect speech, see Chapter 5, B 7. Here, we only
make the following remarks:
9.1. There are some differences between the verbs to say and to tell, when
used in indirect speech.
9.1.1. The verb to say is not necessarily followed by an indirect object, but if it is,
it goes with the preposition to.
E.g.: He said to her that she was fired.
To say can also be followed by a that-clause as in:
E.g.: He said that she was fired for arriving late to work.
9.1.2. When the verb to tell is immediately followed by an indirect object, it
does not take the preposition to. It takes this preposition if it is followed by a direct
object and then an indirect object.
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E.g.: She told me she had been fired unjustly.
IO
DO
She told nothing to her family.
DO
IO
9.2. Apart from the aforementioned, there are some other verbs that can
introduce indirect speech. These are divided into three main types depending on
whether they require a noun/pronoun object or a that-clause:
9.2.1. Verbs which usually require a noun/pronoun object.
advise
assure
convince
inform
notify
persuade
remind
tell, etc.
E.g.: My wife convinced me to take that job.
We persuaded her to come with us.
9.2.2. Verbs which do not require a noun/pronoun object, and are usually
followed by a that-clause.
accept
answer
assume
believe
claim
deny
discover
doubt
expect
feel
find
forget
guarantee
hope
imply
know
notice
observe
see
specify
suppose
think
understand, etc.
E.g.: The prisoner denied that he had been involved in the robbery.
The regulations specify that dictionaries may not be used in the
examination.
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9.2.3. Verbs that can be used with a noun/pronoun object or a that-clause.
acknowledge
admit
announce
complain
confess
declare
demonstrate
explain
indicate
mention
point out
propose
prove
remark
report
say
signal
state
suggest
etc.
E.g.: Her father promised (her) that they would go to the zoo.
I confessed (to her) that I had broken her china teapot.
9.3. You should notice that wh-clauses can also be used in indirect speech. As a
rule, the report question undergoes the same changes (tense, pronouns, etc.) as
any other reported sentence, but the question pattern and the question mark
disappear. See the following examples:
E.g.:
2Direct question2
How can I get there?
2Indirect speech2
She wants to know how I can get there.
What did he say?
She wants to know what he said.
When will they come back?
She asked when they will come back.
Who is in charge of this section?
She asked who is in charge of this section.
10. The zero article
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1, B 13.
CHAPTER 12
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -ive and -ous (-ious)
The derivational morphemes -ive / -ous (-ious) can be added to nouns in order to
form new adjectives with the meaning “having the quality of the verb”.
Noun
Derived adjective
abuse
abusive
description
descriptive
explosion
explosive
glory
glorious
mountain
mountainous
nerve
nervous (line 3)
poison
poisonous
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Note that the derivational morpheme -ive, can also be used to make
adjectives from verbs meaning “which performs the action of the verb”. These
verbs generally have a Latin origin and end in the sounds /t/, /d/ or /s/:
E.g.: attract → attractive
digest → digestive
extend → extensive
progress → progressive
For a general introduction to word formation and affixation see Chapter 1, A 1.
Other examples of derivational morphemes that change nouns into adjectives can
be found in Chapter 6, A 2; Chapter 8, A 2; and Chapter 10, A 1. More information
about the suffix -ous is found in Chapter 14, A 1.
2. Verb formation: en- (em-) / in- (im-)
The prefixes en- (em-) and in- (im-) are added to some adjectives, nouns or verbs
in order to form transitive or intransitive verbs meaning “put into or on” or “put
somebody or something into a certain state”.
Noun / Adjective / Verb
Verb
bed
embed
danger
endanger
large
enlarge
power
empower
trust
entrust
wrap
enwrap
flame
inflame
peril
imperil
print
imprint
sure
insure
Note that the prefix en- turns into em-, and in- into im- before /p/ and /b/,
just like in Spanish.
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249
NOTE: A number of verbs have alternate spellings with en- and in-. The
form with e is generally preferred. However, sometimes there is a difference
in meaning between the forms with either spelling. Ensure (‘to make sure’)
and insure (‘to cover someone or something with an insurance policy’)
coexist with different meanings, and, whereas in British English a distinction
is made between enquire (ask, for instance, about a telephone directory
name and number) and inquire (conduct an investigation), in American
English both meanings have the spelling in- .
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Use of the infinitive
In the text (Self-portrait) different sentence patterns containing an infinitive are
used. For instance:
It is really to encourage everyone […] that I have […] (line 1)
I want you to remember that […] (line 8)
Some other infinitive patterns in English are introduced in this section.
1.1. The pattern Verb + to-infinitive is commonly used in English to express
intention. In this case, the word to provides the idea of “in order to” or “so as to”.
See the following examples:
E.g.: Rachel looked through the hole to see who was on the other side of
the wall.
The Royal Family stood up to see the parade.
She was driving for three hours and then she stopped to go to the
bathroom.
1.2. The pattern Verb + object (noun/pronoun) + to- infinitive is used with
verbs that express mental acts, such as wanting, persuading, advising, allowing,
asking, obliging, etc.
E.g.: He said that nothing would tempt him to join the army.
She begged her husband not to take any unnecessary risk.
They warned us not to climb the mountain in such bad weather.
The following verbs are commonly used with this pattern: beg, cause, challenge,
command, dare, enable, encourage, entitle, force, help, implore, incite, induce,
instruct, intend, invite, permit, press, request, require, teach, tempt, urge, warn, etc.
More information about this point is found in Chapter 10, B 7.
2. It + be + adjective / noun + to-infinitive
Some common verb patterns were introduced in the previous grammar point. The
construction It + be + adjective / noun + to-infinitive is also found in the text: It
is a lovely thing to do (line 28).
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CHAPTER 12
E.g.: It’s a pity to waste all this food.
It’s nice to meet old friends.
Notice the alternative patterns: How + adjective and What (a) + noun:
E.g.: How nice (it is) to meet old friends!
What a pity (it is) to waste all this food.
NOTE:
In everyday spoken English speakers frequently omit the subject (it) and the
verb to be in the declarative construction, as can be seen in the following
examples:
A: John, this is Paul; Paul, this is John.
John: (It is) Nice to meet you.
Paul: (It is) Nice to meet you too.
A: O.K., I gotta go.
B: O.K. (It was) Good to see you!
3. Gerund vs. infinitive
Spanish learners of English tend to have problems with the gerund/infinitive
distinction as it is a grammatical feature that has no counterpart in Spanish.
This issue was presented in Chapter 4, B 2 and you can find a list of verbs that
usually take a gerund, an infinitive or any of them in Chapter 10, B 7.
3.1. Let us revise briefly two of the verbs that can be followed by either a gerund
or a to-infinitive, with a difference in meaning.
a) Stop + gerund ( = an action ceased).
E.g.: When the police came into the night-club, the band stopped playing.
Stop + to-infinitive (= an action was interrupted in order to start another action).
E.g.: The band had been playing for two hours when they stopped to
take a rest.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
b) Try + gerund (= we test something to see if it works).
E.g.: Why don’t you try resetting your computer?
Try + to-infinitive (= we attempt to do something).
E.g.: Don’t try to swim across the river, it’s too dangerous.
4. Too
The adverb too is commonly used in English to mean “more than is desirable or
allowed”. It can pre-modify adjectives, adverbs, countable and uncountable
nouns (with much and many).
E.g.: I like this jacket but it is too small for me.
Adj.
I don’t think this is a good computer program, it makes too many
mistakes.
Noun (countable)
I’m afraid our kids are watching too much violence on TV
Noun (uncountable)
Slow down! You’re driving too fast!
Adv.
NOTE:
➢ The expression to be too much for somebody can have one of these
meanings:
a) To demand more skill or strength than somebody has.
E.g.: This training program is too much for him at the
moment.
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b) To be more than can be tolerated.
E.g.: Her attitude finally became too much for him. He just left.
➢ The adverb too modifying an adjective can be separated from its
complement when the indefinite article is placed between the adjective
and the noun head:
➢ E.g.: This is too difficult a book for me to read.
Remember that the word enough is also a quantifier but has a different
meaning from too. It is usually placed before nouns (in which case it
functions as a determiner) but after adjectives (in which case it functions as
a post-modifying adverb in an adjectival phrase).
E.g.: Her new apartment is big enough for two people.
Adj. Post-modifying adverb
Do you think you’ll have enough money to buy that car?
Determiner Noun
5. To-infinitive phrases
Reporting verbs such as advise, tell, inform, think, etc. can be followed by a whclause with the following sentence pattern.
REPORTING VERB + OBJECT (NOUN/PRONOUN) + WH-CLAUSE
E.g.: Catherine showed me how to do it.
The teacher told me where to find those books for my research project.
5.1. Note that we can distinguish three types of reporting verbs depending on
whether they take an object (noun or pronoun) or not:
a) Verbs like advise, inform, remind, show, tell, teach, etc. are usually followed by
an object (noun or pronoun) before the wh-clause.
E.g.: Actually, it was my son who taught me how to use my computer.
Someone from the archives had to remind her where to put the
manuscript.
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b) Verbs like specify, suggest, think, talk, wonder about, understand, etc. are not
generally followed by an object; they are just followed by a wh-clause with the
aforesaid pattern.
E.g.: She wanted to cook cheese soup but she wondered about how
much cheese to buy.
Can you suggest how to tackle the problem?
c) Verbs like demonstrate, explain, indicate, mention, point out, prove, report, etc.
can be followed by an object (introduced by to), before the wh-clause.
E.g.: With a wave of his hand he indicated to them where to sit.
We explained to the children where to take the school bus.
Note: In Chapter 5, B 7.4. you can find some hints to form indirect speech
constructions with wh-clauses, and in Chapter 11, B 9 you will find more details about reporting verbs.
6. Future Continuos
In Chapter 9, it was explained that, from the grammatical point of view, there is no
future tense in English. However, among other possibilities, we can express a
future activity or event with the auxiliaries will / shall followed by to be + gerund,
to refer to some event that has not happened yet and “will be in progress at a time
in the future”.
now
past
future
E.g.: At this same time tomorrow, I will be lying on the beach.
Next year at this time, Tim will be attending school.
Jane will probably be working when you come.
Notice that sometimes the difference between the Simple Future and the
Future Continuous is non-existent, especially when the future event will
occur at an indefinite time.
E.g.: Don’t worry! The police will be coming soon.
Don’t worry! The police will come soon.
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6.1. We commonly use this Future Continuous form to ask someone for
information, as in:
E.g.: Will you be coming to the party tonight?* (The speaker just wants to
know.)
* The sentence Will you come to the party tonight? shows a different
intention on the part of the speaker. In this case, the utterance will probably
be interpreted as an invitation to go to the party.
6.2. The Future Continuous can also be used to express probability or deduction,
in which case the modal verb will becomes an exponent of epistemic modality,
expressing a certain degree of certainty, as in the following example:
E.g.: I had an appointment with Ted and I didn’t call to cancel it. He will be
wondering where the heck I am.
7. Direct and indirect speech
For a full account of direct and indirect speech, see Chapter 5, B 7, and
Chapter 11, B 9.
8. Prepositions
Prepositions have been presented in previous chapters. For a general introduction
to prepositions see Chapter 1, B 8. The prepositions at, in, on, to, with, of, for and
from are explained in Chapter 5, B 6. See also Chapter 7, B 9 and Chapter 9, B 4
for prepositions forming fixed expressions with other words.
9. Prepositions as / like
The prepositions as and like are used in the text (Self-portrait) on various
occasions. See the following examples:
A few go on to discover a lasting pleasure in painting as amateurs, or
rewarding careers as professionals, […] (lines 13-14)
[…] I felt a rising panic, like stage-fright before a first performance. […]
(lines 19-20)
9.1. Notice that the Spanish translation for both as and like is como. This may
entail a learning problem, so you need to take into account that as means
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“having the function or character of somebody/something”, whereas like means
“similar to somebody/something; resembling somebody/something”. Analyse the
following examples:
E.g.: They entered the stadium disguised as cleaners.
He has worked as a diplomat for many years.
This is just like in the old times.
Charles is wearing a tie like mine.
9.1.1. When there is a NP as complement, like rather than as is used in nonscalar term comparisons of equality:
E.g.: Bruce is like his father.
She looked like a Hollywood star.
Like the boss, I am against this kind of contracts.
You can find other uses of as in Chapter 8, B 11.
Notice:
➢ the special use of like with the sense “characteristic of”:
E.g.: It isn’t like Dr. Miller to be irresponsible.
It is just like her to behave in such a childish way.
➢ that like is in competition with as in constructions having a Prepositional
Phrase complement:
E.g.: There are policemen everywhere in this city, just like/as
in the States.
P.P.
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Here as would be generally preferred in formal style, while like is
normally used in informal, spoken English.
➢ that, when followed by a finite clause, like and as are again in
competition:
E.g.: The room was dark and full of spider webs and bats, like/as
you see in horror films.
Finite clause
Some speakers have the strong feeling that like cannot take a finite
clause and therefore they never use this construction, but these are
only a minority. Both constructions are commonly used, though
somewhat more widely in American English than in British English.
10. Articles
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero article see Chapter 1, B 13.
11. Temporal clauses
In the text (Self-portrait) you can find many examples of adverbial clauses of time
such as the following:
[…] I hope, convey something of the enthusiasm and delight I feel when I
am painting flowers. (lines 5-6)
It is a lovely thing to do and when you have finished you can throw it away
and start again. (lines 28-29)
11.1. Time clauses may function as time adjuncts in a main sentence. There are
some subordinating conjunctions that typically introduce this type of subordinate
clauses, such as the following:
after
as
as soon as
before
now that
once
since
til/until
when
whenever
while/whilst
etc.
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See the following examples:
E.g.: He had to wait till the mechanic repaired his car to make the trip.
My father fell down when he was walking in the park last Saturday
morning.
We’ll call you as soon as we get there.
11.2. Subordinate time clauses can be placed in initial or final position within the
sentence. They can also go in medial position although that is less frequent.
E.g.: You can use my bike whenever you like.
Whenever he travels to London, he goes to the British Museum.
11.3. Temporal clauses may be finite, non-finite or verbless:
E.g.: He never answers the phone when he’s at home.
Finite
When studying abroad, she had all kinds of enriching experiences.
Non-finite (-ing clause)
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Verbless
CHAPTER 13
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound nouns
Examine the use of the underlined compound word in the following sentences
from the text (Water to Burn):
The hot-rock system has been proved only experimentally, and the engineering and
the economics are still being worked out. But the outlook is promising (lines 39-43).
As explained in the corresponding exercise in the main course book, the word
outlook means “forseable future”, but if the order of the components is changed,
the result is lookout, whose meaning in the expression “to be on the lookout” is
“to be alert”. This is proof of the fact that the order of constituents is very important
in the grammar of English, for it generally affects the final meaning of the
utterance at different levels.
Also, notice the difference in meaning between the
following pairs of compound nouns:
Layout: The disposing or arrangement of a site,
ground, etc.
Outlay: The money spent on something.
Outwork: 1) An advanced or detached part of a
fortification.
2) Br. E.: Work done outside the shop or
factory which supplies it.
Workout: A session of physical exercise or training.
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Layover: A period of rest or waiting before a further stage in a journey, etc.; a
stopover.
Overlay: 1) A thing laid over another.
2) A transparent sheet to be superimposed on another sheet.
3) A coverlet, small tablecloth, etc.
Upset: Condition of being disturbed.
Set-up: The way in which something is organized or arranged.
For a more complete account of compound nouns, see Chapter 1, A 3; Chapter
4, A 1 and Chapter 11, A 2.
2. Formation of adjectives: -ic, -ific, -ive, -al, -able, -ory, -y
and formation of adverbs: -ly
The formation of adverbs by adding the suffix -ly was explained in Chapter 1, A 2
and Chapter 4, A 2.
The suffixes -able and -al can be seen in Chapter 3, A2 and Chapter 8, A 2. For
the suffix -ive see Chapter 12, A1, and for -y see Chapter 6, A2 and Chapter 10 A
1.
In this chapter we are going to concentrate on the adjective-forming suffixes -ic,
-ific and -ory:
2.1. -ic is one of the most common adjectivalizing suffixes, especially on noun
bases of Greek or Latin origin. Many nouns ending in -y form their adjectives by
replacing it by -ic:
Economy → economic
Harmony → harmonic
Symphony → symphonic
Philanthropy → philanthropic
2.2. The variant -ific is seen in words like:
Scientific - terrific∗ - horrific
These bases are paradigmatically related to verbs in -ify: terrify, horrify, etc.
* Notice that “terrific” is a false friend. It does not mean terrorífico, but estupendo, fantástico.
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2.3. Adjectives in -ory have noun counterparts in -ion and -ation:
Compulsion → compulsory
Accusation → accusatory
Explanation → explanatory
NOTE: This suffix bears some resemblance to -ary, but differs in that it
replaces -ion rather than being added to it. Compare:
Satisfaction → satisfactory
Reaction → reactionary
3. Compound nouns: N + N, Adj. + N and V +
+ N combinations
For a full account of the different combinations of compound nouns see Chapter
1, A 3.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Passive voice in scientific/academic texts
For a detailed explanation of the passive voice in English, see Chapter 6, B 2.
In this chapter we are only going to focus on the following facts:
a) The most basic passive pattern is the short dynamic be-passive in finite
clauses (Biber et al, 1999). The main purpose of this passive is to leave the
agent unexpressed, because it is unknown, redundant or irrelevant. Academic
prose shows the most frequent use of the short dynamic passive, because it
is concerned with generalizations, rather than the specific individuals who
carry out an action. Consider the following examples from the text:
Geothermal water –hotter water found at greater depths– can be used to heat
bigger structures such as apartment houses, stores, and factories, and in
certain industrial processes. (lines 17-22)
The hot-rock system has been proved only experimentally, and the
engineering and the economics are still being worked out. (lines 39-42)
b) The choice of a long passive (i.e. with an agent) is influenced by different
discourse factors. This passive construction preserves the information of the
corresponding active clause, but presents it in a different order. In most
cases, the agent phrases bring in new information:
E.g. : That topic was explained at the meeting by Dr. Robinson.
The battle was led by General Atkins.
c) Passive and active constructions are not equivalent; their use varies widely
depending upon the type of text.
2. Passive voice in ditransitive13 clauses
As we saw in Chapter 6, B 2.2., both the direct and the indirect objects can
become the subject of a passive construction:
E.g.: My husband sent me a letter
IO
13
Having two objects.
DO
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1) I was sent a letter by my husband.
2) A letter was sent to me by my husband.
The passive with the indirect object externalized (1) is called the first passive, and
the one with the direct object externalized (2) is called the second passive. The
first passive is much more common than the second one in English.
3. Prepositional passives
In one of the notes in Chapter 6, B 2.3, we saw how it is possible for a prepositional
object to become the subject in a passive construction. In this case, the NP in the
active examples is an object not of the verb but of a preposition:
E.g.: The boss approved of the plan.
The plan was approved of by the boss.
As can be noticed, a verb which is transitive in the active construction is
intransitive in the passive. The preposition is “stranded”.
NOTE: Preposition stranding is often avoided in formal, written prose.
4. Prepositions for, from, to, on, in, and into
These prepositions were covered in Chapter 1, B 8 and 9; Chapter 2, B 4;
Chapter 3, B 6; Chapter 4, B 7; Chapter 5, B 6; Chapter 6, B 8 and 9; Chapter 7,
B 1 and 9; Chapter 8, B 9; Chapter 9, B 2 and 3 and Chapter 10, B 9.
5. Time adverbs: yet, still, just, already
For a full account of these adverbs, see Chapter 6, B 12 and Chapter 7, B 7.
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6. Compounds of no, some, any and every + -thing,
-body and -where
See this point in Chapter 1, B 3.
7. Noun formation with the suffix -th
The noun-forming suffix -th is no longer productive (i.e. no new nouns are formed
with this suffix nowadays) in the English language, and it is found in nouns that
are formed from adjectives or verbs. In most cases the phonological relation
between the base and the derivative is irregular.
2Noun2
Adjectives: deep → depth
wide → width
high
→ height
long
→ length
Height
young → youth
Verbs:
grow → growth
die
→ death
bear
→ birth
Width
8. Position of adverbs
For the position of adverbs, go to Chapter 1, A 1 and B 11; and Chapter 4, B 10.
Some other facts about the position of adverbs can be studied in the following
table:
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INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE POSITION OF ADVERBS
➢ Adverbs of manner usually come after the verb or the object (if there is
one):
E.g.: She drives her motorbike carefully. (S + V + Object + Adv)
(Don’t put the adverb between the verb and the object
here!!)
He sang beautifully. (S + V + Adv.)
➢ If an adverb is placed after a clause or a phrase, it is normally considered
to modify or affect the verb in that clause or phrase. If we move the
adverb to the end of the sentence we change the meaning. Compare:
She secretly decided to leave her husband. (The decision was secret)
She decided to leave her husband secretly. (The departure was to be
secret)
➢ In a Verb + Prep. + Object construction, the adverb can be placed either
before the preposition or after the object:
E.g.: He spoke to me sincerely
or
He spoke sincerely to me.
But if the object is long we put the adverb before the preposition:
E.g.: He spoke sincerely to all the members of the jury.
➢ In a similar way, with Verb + Object sentences the length of the object
affects the position of the adverb. If the object is long the adverb is
usually placed before the verb:
They reluctantly admitted that they had tried to bribe their customers.
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9. Position of adverbs in passive sentences
There is a tendency for both frequency (e.g.: always, usually, often, etc.) and
modal adverbs (e.g.: possibly, easily, certainly, etc.) to precede lexical verbs
but to follow auxiliaries. This tendency can also be seen in passive sentences like
the following, in which the adverb follows the auxiliary (were) and precedes the
lexical verb (chosen).
E.g.: The final candidates were carefully chosen from the top ten in their
field.
The same can be said of -ly adverbs expressing point of view in passive
sentences:
E.g.: He has presumably committed the crime.
10. Use of articles
For a full account of the use of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1,
B 13.
11. Quantity and distribution: every, many, much and all
For all, many and much see Chapter 9, B 10.
11.1. Every: Every is considered to be distributive because it picks out the
members of a set or group singly, instead of looking at them all together. This is
the only difference it has in comparison with all. Compare:
All politicians in power are corrupt.
Every politician in power is corrupt.
… giving just about every house owner a potential source of economical
energy right in the backyard. (lines 11-13).
Note that, in the second example, the distributive meaning of every can be seen
in the use of the singular forms politician and is.
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NOTE: Both each and every refer to the individual members of a group and
combine with singular countable nouns, but while each stresses the
separate individual, every focuses on the individual as a member of the
group. Each can be used with reference to two entities, but every can not.
E.g.: Every hour of every day thousands of children are born.
The exam has ten questions. Each question is worth five points.
You should sit at each side of the Manager. (i.e.: two sides,
right and left).
For further explanations on every and each, see Chapter 19, B 3.
CHAPTER 14
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: suffixes -ous, -ary and -al
For a general introduction to word formation and affixation see Chapter 1, A 1. For
the suffix -ous, see Chapter 12, A 1; for -al, see Chapter 8, A 2 and Chapter 13, A 2.
1.1. The suffix -ary is a derivational morpheme added in English mostly to noun
bases ending in -ion, especially -tion, and also to bases ending in -t, especially
-ment:
Noun
Adjective
caution
cautionary
discretion
discretionary
reaction
reactionary
compliment
complimentary
fragment
fragmentary
parliament
parliamentary
diet
dietary
Some adjectives with this suffix are direct loans from Latin and thus they have
bound bases. E.g.: voluntary, ordinary, literary (lines 2-3 in the text).
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2. Noun formation: suffixes -ent or -ant
These two derivational suffixes attach to verbs in order to form nouns. The suffix
-ant is more frequent than -ent. Consider these examples:
Verb
Noun
complain
complainant
assist
assistant
inform
informant
relax
relaxant
disinfect
disinfectant
correspond
correspondent
(line 18)
reside
resident
absorb
absorbent
preside
president
The basic meaning of both -ant and -ent is “a person who -s” or “instrument for
-ing”.
In accelerant, irritant, etc., the suffix -ate is dropped from the verb base. Débutant
is a loan from French.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Plural forms of nouns
1.1. In English, nouns have singular or plural number. The general rule tells us
that the nouns which are singular are the following:
❖ Count nouns denoting “one”, such as: a man, the tree, that machine, etc.
❖ Proper Nouns, such as: Mary, Venus, Kenya, the Nile, etc.
❖ Mass (non-count) nouns, such as: politics, sugar, that milk, the evidence, etc.
1.2. Nouns denoting “more than one” (i.e. plural count nouns) are the ones that
normally occur in the plural, which is formed by adding -s or -es to the singular
(e.g.: farms, boxes, houses, cars, boys, etc.). Some nouns have irregular plurals,
such as:
mouse → mice
tooth
→ teeth
goose → geese
foot
→ feet
ox
→ oxen
child
→ children
There are some other interesting deviations from the norm that need to be studied:
a) Singular nouns ending in -s:
❖ Some proper nouns: Athens, Brussels, Naples, The United States, the
United Nations, etc., which have a singular verb when considered as
units:
E.g.: The United States of America is one of the biggest countries
in the world.
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❖ Subject names in -ics: linguistics, mathematics, statistics.
E.g.: Phonetics is a difficult subject for both native and non-native
speakers.
But note that, when not seen as subjects, these nouns can take a plural
verb:
E.g.: Her politics are neither to the left nor to the right.
The three statistics that I saw reveal there is more poverty in
the world nowadays than 25 years ago.
❖ Some games: checkers (Am. E.), draughts (Br. E.) cards, billiards,
dominoes, etc.
E.g.: Darts is not precisely one of his favorite games.
But note that some of them can also be ordinary plurals applied to the
entities used in the game.
E.g.: How many dominoes do you have?
❖ The noun news:
E.g.: The news is not good today. There’s been a terrible accident on
the I 55.
❖ Some diseases: measles, mumps, shingles, hemorrhoids, hiccups, rabies, etc.
E.g.: Mumps is a very dangerous disease for men.
But note that some speakers also accept a plural verb here: (The) measles
have irreversible effects on some people.
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b) Nouns which only occur in the plural:
❖ People: E.g.: There are always a lot of people in Benidorm in the summer.
But notice that people takes a singular verb in the sense of “nation”:
E.g.: The peoples of the world.
❖ Police: E.g.: The police are looking into the matter.
But notice the following: A policeman wants to interrogate him.
Two policemen want to interrogate him.
❖ Cattle: E.g.: The cattle in my uncle’s land are all very healthy.
❖ Some nouns consisting of two equal parts which are joined together, which
are always plural, but can be turned into ordinary count nouns by means of
pair of. These nouns are called bipartites, and include articles of clothing,
tools, and optical aids:
E.g.: A: Where are my glasses?
B: Your new pair of glasses is on the kitchen table.
Other nouns used in the same way are: shorts, pajamas (Am. E.), pyjamas
(Br. E.) scales, tongs, pliers, scissors, jeans, pants, binoculars, forceps,
knickers, tweezers, overalls (Br. E.), etc.
❖ A group of other nouns occur only in the plural when they are used in a
given sense. Some examples are: quarters, outskirts, oats, odds (in
betting), ashes, arms (weapons), means, spirits, funds, the Middle Ages,
thanks, headquarters, etc.
Notice the difference between the singular and plural use of these nouns:
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arms
→ weapons
arm → upper limb
funds
→ money
fund → a source of money
spirits
→ mood (e.g.: She’s in low spirits)
spirit → the intelligent
non-physical part
of a person
contents → (of a book, magazine, etc.)
links
→ a golf-course
content → The amount of
a constituent
contained (e.g.:
This medicine
has a low
sodium content)
link → a part of a chain
SOME OTHER INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE PLURAL
➢ A good number of more or less fixed phrases contain non-count plurals,
such as at odds with, on friendly terms with, in the doldrums, in cahoots
with, etc.
E.g.: She was in the doldrums (in low spirits).
The criminals were in cahoots with the attorneys (= they
conspired together).
➢ In the sentence I’m no longer friends with him, the plurality of friends
derives from the fact that two people are involved in the relation, but the
plural appears in predicative complement function with a singular subject.
➢ Some foreign plurals have no singular counterpart, such as genitalia,
minutiae, regalia.
➢ A number of nouns in English have Latin plural endings, such as:
Alga
→ algae
Bacterium → bacteria
Medium
→ media
Phenomenon → phenomena
Criterion → criteria
Datum
→ data
Fungus
→ fungi
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275
These plurals are historically plurals with unequivocally singular forms;
however, the singular forms are uncommon in comparison with their plural
counterparts, and this is the reason why some speakers are reanalyzing the
forms in the plural as singulars. Their usage is divided as to whether they
are construed as singular or plural. Thus we may find, for example: this
algae or these algae; The data is reliable or The data are reliable.
See Chapter 19, A 1. (Plurals of words of Latin and Greek origin)
2. The oblique (or ‘double’) genitive
For a full account of the genitive case see Chapter 2, B 1. In this chapter we are
going to deal with the oblique genitive.
2.1. The oblique genitive (commonly referred to as “the double genitive”) is a
construction in which the genitive is related to the head noun obliquely, via the
preposition of. For instance, in the noun phrase A neighbor of Tom’s, the
prepositional phrase of Tom’s is post-head dependent within the matrix NP. Here
the head noun is most typically preceded by an indefinite article, but it is also
found with demonstratives:
E.g.: That was a wonderful idea of John’s.
That woman is a friend of my mother’s.
He is a relative of my cousin’s.
They always visit this house of their father’s, not the one on the coast.
On occasions, the double genitive is found with wh- determiners:
E.g.: What dress of your sister’s are you talking about?
2.2. The NP following the preposition of can also be a possessive pronoun:
E.g.: The woman in red is a friend of ours.
That picture of yours is terrific!
A cousin of mine told me that this is a dangerous neighborhood.
2.3. The double genitive vs. ordinary of-phrases: Double genitives are preferred
for short dependent phrases, while of-phrases are preferred for longer
dependent phrases. Besides, there is a difference in information status: the
dependent noun phrase in double genitives is typically given, whereas ordinary
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postmodifying of-phrases have a tendency to introduce new entities into the
discourse. Compare:
The famous actress is a cousin of the Prime Minister. (New)
A cousin of Peter’s won the lottery the other day. (Given)
If the head noun does not denote a human relation, double genitives cannot be
replaced by ordinary of-constructions, therefore we always say:
A book of my mother’s.
An umbrella of Tim’s.
3. Possessive pronouns
This point was explained in Chapter 5, B 4.
4. Prepositional phrase: by + -ing form
This type of prepositional phrase expresses the means by which something is
done. In the text you can find the following example:
Some other lads and myself amused ourselves on winter evenings by
publishing a village newspaper…[…] (lines 43-45)
Other examples:
He solved the problem by restarting the computer.
They managed to avoid conflict by changing the topic of conversation.
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5. Unstressed, existential there
5.1. The sentences in your main course book (There’s a man at the door, There
were too many passengers in the bus, etc.), are examples of ‘unstressed there’.
In this type of sentences, the subject is normally postponed in existential clauses,
the initial position being occupied by there. There can be said to fulfill several of
the syntactic criteria for subject (position, inversion with auxiliaries and tagphrase repetition); however, it cannot be replaced by a pronoun, unlike normal
subjects:
E.g.: There were lots of people at the theatre, weren’t there?
There is only one person to ask, isn’t there?
5.2. The unit following the verb is clearly the notional subject in this type of
constructions. Unstressed there is considered to be a ‘syntactic filler’ or ‘place
holder’:
E.g.:
T here
is a general reluctance to talk about that issue.
Unstressed ‘there’
Notional subject
5.3. Plural concord is not always made in informal spoken English with the
present tense of be:
E.g.: There’s lots of children out there waiting for the play to start.
There’s two sides to this story.
A: Who’s there at the party?
B: Well, there’s John and Bill, and Christine and Janet.
NOTE: This special behavior of there’s is analogous to a similar tendency
for here’s, where’s and how’s in everyday conversation:
E.g.: Where’s Tom and Susan?
How’s Grandpa and Granny?
O.K., here’s a few more chocolates for you, little boy.
5.4. As noted in the main course book, there often introduces nouns which are
followed either by the present or the past participle of a verb:
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E.g.: That night at the concert there were many people snoring.
That night at the concert there was a soprano beautifully dressed in
bright colors.
6. Indirect questions
See Chapter 5, B 7.4.
7. Indirect exclamations
See Chapter 5, B 7.4.
8. The use of the pronoun one
One has two main pronominal uses: a) Substitute one and b) Generic one.
a) Substitute one: One and ones are used to replace (respectively) a singular or
plural countable noun that has been mentioned or is inferred from the context.
E.g.: You know there are two versions of my speeches –the one I
deliver and the one you say I deliver! (lines 37-40). (one = version)
Tom and Susan were the only ones who didn’t want to travel.
(ones = Tom and Susan)
A: Do you like American movies?
B: Well, there are good and bad movies, you know. I only like the
good ones. (ones = movies)
b) Generic one: We can also use one as a generic pronoun referring to people in
General, including me and you:
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E.g.: One has to be careful these days. You never know what might
happen.
So much injustice only makes one feel more insecure.
NOTES:
➢ There is a difference between British English and American English in the
repeated subject after one. In American English we can say the following:
E.g.: One cannot make it in life if he doesn’t work hard. (formal)
Or:
One cannot make it in life if you don’t work hard. (informal)
Whereas in British English we have to say:
E.g.: One cannot succeed in life if one doesn’t work hard.
➢ You and they can also be used with indefinite generic reference to people. You is the informal equivalent of one:
E.g.: One doesn’t behave like that in public. (formal)
You don’t behave like that in public. (informal)
They has a different meaning from one and you. It means “people in
general”, without including you and me:
E.g.: They say there’s going to be a general strike next month.
➢ According to Biber et al (1999), substitute one is far more common in
conversation than in the written registers, and generic one is far less
common overall than substitute one. Generic one is restricted primarily
to the written registers, especially fiction and academic prose. The
singular form is consistently more frequent than the plural form.
9. Prepositions
For an introduction to prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8.
10. Prepositions about, by and for
You will find information about these three prepositions in Chapter 2, B 4; Chapter
3, B 6; Chapter 5, B 6; Chapter 6, B 8 & B 9; Chapter 7, B 1, B 3 and B 9 and
Chapter 9, B 3.
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11. Articles
For a full account of the different articles, see Chapter 1, B 13.
12. When introducing a dependent clause
When is a time conjunction that can function as a subordinator introducing finite,
non-finite and verbless subordinate clauses:
E.g.: When I saw her, I realized she was in trouble. (Finite clause)
When listening to him, she couldn’t help laughing. (Non-finite, -ing
clause)
When in Rome, do as the Romans do. (Verbless clause)
You can also find examples of when as a conjunction in the text corresponding to
this unit in the main course book:
When nothing else offered I contributed nature notes and for one of the
papers, the Western Gazette, I have continued to do so ever since. (lines
30-33) (Finite clause)
Those were the years when I acquired all the manual and obsolete skills
which are now not the slightest use to me. (lines 7-10) (Finite clause
including a relative clause introduced by which)
See also temporal clauses in chapter 12, B 11.
CHAPTER 15
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ness and -ity / -ety
These are the most common suffixes used to form nouns from adjectives with the
general meaning “quality/state of being —”.
1.1. The suffix -ness can be added to adjectives in order to form uncountable
nouns which often refer to a state or quality.
Adjective
Noun
aggressive
aggressiveness (line 11)
blind
blindness
kind
kindness
sad
sadness
serious
seriousness
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In general, -ness can be regarded as the default suffix for forming new nouns.
Many times it is used instead of other suffixes when the established form is
forgotten by the speaker (e.g.: saneness instead of sanity) or when s/he wants to
give a new meaning to the noun (e.g.: impossibleness used instead of
impossibility when the speaker refers to the colloquial sense of impossible, as
applied to persons).
The suffix -ness can attach to bases other than adjectives, as can be seen in the
following examples:
nothingness
straightforwardness
matter-of-factness
oneness
whyness
user-friendliness
1.2. The suffix -ity is also added to adjectives to form nouns which often refer to
a state, quality or behaviour described by the adjective.
Adjective
Noun
complex
complexity
elastic
elasticity
intense
intensity (line 10)
odd
oddity
pure
purity
Many words in –ity came into English as loans from French, and this is reflected
in the fact that the base very often differs significantly in form from the free
adjective. There is normally a shift of stress in relation to the adjective base.
Compare:
Adjective
Noun
Actual /'ktʃuəl/
Actuality / ktʃu ləti/
Eccentric /ik sentrik/
eccentricity / iksen trisəti/
Curious / kjυəriəs/
curiosity / kjυəri ɒsəti/
Noble / nəυbl/
nobility /nəυ biləti/
Bestial / bestiəl/
bestiality / besti ləti/
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This shift in stress affects the vowel quality. Vowel change without stress shift is
seen in some cases. Compare:
Adjective
Noun
Chaste /tʃeist/
Chastity / tʃstəti/
Sincere /sin siə/
Sincerity /sin serəti/
The variant -ety is found only in a small number of nouns: nicety, notoriety,
gaiety, etc.
For a general introduction to word formation and affixation see Chapter 1, A 1.
2. -ify / -ize / -ise to form verbs
2.1. The suffix -ify can be added to adjectives and nouns in order to form
verbs meaning “to become or make something become the thing,
or have the specified quality of”. This suffix appears mainly with Latinate
bases.
Adjective/Noun
Verb
code
codify
pure
purify
solid
solidify
NOTE: In some words the suffix -ify has a clearly derogatory flavor, as in
countrify, Frenchify, speechify, preachify. Notice also that in preachify, the
basis is neither a noun nor an adjective, but a verb.
2.2. The suffix -ize /-ise can also be added to adjectives and nouns in order
to form verbs meaning “to become or make like” or “to act or treat with the
qualities of”.
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Adjective/Noun
Verb
drama
dramatize*
miniature
miniaturize*
critic
criticize*
deputy
deputize*
* These verbs are often spelled -ise in British English.
Note that some verbs must always be spelled -ise because this ending is
not a suffix but part of the base:
E.g.: adv-ise
compr-ise
These are some of the commonest verbs ending in -ise:
advertise
improvise
compromise
promise
despise
revise
devise
supervise
disguise
surpise
exercise
televise
You will find more information about this suffix and its two variants in Chapter 11,
A 1.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Modal verbs
Modal verbs have been dealt with previously in this book (Chapter 1, B 5;
Chapter 3, B 5 ; Chapter 6, B 4 & 5 ; Chapter 9, B 7 ; Chapter 10, B 3), so review
these chapters before completing the exercise.
2. Word formation: noun / adverb / adjective
Review the formation of nouns, adverbs and adjectives (look in the A section of all
previous chapters), and then complete exercise 2.
3. Prepositions: with, against, in, about
As was explained in Chapter 7, B 3, some words in English are often followed by
the same preposition. The following list contains some of the most common
combinations between adjectives/verbs and the prepositions against, in and
about. (See Chapter 5, b 5 and Chapter 7, B 3 for the preposition with). Notice
that the meaning of the lexical verb does not change, as it may happen with
phrasal verbs, and don’t forget that the following patterns are sometimes different
from the ones you can find in Spanish. If you need additional examples, check
your monolingual dictionary.
a) VERB/ADJECTIVE + against:
insure against
be prejudiced against
protest against
react against
rebel against
warn against (or about)
b) VERB/ADJECTIVE + in:
believe in
delight in
be engaged in
be experienced in
be included in
indulge in
be interested in
invest in
get involved in
persist in
take pride in (V + N + in)
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c) VERB/ADJECTIVE + about:
be angry about
be annoyed about
be anxious about
be certain about
be clear about
be concerned about
be crazy about
be curious about
be doubtful about
be excited about
be glad about
be happy about
be hesitant about
be honest about
joke about
laugh about
be mad about
be mistaken about
be positive about
be puzzled about
be sad about
be selfish about
be sensible about
be sensitive about
be serious about
be sincere about
sing about
be sorry about
speak about
be sure about
talk about
tell (someone) about
think about
be/get upset about
be wrong about
worry about
4. Present Perfect / Past Simple
As we saw in a previous chapter, the Present Perfect refers to an indefinite time
or event that is previous to the moment of speaking but which is in some way
connected to the present. The Simple Past, however, refers to an event that
occurred in the past and which is disconnected from the present time of speaking.
(See Chapter 7, B 2 for further details).
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The Simple Past is frequently used with an adverb or an adverbial phrase
expressing a definite time (last week, at two o’clock, etc.), whereas the Present
Perfect is generally used without an adverb or with adverbs or adverbial phrases
indicating an indefinite time (yet, lately, up to now, etc.).
E.g.: I had an e-mail from Catherine last week.
Past Simple
I went out on Saturday night and I got home at two o’clock in the morning.
Past Simple
Have you met my girlfriend yet?
Present Perfect
Have you talked to John lately?
Present Perfect
5. Preposition + Noun + Preposition: in... of / on... of / in... to
In English there are some fixed expressions following this pattern:
Preposition + Noun + Preposition
These are some of the most common:
in ... of
on ... of
in … to
in charge of
in danger of
in favour of
in honour of
in need of
in possession of
in receipt of
in respect of
in search of
in spite of (= despite)
on account of
on behalf of
on receipt of
on top of
in addition to
in answer to
in order to
in relation to
in reply to
in response to
Consider these examples:
…entirely happy, in spite of the great importance of their contribution to our
thinking on the subject. (lines 3-4)
She made a long trip to Asia, in search of her spiritual self.
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The secretary spoke on behalf of her boss.
I am writing in response to your letter of March 20, in order to…
6. It as subject
Apart from referring to specific objects, the pronoun it can refer to a situation, a
process, a fact, or an extraposed subject. Very frequently, it can be non-referring,
its presence being only due to the need, in English, for an overt syntactic subject.
We are here going to study three of these uses: a) Anticipatory it; b) Prop it and c)
the it used in cleft sentences.
a) Anticipatory it + extraposed subject
Consider the following examples, in which the extraposed subject is realized by a
non-finite clause (i) and a finite clause (ii):
ii. It was very difficult for me to understand that theory.
Extraposed subject
ii. It was obvious that he didn’t want to be there.
Extraposed subject
In these examples the finite or non finite clause is said to be extraposed or placed
after the complement or object, and the initial subject position is obligatorily filled by
the pronoun it, which is usually called “anticipatory it”. As illustrated in the examples,
extraposed subjects generally occur in Subject + Verb + Subject Complement
structures, in which the Complement of the subject is realized by an adjective.
b) Prop it
Prop it is normally distinguished from anticipatory it in that prop it is an empty
subject used in expressions of time, distance and atmospheric conditions:
E.g.: It’s almost midnight. We should be going.
It is 250 miles from Washington to New York.
It was raining and I didn’t have an umbrella.
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From the syntactic point of view, English requires here the presence of a subject
in order to distinguish between declaratives and interrogatives, but from the
semantic point of view, it can be said that the situations expressed do not contain
any participant; they only contain processes, attributes, locatives or other
circumstancials (rain, midnight, etc.).
c) It in cleft sentences
The cleft sentence construction is used in English to front and assign focus to an
element we want to emphasize for some communicative reason. By clefting a
clause we split it in two parts and front the one we want to highlight, providing
thematic prominence. We can distinguish two types of cleft sentences: the it-type
and the wh-type. Analyze the following examples and see how any part of the
sentence can be given prominence by means of clefting:
E.g.: George visited Doctor Jones for further advice last Thursday.
It was George who visited Doctor Jones for further advice last Thursday.
It was Doctor Jones that George visited for further advice last Thursday14.
It was for further advice that George visited Doctor Jones last Thursday.
It was last Thursday that George visited Doctor Jones for further advice.
The element that comes after the verb to be receives prominence and therefore it
represents the new information.
Notice that, when an infinitive is the subject of the sentence, the cleft
construction generally begins with it, and the infinitive comes later.
E.g.: To give up smoking is an intelligent decision.
It is an intelligent decision to give up smoking. (it-type cleft
sentence)
To find a good driving instructor was difficult.
It was difficult to find a good driving instructor. (it-type cleft
sentence)
14
Note that when the object is a proper noun, that is more common than who.
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6.1. There is another type of cleft sentence which is known as wh-type cleft
sentence (also known as pseudo-cleft). The wh-clause is used to assign focus to
a given element.
E.g.: We need a new car.
What we need is a new car. (wh-type cleft sentence)
A new car is what we need. (wh-type cleft sentence)
They would like to live by the beach.
Where they would like to live is by the beach. (wh-type cleft sentence)
The wh-cleft fulfils three major functions in discourse:
1) to refer retrospectively to a previous part of the discourse.
E.g.: I didn’t mean that; what I meant was that I wanted you all to come
over for dinner tonight.
2) to introduce a new topic (but notice that the new topic is in the non-wh- part:
E.g.: What you should do is quit smoking.
(new topic)
3) to correct a previous statement:
E.g.: A: I can’t do all the housework.
B: Why don’t you get someone to help you?
A: I cannot afford a maid.
B: No, what I meant was that you should perhaps ask your husband
to help you.
6.1.1. We should take into account that when the emphasized element in the
sentence is a person, the wh-element is rarely used. Instead, we use the one
who/that.
E.g.: Your brother could help us with this computer program.
The one who could help us with this computer program is your
brother.
(The following sentence would be ungrammatical: *Who could help us with this
computer program is your brother)
6.1.2. We can use a wh-cleft sentence construction to emphasize an action or
event. This is not possible with the it-type cleft pattern.
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E.g.: He mowed the lawn.
What he did was mow the lawn. (wh-type cleft sentence)
7. At / to / of / about
As explained in section B 3 above, some words in English often collocate with a
given preposition. The following list contains some frequent adjectives and verbs
that are generally followed by the prepositions at and to. (See section B 3 above
for about and Chapter 7, B 3 for the preposition of). Notice that the following
patterns are sometimes different from the ones you can find in Spanish. If you
need additional examples, consult your monolingual dictionary.
a) VERB/ADJECTIVE + at:
be amazed at
hint at
be amused at
be hopeless at
arrive at
marvel at
be astonished at
peep at
be bad at
be quick at
be brilliant at
be shocked at
be clever at
stare at
be an expert at
be surprised at
be good at
be weak at
guess at
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b) VERB/ADJECTIVE + to:
be accustomed to
be inferior to
be allergic to
invite someone to
be answerable to
look forward to
appeal to
be married to
apply to
object to
be attentive to
react to
be averse to
be reduced to
be blind to
respond to
challenge someone to
be similar to
be close to
be subject to
be confined to
submit to
be contrary to
surrender to
be due to
be used to
be entitled to
yield to
be faithful to
be harmful to
8. Of / from
These prepositions were presented in Chapter 7, B 3. If you need additional
examples that you cannot find in this book, consult your monolingual dictionary.
9. Order of adjectives
In English, unlike Spanish, adjectives usually precede the noun they modify.
Sometimes we may have more than one adjective preceding the noun and in that
case they should follow the order shown below.
Opinion + Size + Age + Shape + Colour + Origin + Material + Purpose
See the following examples:
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E.g.: An ugly old china15 tea-pot. (Opinion + Age + Material)
A round glass table (Shape + Material)
A nice red Spanish T-shirt (Opinion + Colour + Origin)
A long walking stick (Size + Purpose)
9.1. Notice that some adjectives such as little, old and young are often used as
part of the noun and, therefore, they do not give additional information. So, they
are generally placed next to the nouns they qualify.
E.g.: Her daughter is a nice little girl.
When these adjectives are used to provide information, they follow the pattern
shown above.
10. Nominal -ing clauses as objects
Sometimes an -ing clause can have a subject different from the subject of the
main clause. This subject can be in the genitive case as well as in the objective
case. Thus, we can use two different constructions with similar meanings.
E.g: I missed your (Mary’s) standing by me.
Genitive
I missed you (Mary) standing by me.
Objective
He didn’t approve of his (Tim’s) leaving the company.
Genitive
He didn’t approve of him (Tim) leaving the company.
Objective
15
Note that china refers to the material and not the origin.
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Notice the following considerations regarding the use of the genitive:
❖ The genitive is preferred (instead of the objective pronoun) if the subject
of the -ing clause is a pronoun, it has personal reference and the style is
formal.
E.g.: Her Royal Highness does not mind your visiting the castle.
❖ The genitive is avoided when the noun phrase (-ing clause subject) is
too long.
E.g.: She would not approve of me spoiling the beautiful little girl
any more.
Notice that perceptual verbs (feel, hear, notice, observe, overhear,
perceive, see, smell, spot, spy, watch, etc.), verbs of encounter (catch,
discover, find, leave, etc.), and causative verbs (get, have), differ from the
monotransitive verbs exemplified above and cannot take the genitive case.
E.g.: The security guard saw him opening the door.
* The security guard saw his opening the door. (ungrammatical)
11. Articles
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1, B 13.
12. As / like
See Chapter 12, section B 9.
CHAPTER 16
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -able / -ible
The suffix -able/-ible combines with nouns to form adjectives. It adds the
meaning “having or showing the quality of the verb”.
Noun
Adjective
comfort
comfortable
envy
enviable (line 59)
fashion
fashionable
memory
memorable
1.1. This same suffix is added to verbs in order to form adjectives, meaning “that
may or must be”.
Verb
Adjective
avoid
avoidable
desire
desirable (line 59)
pay
payable
reverse
reversible
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Note that the ending in -able is much more common than the one in -ible,
probably due to the fact that the -ible variant is mainly restricted to loans from
Latin or forms created in English with Latin bases. Compare, for instance,
English-based eatable and readable with Latin-based edible and legible. There
is still another variant, -uble, which is seen in the loans soluble and voluble.
1.2. Some bases may take both -able and -ible derivatives and in general the
meaning is the same: deductible/deductable, extractable/extractible, etc. However,
there are a few cases where the -able form has a different or more restricted
sense. Compare:
Accessable (able to be accessed, e.g. of a computer file)
Accessible (much more general)
Contractable (of a disease: liable to be contracted)
Contractible (liable to contract/ be caused to contract)
NOTE:
The suffixes -able/-ible are the only ones in English whose primary meaning is modal: -able, when attached to a transitive verb, gives an adjective
with the meaning “capable of being -ed”), which corresponds to a passive
verbal construction.
E.g.: Eatable → capable of being eaten.
Usable → capable of being used.
However, in a few cases the adjective may have an active interpretation,
as in:
Perishable → liable to perish.
And there are cases where both interpretations are possible, as in:
Adaptable → able to adapt or to be adapted.
Changeable → able to change or to be changed.
The modal meaning is normally equivalent to that of can, though sometimes it is stronger, like must or will. Compare:
That is an unanswerable question. (can’t be answered)
The Secretary is answerable to the jury. (has to/must answer)
The bill is payable at any bank. (can be paid)
The bill is payable by April 21. (must be paid)
For a general introduction to word formation and affixation see Chapter 1, A 1.
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297
2. Un- / in- / imThe opposite of the adjectives presented in the previous section can be formed
by adding some prefixes. Adjectives ending in -able usually take the prefix un-,
and adjectives ending in -ible usually (but not always) go with the prefixes in-,
im- (before /p/ or /b/) or ir- (before /r/).
E.g.: bearable → unbearable
changeable → unchangeable
comfortable → uncomfortable
feasible → unfeasible
flexible → inflexible
responsible → irresponsible
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Emphatic use of do
The verb to do is sometimes used in English to show emphasis with affirmative
forms of verbs in the present or imperative (which do not have an auxiliary). In
that case, do / does / did is placed before the main verb whose meaning the
speaker wants to emphasize. See the following examples:
E.g.: I do want to go shopping with you. (I really want to)
Of course, people did sunbathe, but they had…[…] (lines 3-4)
A: It’s a pity she doesn’t want to go out with me
B: But she does want to go out with you! Just tell her!
A: Why didn’t you call me last night?
B: I did call you! Your mobile phone was not operative!
Notice that:
❖ the emphatic use of do / does / did doesn’t have, from the grammatical
point of view, an exact equivalent in Spanish. We add that emphasis by
means of an adverb or adverbial such as: naturalmente, claro que, de
verdad, desde luego, etc.
❖ do / does / did are usually strongly stressed.
E.g.: A: I wish you had seen my performance.
B: But I `did see it! I was sitting in the front row.
1.1. Do with positive imperatives. (Commands)
Emphatic do can also be used with positive commands, to intensify the
imperative in utterances like:
E.g.: Do be quiet!
Do sit down!
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The use of do with an imperative, however, may also express meanings or
intentions different from the explicit one, for instance:
a) When the speaker wants to be persuasive.
E.g.: Do tell me what your oral exam was about.
b) When the speaker wants to show politeness.
E.g.: Do come in and sit down.
In order to minimalise the illocutionary force of emphatic do as a command,
you can use more polite formulas like:
E.g.: Could you / Would you tell me what your oral exam was
about?
2. Introductory it (cleft sentences)
The cleft sentence construction was introduced in Chapter 15, B 6. As explained
there, the cleft sentence is used in English to front an element we want to
emphasie for some communicative reason. By clefting a clause we split it in
two parts and front the one we want to highlight.
Cleft sentences are very common in spoken English and really useful in
writing because they show the reader what the writer wants to emphasize.
Basically, the cleft sentence expresses a divided focus. In spoken language,
the context or intonation will show us what part is given prominence.
Notice that in informal speech the preposition of a prepositional object
may be detached from it when clefting occurs. See the following example:
E.g.: Roger was waiting for me at the entrance hall.
Prep. Object
It was me that Roger was waiting for at the entrance hall.
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3. Would / used to
These two forms can be used to express an action that took place repeatedly and
on a regular basis in the past.
E.g.: When our daughter was a baby, she would wake up several times
during the night.
When our daughter was a baby, she used to wake up several times
during the night.
These two sentences have similar meanings and express a habitual past.
However, used to can also show a situation in the past as in the following
examples:
E.g.: John used to live near here.
I used to belong to a youth club.
For many speakers, this unit is both an auxiliary and a lexical verb, the former
belonging to a somewhat more formal style. For some others, especially younger
ones, the auxiliary form is non-existent. Compare:
E.g.: Did he use to live near here? He didn’t use to live near here.
(Lexical verb)
Used he to live near here? He usedn’t to live near here. (Auxiliary,
less frequent)
NOTES:
a) Used to can not be used in sentences expressing a definite time in the past.
E.g.: Tom used to take piano lessons when he was young.
(Indefinite time)
Tom took piano lessons between 1981 and 1985. (Definite time)
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b) The multi-word unit used to is a fixed one and has no present tense.
Thus, we can say that, morphologically, use is highly defective: it has no
present tense, no gerund-participle and no past participle. To express
durability in the present, we can use an adverb (usually, normally, etc.)
instead.
E.g.: Ann and Jake usually go to the cinema on weekends.
c) The choice between the negative variants is sometimes avoided in
informal style by using never:
E.g.: I never used to smoke.
Julia never used to let her son watch TV.
d) Used to is semantically distinct from modal auxiliaries in that the meaning
expressed is aspectual, not modal.
4. Non-defining relative clauses
Defining and non-defining relative clauses were introduced in Chapter 4, B 1. For
more details about relative pronouns see Chapter 9, B 5, and for relative
pronouns dominated by a preposition see Chapter 7, B 6.
5. Uses of the infinitive: too + adj/adv + for someone /
something + to-inf.
One of the uses of the infinitive can be seen in the following construction:
Too + adjective / adverb + for someone / something + to-infinitive
1
2
3
Too indicates a negative meaning and a negative result of the action described
by the verb.
E.g.: This lap top is very expensive. I cannot afford it.
This lap top is too expensive for me to buy.
1
2
3
Your suitcase is very heavy. I cannot carry it.
Your suitcase is too heavy for me to carry.
1
2
3
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Here the to-infinitive is part of the prepositional phrase which functions as
postmodifier in the adjectival phrases (whose heads are heavy and expensive).
Thus, the infinitive is a constituent of the Adjectival Phrase, but it is an indirect
complement, for it is licensed by too rather than by the adjectives heavy or
expensive.
Notice that the for someone / something part of the construction can many
times be omitted:
E.g.: That guy is too good to be true.
That bag is too heavy to carry.
He’s too famous to walk without a body guard.
6. Uses of the infinitive: adj / adv + enough + for
someone / something + to-inf.
In this construction, enough expresses a degree that is at least as high as the
minimum or lower bound:
Adjective / adverb + enough + for someone / something + to-infinitive
1
2
3
E.g.: The cottage is not very big, but I think there is room for the four of us.
The cottage is big enough for us to spend a couple of days.
1
2
3
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303
You do not know how to play cards, but this card game is not very
difficult.
This card game is easy enough for you to play.
1
2
3
In these examples, enough indicates that the cottage is at least as big as needed
for four people to spend there two days, and that the card game is as easy as
necessary for a person who doesn’t know how to play cards to learn. Thus, it can
be said that it generally has a positive meaning and a positive result of the
action described by the verb.
6.1. As can be seen, enough is placed after the adjective it modifies. When it
modifies a noun, however, enough is normally placed before the noun, acting as
a determiner (quantifier):
E.g.: I don’t have enough flour to prepare this cake.
Do you think he has enough courage to do that?
7. Even / even if
This point was introduced in Chapter 3, B 3. We are now only going to revise
some generalities.
Examine the examples in the text (Tanning your hide):
And so it remained throughout the Victorian era when modesty ruled out the
prospect of tanning the flesh, even if anyone thought it remotely desirable. (lines
29-33)
Even skeptics like myself were conditioned to think that being seven shades
darker was somehow desirable. (lines 77-80)
In the first example even is used, together with if (even when could also be
used in this case), as a subordinating conjunction. In the second, we see even
used as an adverb of exception.
7.1. The adverb even is generally used to emphasize something surprising or
unexpected. See the following examples:
E.g.: I recognised her at once, even after all these years.
I even remember one occasion when the police took us for suspects.
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7.2. The subordinating conjunction even if is used to introduce adverbial clauses
of concession such as:
E.g.: Even if she feels better now, she should go to the doctor’s.
(= in spite of the fact that she feels better now)
You must try it out even if she thinks it is useless.
8. Different uses of so: so / so... that / so that
8.1. So is frequently found as an adverbial which joins or links ideas in sentences
or clauses, i.e. as a conjunct. Consider the following examples.
E.g.: A: You told her to go!
B: So it’s my fault, is that it?
C: Basically, I did not feel at ease in America, and…
D: So you were to come back to Europe.
C: Yeah, that’s what I eventually did.
The prices were much higher, so we decided to wait for some time.
8.2. So…that is often used in English with adjectives and adverbs.
So + adjective + (that)
E.g.: It was so noisy that we just paid our bill and left.
The book he recommended to me was so interesting that I couldn’t
stop reading it.
So + adverb + (that)
E.g.: Barbara recovered so quickly that she was as right as rain again
within days.
Patrick and I get on so well that we are thinking about sharing an
apartment.
8.3. The conjunction so that is commonly used to indicate purpose and it means
in order that. See the following examples.
E.g.: The group is limited to twelve students so that individual attention
can be given.
Wrap them in towels so that you can put them next to your skin
without burning.
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9. Prepositions
Review the use of prepositions in previous chapters and then do exercise 9. You
will find an introduction to prepositions in Chapter 1, B 8.
10. Prepositions: from / out of
10.1. The preposition from can have a number of meanings and can be used to
indicate:
a) The place or direction from which something starts.
E.g.: What time does the train from Glasgow arrive?
b) The time at which something starts.
E.g.: I got there too late. The bookshop is open from 10 a.m. to
18:30 p.m.
c) The person who sent, gave or communicated something.
E.g.: You have a message from your mother in the answering machine.
d) The place where somebody or something originates.
E.g.: They speculate that the asteroid comes from Mars.
e) The distance between two places.
E.g.: The City Hall is 200 meters from the library.
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f) The material from which something is made (the material changing in the
process), etc.
E.g.: This tasty sauce is made from onions, tomatoes and cucumbers.
For further details on the uses of this preposition see: Chapter 5, B 6; Chapter 7,
B 3 & 9; Chapter 11, B 6; Chapter 15, B 8.
10.2. The complex preposition out of can have any the following meanings:
a) To go away from the inside of a place.
E.g.: Freddy jumped out of his aquarium and died.
b) To be at a distance from a place.
E.g.: Their mobile home broke down 200 kilometres out of Pittsburgh.
c) To select from among a number.
E.g.: The English teacher was chosen out of many candidates.
d) Lacking something, without something, etc.
E.g.: Next time we go to the supermarket, don’t forget we are out of
sugar.
For further details on the uses of out of see Chapter 1, B 10.2 and Chapter 5, B
6.3.1.
11. Articles
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1, B 13.
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12. Duration adverbials: until… / all day / for years /
to this day
Examine the use of these adverbials in the text:
Until forty-nine years ago, lying in the sun was only ever regarded as a
punishment to be faced with Christian resignation. (lines 7-10)
…Let me lie in the sun all day to make this possible”. (lines 14-16)
It simply wasn’t an attractive option and for years the white man remained
heroically untanned. (lines 20-22)
…which turned over the years into what we now call Ambre Solaire, to this day
the market leader of the 20m pound suntan industry. (lines 66-69)
See some other common uses of these duration adverbials:
12.1. Until… (hasta): As a preposition and conjunction, until (or till) has a
meaning similar to since, except that it names the end-point rather than the
beginning point of a period:
E.g.: You are supposed to remain seated until the ceremony finishes
(= from now to the end of the ceremony)
Until now, he has had little success in his job. (= from the past to
now)
NOTE: Until or till can replace the preposition to in the construction from…to:
E.g.: I stayed at my friend’s house from Monday till Saturday.
12.2. All day (In Spanish: (durante) todo el día)
E.g.: I would say they have food available all day.
12.3. For years (In Spanish: durante/por años)
E.g.: The US tried to block imports from some European countries for
years.
12.4. To this day (In Spanish: hasta hoy; al día de hoy)
E.g.: To this day I still don’t know why she left without saying goodbye.
CHAPTER 17
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Noun formation: -ist and -er / -ar / -or
1.1. -ist: This is a very productive suffix. There is a paradigmatic relation between
-ist and -ism, as can be seen in the following table. The words in -ism denote
various philosophies or systems of belief; the -ist derivative denotes a person
holding these beliefs:
-ism
extremism
atheism
exorcism
racism
sexism
idealism
-ist
extremist
atheist
exorcist
racist
sexist
Idealist
Some nouns in -ist also have their counterparts in -y. Examine the following:
-y
theory
colony
diary
military
therapy
antropology
-ist
theorist
colonist
diarist
militarist
therapist
antropologist (line 7)
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As can be seen, -ist normally forms nouns from nouns.
This suffix is also used as the main way of forming nouns denoting persons
playing particular musical instruments: cymbalist, pianist, trombonist, violinist,
cellist, harpist. Drummer and trumpeter are exceptions to this pattern, having the
suffix -er, which we are going to see in the next point.
NOTE: Nouns in -ist can not normally take an of phrase corresponding to
the object of the verb, as is the case with nouns having the suffix -er, i.e.,
we can say ‘the writer of this book’ but NOT ‘the typist of this book’.
1.2. -er/-or/-ar: These derivational morphemes are best regarded as variants of
the same suffix. -er is by far the most frequent of the three, and it is found
attached to a considerable range of bases, as can be seen in the following table:
Base
Noun in -er
Verbs → Sing
Admire
Lose
Erase
Boil
Bake
Singer
Admirer
Loser
Eraser
Boiler
Baker
Nouns → Golf
Petition
Execution
New York
Trumpet
Golfer
Petitioner
Executioner
New Yorker
Trumpeter
Numerals → Five
Twenty-nine
Fiver
Twenty-niner
Adverbs → Once
Oncer
Adjectives → Southern
Foreign
Southerner
Foreigner
Compound bases → Fast-track
Do-good
Nine-to-five
Baby-boom
Fast-tracker
Do-gooder
Nine-to-fiver
Baby-boomer
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The -ar variant of this suffix does not occur very frequently and is found in words
such as beggar, bursar, liar.
-or generally occurs in words of Latin origin having a bound base or following the
suffix -ate:
Bound bases: author, traitor, doctor, tailor.
Bases in -ate: activator, terminator, animator, navigator.
Other verb bases: executor, director, prosecutor, conductor, confessor, editor.
Notice that, with some bases, both the -er ad -or spellings of the suffix are
found:
E.g.: adapt
advise
→ adapter or adaptor
→ adviser or advisor
convene → convener or convenor
execute
→ executer or executor
2. Suffix -or
See point A 1 right above (in this chapter).
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. -ing form: gerund and continuous tenses
As explained in the main course book, the -ing form can be used as a verbal
noun (gerund) or it may form part of any of the continuous tenses, as seen in the
following examples:
It appears, however, that they were scavenging other carnivore kills rather than
hunting themselves,…[…] (lines 39-42) (Past continuous)
It was scavenging –not hunting– that seems to have led humans into the traits
from which civilization arose. (lines 44-46) (Gerund)
But lately anthropologists have begun poking through the garbage of history.
(lines 7-9) (Present perfect continuous)
Notice that in the text (The menus of early man) there are also cases of the
-ing form functioning as a modifier of a noun in a noun phrase, i.e., as an
adjective:
E.g.: Nearby lie primitive stone butchering tools. (lines 25-6)
NP
… -probably because the leftovers of other animals were no
longer sufficient to support their growing numbers. (lines 68-71)
NP
For a detailed description and explanation of the traditionally-called ‘continuous
tenses’, see Chapter 2, B 6; Chapter 8, B 7 and Chapter 10, B 1 & B 2. For the
uses of the gerund, see Chapter 4, B 2; Chapter 10, B 5, 6 & 7, Chapter 11, B 4;
Chapter 12, B 3; Chapter 14, B 4 and Chapter 15, B 10.
2. Verbs followed by the infinitive or the -ing form
This grammar point was covered in Chapter 4, B 2, Chapter 10, B 7 and
Chapter 12, B 3.
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3. Verbs always taking a gerund or an infinitive
See the same chapters as for B 2 above.
4. Use of the -ing form after prepositions
This topic is explained in Chapter 10, B 5, Chapter 11, B 4 and Chapter 14, B 4.
5. -ing form used as an adjective
In B 1 (this chapter) the student was made aware of the fact that in the text there
are some instances in which the -ing form of a verb is used as an adjective
(see table in B 1).
5.1. As with the past participle (-ed form), it is necessary to distinguish cases in
which the present participle (-ing form) is a verb from those where it is an
adjective. Compare the following examples:
i. You are really annoying me!
(Form of verb)
ii. His behaviour was annoying.
(Participial adjective)
It is interesting to note that, while verbs can take NP objects, adjectives normally
do not. In [i] above, the object me is an indication that annoying must be a verb.
5.2. Verbs like seem take Adjectival Phrases as complement, but not participial
clauses. Therefore, they can substitute for be in b) but not in a):
a) Those children are annoying their teachers. (But NOT: * Those children
seem annoying their teachers) (Verb)
b) Those children are/seem annoying. (Adjective)
6. Definite, indefinite and zero articles
See Chapter 1, B 13 for a complete account of this point.
7. Correlative coordination: not only… but
7.1. Coordination: The conjunctions and, or and but are used to link together
clauses, phrases or words.
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E.g.: I’ll do the dishes and you’ll vacuum the carpet. (Coordination of
clauses)
Katie is always very nice, but she can be fierce if you touch any of
her children.
He wants to buy a small house or an apartment. (Coordination of
noun phrases)
He was so ugly and dirty that no woman wanted to talk to him.
(Coordination of words)
We say that the coordination is syndetic if a coordinator is used. If no conjunction
is used we speak of asyndetic coordination, as in the following examples:
E.g.: She had dinner, (and) then she went to bed
He doesn’t like crowds, (and) yet he often goes to the stadium to see
the Real Madrid play.
7.2. Correlative coordination: The coordination of two structures is sometimes
made more emphatic by the use of correlative conjunctions such as both…and,
either… or, neither…nor, not only…but (also), etc. Here we are going to focus on
not only…but (also) because this is the main point of the corresponding
exercise in the main course. Consider the example in the text and the other
ones, in which these conjunctions are coordinating two wh-clauses:
E.g.: “Scientists examine piles of garbage to discover not only what kind of
food prehistoric man ate but how he got it” (lines 19-21)
It’s not only what you know, but who you know.
I wondered not only where he was, but also what he might be doing.
These correlative conjunctions can also link structures other than clauses.
Examine the following:
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E.g.: He gave me not only flowers but also a box of chocolates. (Coord.
of NP’s)
That politician was not only irresponsible but also corrupt. (Coord. of
words)
➢ but can be omitted when it introduces a main clause:
E.g.: Not only was she beautiful, she was also a very good person.
➢ not only can be repeated in layered coordination:
E.g.: He was different from his workmates not only in that he worked
harder than anyone, not only in that he had a superior
intelligence, but also in that he was a much more honest person.
8. Interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs
8.1. Interrogative pronouns: Interrogative and relative pronouns make a
distinction between personal (who) and non personal (what or which). Examine
the following table.
Interrogative pronouns
Personal
Subject
WHO
Object
WHOM/WHO
Possessive
WHOSE
Non-personal
Subject/object
WHAT
Personal and non personal
(when the choice is
restricted)
Subject/object
WHICH
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8.1.1. Examples of the use of interrogative pronouns as subject and as object:
Who takes care of the lawn in this house? (Subject)
Who did you invite? (Object)
Whom did you invite? (Object, formal English)
Whose (house) is for sale? (Subject)
Whose (book) are you going to borrow? (Object)
Which (of them) is the tallest? (Subject)
Which (car) did you buy? (Object)
What makes you think that? (Subject)
What did you eat? (Object)
What is a general interrogative used for things.
E.g.: What’s your favourite color?
What do you want?
What + action + for? is similar in meaning to Why?:
E.g.: What do you want the knife for? (= Why do you want the knife?)
What + be … like? is a request for a description or comment:
E.g. A: What is she like?
B: Oh, she is the most beautiful and gorgeous woman I’ve seen in my
entire life.
What is s/he? means ‘What is his/her profession?’:
E.g.: A: What is her boyfriend?
B: He’s a computer man.
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When which refers to people, it cannot be used alone as the subject of a verb; it
is essential to add ‘of + objective pronoun’:
E.g.: Who knows how to prepare cup-cakes?
But
Which of you knows how to prepare cup-cakes?
8.2. Interrogative adverbs: Why, when, where, how
Why means ‘For what reason?’:
E.g.: A: Why did you do such a horrible thing?
B: Because I was in a desperate situation.
Where means ‘In what place?’
E.g.: A: Where are my gloves?
B: In the top drawer of our chest.
When means ‘at what time or period’
E.g.: A: When did men live in caves?
B: In the Stone Age.
How means ‘in what way?’ or ‘by what means’:
E.g.: A: How did you get to that faraway place?
B: By boat and then by riding on a camel.
How is also used with adjectives and adverbs, and with
much and many:
E.g.: How strong is that karate student? (Adj.)
How old are the twins? (Adj.)
How much sugar do you need? (Uncountable)
How many apples did he eat? (Countable)
How fast can you run? (Adv.)
How well can you speak Russian? (Adv.)
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Notice the difference between:
a) How is your sister? (an inquiry about your sister’s health)
What is your sister like? (a request for the description of your sister)
b) How are you? (an inquiry about your health)
How do you do? (a greeting, not a question)
9. Prepositions in and at
For a general account of prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8. Explanations and
examples about the prepositions in and at are found in Chapter 2, B 4. Also see
Chapter 1, B 10 and Chapter 3, B 6
10. Relative pronouns
This point was explained and exemplified in Chapter 7, B 6.
CHAPTER 18
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Compound adjectives: N, Adj. or Adv. + Past participle
or adjective ending in -ed
An example of this type of compound adjective is found in the text corresponding
to this chapter (Sales):
He admitted it took some of the fun out of the Christmas Day celebrations and he
was, shall we say, a little battle fatigued from his day out at the Oxford
Streetsales,…[…] N + -ed (lines 17-21)
1.1. The pattern N + -ed, based on the passive use of the past participle, is a
very productive one. Consider these examples:
safety-tested
family-oriented
home-made
self-directed
drug-related
money-linked
These compounds generally correspond to syntactic passives with a prepositional
phrase: tested for safety, made at home, related to drugs, oriented towards the
family, etc. Self is often found as a first component: self-taught, self-appointed,
self-conceited, self-possessed, self-promoted, etc.
1.2. The pattern Adj./ Adv. + -ed is less productive,
except for the subtype illustrated by Italian-based,
having proper names of countries and other locations
as first element.
E.g.: high-set new-born clean-shaven
French-based
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Within this pattern there are some compounds that are semantically related to
clauses involving the active rather than the passive use of the verb, such as:
plain-spoken
well-behaved
well-versed
short-lived
A person well-versed in Literature, for example, is a person who knows a lot
about Literature; a plain-spoken person applies to a person who speaks plainly,
not to words or whatever that are spoken plainly.
2. Negative prefixes: in- and unThis topic was introduced in Chapter 2, A 2 and Chapter 5, A 2.
The prefixes in- and un- are used to express negation, reversal and removal.
There are five prefixes in English expressing negation: a-, dis-, in-, non-, and
un-. E.g.: asymmetric, atypical, dishonest, disloyal, inflexible, insecure, nonexistent, non-violent, uncommon, unwise.
In- and un- , in their negative sense, attach primarily to adjectives and are found
also in many nouns derived from those adjectives: illegality, unfairness, etc. With a
reversative sense, un- normally combines with verbs: unbutton, unlock, unfasten.
Un- is in most cases attached to noun bases when it expresses removal: unhook,
unmask, unharness, etc.
3. Adverbs here/herein and there/therein
The adverbs here and there may form another adverb by the addition of the
preposition in: herein and therein. These adverbs have a relative counterpart
based on where: wherein. These forms are archaic, though they are still regularly
used in formal contexts.
E.g.: Therein lies the first lesson for shopping in the “January Sales” in
Britain. (lines 23-25)
‘Imagine, my dear students, a country wherein no party governs”.
The tables included herein present the statistical results.
The archaic status of wherein can be seen in the fact that it does not require
the auxiliary do in a question and that it allows inversion of subject + lexical
verb, as in:
E.g.: Wherein lies the first lesson for shopping in the “January Sales” in Britain?
Subject
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Past Perfect / Past Perfect Continuous
Review Chapter 3, B 8 for all the tenses, including the combination of Past
Perfect with progressive aspect (‘Past Perfect Continuous’). For the Past Perfect,
see Chapter 4, B 4 & 5 and Chapter 5, B 1 & 2
2. Passive voice
This point was presented and explained in Chapter 6, B 2.
3. The double or oblique genitive. Use of the possessive
pronouns
For the use of the possessive pronouns, see Chapter 5, B 4. For the double
genitive see Chapter 14, B 2.
4. Different uses of that
Depending on how it is used, that can be a determiner, a demonstrative pronoun
or a subordinator.
4.1. When used as a demonstrative, that is considered to be a deictic element,
i.e., an expression whose reference is determined in relation to certain features of
the utterance-act and the extra-linguistic context.
E.g.: Last Christmas, a friend of mine came up with a solution to that
infuriating paradox of British Christmas shopping. (lines 1-3)
(Demonstrative adj. - determiner)
I prefer that magazine over there; not the sensationalist one.
(Determiner - demonstrative adjective)
That is the one I like. (Demonstrative pronoun as subject)
Demonstratives mark the NP as definite (like the definite article). When a speaker
says ‘that house’, for example, s/he assumes that the hearer is able to identify
which house s/he is referring to.
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4.2. That can also be a marker of subordination, as in:
E.g.: She said that he was eager to start a new life
Subordinate Clause
They are most enjoyable if one shops for something that has always
been desired. (lines 25-27)
But not all subordinate clauses are structurally marked as such. In English,
declarative content clauses are prototypically introduced by the subordinator
that, but they can also be found without a marker, as in:
E.g.: Peter knows (that) she will not return.
Tomas said (that) he would never ever visit that place again
Here the underlined clauses are subordinate by virtue of the fact that they
function as complement of to know and to say, but they are structurally identical
to the main clauses She will not return and He would never ever visit that place
again.
NOTES:
➢ Declarative clauses introduced by the subordinator that are called
expanded declaratives or that-declaratives, while those without an
introductory subordinator are known as bare declaratives.
➢ That cannot be omitted if the relativized element is subject of the relative
clause:
E.g.: The woman that was looking at you is my aunt.
Subject of the relative clause
NOT: *The woman [__ was looking at you] is my aunt.
5. Use of the gerund in certain expressions
The text in chapter 18 of the main course book (Sales) contains examples of
some expressions in which the gerund is used:
a) Instead of giving and receiving presents of clothes and household gifts on
Christmas Day,… (lines 3-6)
b) …, it’s worth being a little discriminating. (lines 57-58)
c) Although there is some argument about this, I wouldn’t recommend buying
electrical goods. (lines 66-68)
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5.1. As we have seen in previous chapters, the gerund can be used in different
ways. It normally goes after prepositions; it can be used as subject of the main
clause, it can also replace a NP object, etc. Example a) above is an instance of the
use of the gerund after a preposition. In b) the -ing clause is functioning as an
extraposed subject, and in c) the -ing clause is the direct object of the verb
recommend. In the three examples the -ing clause could be replaced by a Noun
Phrase:
a) Instead of clothes, they received chocolates
NP
b) It’s worth the effort
NP
c) I wouldn’t recommend electrical goods
NP
For more information about the use of the gerund/-ing clauses after prepositions,
see Chapter 10, B 5. For other expressions followed by a gerund, see Chapter
10, B 6; for verbs followed by a gerund see Chapter 10, B 7.
6. Prepositions
For a general view of prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8.
7. Time prepositions
See Chapter 6, B 8 & 9; Chapter 7, B 1 & 9; Chapter 9, B 3
For prepositions in, at, on, see Chapter 2, B 4; Chapter 3, B 6; Chapter 5, B 6.
For the preposition after see Chapter 7, B 9. For between and within, see
Chapter 19, B 6. Here we are going to examine the prepositions before, past
and from… to.
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7.1. Before: As a preposition, before occurs almost exclusively as a preposition
of time. It is generally followed by a temporal noun phrase, an -ing clause without
subject, a noun phrase with a noun derived from a verb (deverbal noun) or some
other noun phrase interpreted as equivalent to a clause.
E.g.: We’ll have to meet sometime before next month.
Temporal NP
I’ll finish this chapter before starting with the proposal.
-ing clause without a subject
All students should report to the gate before dismissal.
Deverbal noun
I used to live in New York before September 11. (= before the
NP equivalent to a clause
September 11 terrorist attacks occurred)
Notice:
➢ the use of before as a space preposition, as in:
E.g.: He was standing before the audience. (= in front of)
➢ The use of before in some expressions, such as:
The day before yesterday.
The Sunday before last.
A week before X day.
etc.
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7.2. Past: The meaning of this preposition is primarily one of orientation:
E.g.: The stadium past the park is the one I want to visit.
It can also be used metaphorically, as in:
E.g.: That was past (beyond) any expectation.
NOTE:
Past is very commonly used as a time preposition (meaning “after” when
talking about the hour of day:
E.g.: It’s half past eight
It’s quarter past twelve, etc.
7.3. From…to: As we saw in Chapter 5, B 6, from is a preposition that points to
a source, while to denotes a goal. When combined, they may have the following
meanings:
E.g.: They travelled from New Zealand to Australia. (Starting point/
destination)
This is a special present from me to you. (Originator/ recipient)
I will be studying from early in the morning to late at night. (Starting
time/ finishing time)
8. Articles
See Chapter 1, B 13.
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9. Use of adverbial expressions: a few days after (later),
the day after, in the queue, in the January Sales,
outside + NP, around + NP, even for + NP, a year before
Examine the use of these expressions in the text:
… only to see the very same items on sale in the shops a few days after at halfprice,… (lines 6-8)
The day after Boxing Day, he was in the queue outside the Oxford Street store
and returned home eventually with a winter coat… (lines 10-13)
Therein lies the first lesson for shopping in the “January Sales” in Britain. (lines
23-25)
The January Sales (most of them actually start o or around December 27) are
now a tradition in British life. (lines 31-33)
Even for the visitor who is uninterested in shopping for bargains, the January
Sales provide excellent examples of all that’s best… (lines 50-53)
An American I once met…[…] told me that the portable television he’d bought a
year before in a large London store… (lines 68-73)
As can be seen, some of these expressions contain prepositions that we have
studied in previous chapters, like before, after, in, for and around. The Spanish for
all these expressions would be:
A few days later → Unos (pocos) días después
The day after → El día después/siguiente
In the queue (American English “in the line”) → En la
cola (esperando su turno)
Outside + NP → Fuera de (algún lugar o circunstancia)
In the January Sales → En las ofertas de Enero
Around + NP → Alrededor de algo (una fecha, un lugar, etc.)
Even for + NP → Aún para algo/alguien
A year before → Un año antes
10. Rather than… / would rather… than
10.1. Rather than is an expression based on comparison. Comparative
constructions resemble coordination because they may relate different types of
structure. Rather than may introduce a constituent that is syntactically coordinate
or subordinate. Examine these examples:
CHAPTER 18
327
E.g.: a) At the beginning of the play, the protagonist listens rather than
talks. (Linking of finite verb phrases)
b) Rather than a vacation, it is a job that I need. (Linking of noun
phrases)
c) You’d better work harder, rather than complain all the time about
your bad luck. (A clause used to show preference introduced by
the subordinator rather than)
10.2. The expression would prefer + to-infinitive (hypothetical preference) can be
replaced by would rather + bare infinitive, followed in many cases by a thanconstruction:
E.g.: He’d rather die than accept that proposal.
A: Are you coming with us?
B: No, I’d rather stay at home.
CHAPTER 19
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Plurals of words of Latin and Greek origin
The influence of Latin and Greek on the English language has taken place on
different occasions throughout the history of English. That is one of the reasons
why some words blended into the English lexicon to a larger degree than others.
So, there are words with a Latin or Greek origin which form their plural in the
regular way, i.e., by adding –s. Some other words have kept their original plural
endings (inflectional morphemes). See the following table:
Ending
-us (Latin)
E.g.: cactus, fungus, radius,
stimulus, etc.
Latin / Greek plural
-i (pronounced /-ai/)
E.g.: cacti, fungi, radii, stimuli,
etc.
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Ending
Latin / Greek plural
-a (Latin)
E.g.: alga, formula, larva, vertebra,
etc.
-ae /-i/
E.g.: algae, formulae, larvae,
vertebrae, etc.
-um (Latin)
E.g.: addendum, bacterium,
curriculum, datum, erratum, medium, memorandum, stratum, etc.
-a /-ə/
E.g.: addenda, bacteria,
curricula, data, errata, media,
memoranda, strata, etc.
-ex (Latin)
E.g.: index, etc.
-ices /-isiz/
E.g.: indices, etc.
-ix (Latin)
E.g.: appendix, matrix, etc.
-ices /-isiz/
E.g.: appendices, matrices, etc.
-is (Greek)
E.g.: analysis, axis, basis, crisis,
diagnosis, hypothesis, oasis,
parenthesis, synopsis, thesis,
etc.
-es /-iz/
E.g.: analyses, axes, bases,
crises, diagnoses, hypotheses,
oases, parentheses, synopses,
theses, etc.
-on (Greek)
E.g.: criterion, phenomenon, etc.
-a /-ə/
E.g.: criteria, phenomena, etc.
The following words are in the process of being assimilated in the English
language and can be found with a regular English plural as well as with a Latin or
Greek one: appendix, terminus, maximum, memorandum, cactus, nucleus,
formula, etc.
Notice that some words with a Latin or Greek origin have been completely
assimilated: bonus, circus, bus, encyclopedia, album, museum, campus,
virus, demon, neutron, etc.
2. -ist / -ian (noun / adjective formation)
These two suffixes are often used in English to describe a person’s nationality,
interest, profession, etc., as in the following examples:
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CHAPTER 19
biologist
Iranian
pianist
plebeian
pacifist
musician
fascist
mathematician
2.1. -an/ -ian: These derivational suffixes are found in a great number of names
of persons and places. E.g.: Uruguayan, Tibetan, Lutheran, Elizabethan,
Christian, etc. The -ian variant is currently very productive and much more
widely used than -an with personal names. Especially with geographical names,
the base ends in a, ia, or e. E.g.: African, American, Hawaiian, Indian, Chilean,
European, etc.
Occasionally, there is variation between -an and -ian, as in Alabaman,
Alabamian.
Some bases in o drop the o before -an. E.g.: Mexico → Mexican
Morocco → Moroccan
San Francisco → San Franciscan
Note, however, the exceptional Chicagoan.
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Note that the commonest endings to form adjectives referring to Nationality
are the following:
1442443
-ese
Name of country +
-(i)an (or -n)
-ish (or -sh, or -ch)
-i
E.g.: Argentina
Argentinian
Portugal
Portuguese
Australia
Australian
China
Chinese
Belgium
Belgian
Vietnam
Vietnamese
Brazil
Brazilian
Iraq
Iraqui
Canada
Canadian
Israel
Israeli
Egypt
Egyptian
Pakistan
Pakistani
Germany
German
Denmark
Danish
Hungary
Hungarian
Finland
Finnish
India
Indian
Poland
Polish
Italy
Italian
France
French
Mexico
Mexican
Britain
British
Norway
Norwegian
Scotland
Scottish
Romania
Romanian
Russia
Russian
Scandinavia
Scandinavian
Venezuela
Venezuelan
For the suffix –ist, see Chapter 17, A 1.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Present Simple / Present Continuous
This grammar point was introduced in Chapter 8, B 7. For verbs which are not
normally used in the continuous tenses, see Chapter 2, B 6.3.
2. Order of adjectives
For a full explanation of the order of adjectives in English, see Chapter 15, B 9.
The pattern presented in Chapter 15 can be very useful when you have more
than one adjective used attributively, i.e., before the noun.
Note that adjectives can also be linked with a comma (,) or the conjunction
and in some cases such as:
a) With color adjectives.
E.g.: A red and white checked shirt.
b) With adjectives used predicatively.
E.g.: I found the play slow and boring.
c) When the writer wants to give equal importance to each adjective.
E.g.: Jacqueline is pretty, intelligent and kind. She’s got everything.
3. Quantity and distribution
For a short introduction to this Grammar Point see Chapter 9, B 10 and Chapter
13, B 11.
3.1. Every.
Every is used to refer to various people or things considered individually, but
being part of a group of two or more people/things.
E.g.: Every candidate should have brought his own dictionary.
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Every can function as a determiner and can be followed by (a) a count noun in
the singular or (b) the pronoun one:
E.g.: a) As they are on holidays, they go out for a drink every night.
b) Like every one else, I had to wait in the line.
3.2. Each.
Each is used to point to individuals which are part of a group and to refer to them
one by one.
E.g.: Each candidate was given a printed copy of the test.
Each can be followed by (a) a count noun in the singular, (b) the pronoun one
or, (c) it can appear on its own:
a) In the USA each university sets its own admission policy.
b) Each one of these handmade teapots is unique.
c) I bought three cushions for 5 € each.
3.3. Several.
Several is a quantifier that can only be used with countable nouns. See the
following examples.
E.g.: The doctors are trying several types of therapy for heart attacks.
Several studies show that a healthy diet and exercising prevents
heart attacks.
For quantity and distribution determiners all, many, much, both, half, see Chapter
9, B 10.
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4. -ing clause replacing a relative clause
An -ing clause can function as a postmodifier similar to a relative clause, as in
the following examples:
“The first genetically-engineered crops will have genes conferring resistance to
herbicides…(lines 89-90)
Post modifier in a NP
(= genes that/which confer resistance…)
The man standing at the door is Jack’s father
Post-modifier in a NP
(= The man who/that stands at the door…)
NOTE: The same phenomenon occurs with both -ed participle clauses
and to-infinitive clauses:
E.g.: The problem to be discussed next week is not precisely your salary,
Mr. Robbins.
Non-finite to-infinitive clause
(The problem that/which is going to be discussed…)
The problem discussed at the meeting yesterday was crucial
Non-finite -ed clause
(The problem that/which was discussed at the meeting….)
5. -ing form after prepositions
The following example from the text exemplifies the use of the gerund after
prepositions:
…an advantage accrues to any rare bacterium that happens to possess a way of
disarming the chemical. (lines 18-21)
The exercise in the course book points out the fact that sometimes a sentence
containing a manner adverbial can be transformed as follows (using a N + of +
-ing structure):
E.g.: Susan tells all kinds of stories in a very sensationalist way.
Her way of telling stories is very sensationalist.
She reacted in a much unexpected way.
Her way of reacting was much unexpected.
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Here the prepositional phrase functions as post-modifier of the noun way. Notice
that the majority of post-modifying prepositional phrases in English begin with the
preposition of, due to the extremely wide range of functions served by this
preposition.
For a more complete description of the use of -ing forms after prepositions, see
Chapter 10, B 5.
6. Prepositions between / among / within
6.1. Between and among.
6.1.1. Between refers to position/movement of something/somebody in relation
to two things (according to a very well-known prescriptive rule). This preposition
may refer to place, time or circumstance. Analyze the following examples:
a) Leeds is located between Manchester and York.
b) Please, do not call me between 10:00 and 12:00 a.m. because I will be on a
plane to London.
c) Nothing cements a friendship between students so much as sharing an
apartment.
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Notice that the restriction to a set of two does not apply to the following
examples, in which among is not acceptable, however.
E.g.: He is always eating sweets between meals. (NOT *among meals)
I have little pebbles between my toes. (NOT *among my toes)
The ball fell somewhere between the car, the tree and the
cottage. (NOT *among the car, the tree and the cottage)
These examples show that the difference between the prepositions
between and among is not a matter of the size of the set in their
complement (i.e., the fact of being two or more), but, rather, that when
using between we consider the members of the set individually, whereas
when using among they are considered collectively.
6.1.2. According to the above-mentioned prescriptive rule, among refers to
position/movement of something/somebody in relation to more than two things.
But, as explained in the box above, it is more a matter of considering the
members of the set all together. This preposition may refer to place or
circumstance. See the following examples:
a) Frodo strolled slowly among the trees.
b) Among her other talents, Julianne Moore can sing very well.
6.1.3. The complement of both between and among is required to be plural from
the semantic point of view. Syntactically, it generally has the form of a plural NP
or an and-coordination of NPs.
E.g.: They were running among the bushes
(Plural NP)
You must choose between the house, the apartment and the cottage
for your vacation.
(And-coordination of NPs)
6.1.4. Verbs such as choose, divide and share can take both prepositions, but
the collective interpretation of among will require a set of more than two.
E.g.: We are going to share the dessert between the two of us. (NOT
*among the two of us)
You will have to choose among/ between them. (when the
complement refers to more than two).
Notice that the form amongst is also used but it sounds more literary.
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6.2. Within.
Within is frequently used to refer to place, meaning “internally” but it may also be
used metaphorically (meaning “in spirit”), or it may have other meanings such as
“not beyond or exceeding”, “not transgressing”, “not further off than”.
a) Since I moved downtown, I can find everything I need
within walking distance. (place, not further off than)
b) When the rattlesnake bit him, he started sweating and
within minutes he became delirious. (not beyond or
exceeding a few minutes)
c) Raymond is always overspending instead of trying to live
within his income. (not exceeding his financial capacity)
Adjuncts with within/in are also found in clauses expressing achievements or
accomplishments. They suggest that the duration was somewhat short in relation
to some norm or expectation.
E.g.: He finished the project in/within two days.
She wrote that book in/within seven months.
7. Comparatives and superlatives
Examine the examples of comparatives and superlatives in the text (How bugs
and pests rout the chemist) and then go to Chapter 1, B 6 in this book, where you
will find an extensive explanation of comparatives and superlatives. See also
Chapter 8, B 4.
8. Space prepositions: to / from / at / in / into
For a general introduction to space prepositions see Chapter 1, B 8. You can find
further explanations of the use of these prepositions in the following chapters:
To: Chapter 5, B 6.1.
From: Chapter 5, B 6.4.; Chapter 7, B 9.5.
At: Chapter 2, B 4.1.
In: Chapter 2, B 4.2.
Into: Chapter 1, B 9.
9. Articles
For a full account of the definite/indefinite/zero articles see Chapter 1, B 13.
CHAPTER 20
A) WORD FORMATION
1. Adjective formation: -ive / Noun formation: -tion
For the suffix –ive , see Chapter 12, A 1. For –tion, see Chapter 7, A 2.
2. Adjective formation: -like
This suffix combines with nouns to form adjectives with the meaning
“resembling N”. Some of the words containing this suffix are established, such
as childlike, ladylike or godlike, but in general words formed in this way do not
become established. Since -like has the same form and meaning as a separate
morpheme and word, it is normally considered to be a base (forming
compounds) rather than a suffix (forming derivatives); However, it serves an
adjectivalizing role in the same way as an affix. Examine the following example
in the text:
A Boadicea-like approach (lines 36-37) → an approach resembling Boadicea /
that of Boadicea’s
The use of -like to form adjectives is a very productive process, so it can occur
with practically every noun if the speaker considers it necessary or appropriate for
the purposes of discourse:
Picasso-like → like Picasso/ resembling Picasso
Adult-like → resembling an adult
War-like → like in a war/ resembling the war
etc.
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3. Compound adjectives: Noun /Adj/ Adv + present
participle
3.1. N + present participle: This is a very productive type of compound. The
example in the text shows that the noun corresponds to the object of the verb in
a syntactic construction:
But it was her nose that was breath-taking. (line 23)
(= the nose took the writer’s breath)
V
DO
Other similar examples are:
Ground-breaking results → results that break the ground (metaphorically used)
V
DO
A thought-provoking book → a book that provokes your thought
V
DO
A hair-raising experience → an experience that raises your hair
V
DO
Notice that there is a considerable number of compounds of this type
whose first component is self-:
self-respecting
self-financing
self-pitying
self-loading
self-locking
self-mocking
self-perpetuating
self-propagating
self-raising
self-revealing
self-sealing
self-supporting
etc.
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3.1.1. It is also possible for the noun to correspond to the complement of a
preposition, as in the following examples, where the verbs are intransitive:
Church-going people → people that go to the church.
Comp.
Law-abiding behavior → behavior that abides by the law.
Comp.
Winter-flowering plant → a plant that flowers in winter.
Comp.
NOTE: The compound adjective mouth-watering is an exception in that
the noun mouth is neither the object of the verb nor the complement of a
preposition: it is one’s mouth that waters, therefore mouth is the subject in
the syntactic construction. The head of the main NP is understood to have a
causative role:
A mouth-watering dish → a dish that makes your mouth water.
3.2. Adj / Adv + Present Participle: Verbs like look, taste, smell, seem, etc.,
which take adjectival or adverbial predicative complements, occur in compounds
of this type:
E.g.: A strange-looking person → a person who looks strange
A rancid-smelling cheese → a cheese that smells rancid
A dishonest-seeming proposition → a proposition that seems
dishonest.
A fast-moving train → a train that moves fast.
A slow-running animal → an animal that runs slowly.
Other examples: far-seeing, long-suffering, easy-going, hard-working, goodlooking, etc.
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B) LANGUAGE POINTS
1. Conditional constructions: third type
For this type of conditional, see Chapter 11, B 1.
2. Cleft sentences
This point was introduced and explained in Chapter 16, B 2.
3. Adverbs so and such: so + adj./adv. // such (a/an) +
+ adj. + N
So and such are adverbs that can function as modifiers in an Adjectival Phrase
and as predeterminers (before the indefinite article) in a Noun Phrase. Consider
the example in the text:
It was a nose so charming and so unique that you could not wait to get on more
intimate terms with it. (lines 30-31)
A similar meaning can be obtained by saying:
It was such a charming and unique nose that you could not wait…
These constructions with so and such are degree/ amount constructions which
express a meaning similar to enough and too (see Chapter 15, B 5 & 6):
E.g.: William is so smart that he will surely win the contest.
(= William is smart enough to win the contest)
He was such a good-looking man that no woman could ignore him.
(= He was too good-looking to be ignored by any woman)
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But, apart from this meaning (similar to enough and too), the constructions with
so and such also add a meaning of result expressed by a that-clause:
E.g.: The traffic was so heavy that it took us two hours to return home.
Linda is such an honest person that she returned the money she
found in the street.
The emotive emphasis added to these sentences by so and such can also be
expressed without the that-clause:
E.g.: The traffic was so heavy!
Linda is such an honest person!
Oh, you’re such a darling!
4. Verbs make/let + object + bare infinitive
This point is introduced in Chapter 12, B 1.2. The pattern V + object + bare
infinitive can be observed in constructions with the verbs make and let:
She…[…]… forced words and phrases to do her bidding, making them express
things they were never meant to express. (lines 37-39)
Let it be. (The Beatles)
She made me say things I didn’t want to say.
Don’t you ever let him insult you!
Notice that:
➢ Make is a general causative verb, and so is the verb cause, but while the
object of make is followed by a bare infinitive, the object of cause has to
be followed by a to-infinitive:
E.g.: His lack of responsibility made his family starve.
His lack of responsibility caused his family to starve.
➢ Whereas the bare infinitive is used in the active construction of verbs
such as make and help, the to-infinitive is used in the passive:
E.g.: The teacher made me change the topic of my paper
I was made to change the topic of my paper.
My mother-in-law helped me do the dishes.
I was helped to do the dishes.
In this pattern, the verb let is not used in the passive.
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5. Attributive adjectives
5.1. Most adjectives can be used either attributively or predicatively, but there are
some of them which can only be used in attributive position, such as: former,
occasional, late (meaning “now dead”), inner, sheer, utter, latter, only. All these
adjectives can be related to adverbials:
E.g.: My former husband.
(NOT: *My husband was former.)
(Related to: He was formerly my husband)
Adverb
A hard worker.
(NOT: *The worker was hard.)
(Related to: He works hard)
Adv.
An only child.
(NOT: *The child was only.)
(Related to: They only had one child.)
Adv.
As we can see, attributive adjectives are those functioning as pre-head in the
structure of the NP. They are part of a nominal, and in NPs containing a
determiner they are located between the determiner and the head noun.
5.2. Some attributive adjectives are derived from nouns, such as the following:
E.g.: A medical doctor → a doctor specialized in medicine.
A criminal case → a case concerning crime.
5.3. Notice the difference in meaning between the same adjective used
attributively and predicatively:
ATTRIBUTIVE USE
Example
Spanish translation
PREDICATIVE USE
Example
Spanish translation
His late mother
Su difunta madre
His mother was
late
Su madre llegó
tarde
A perfect
stranger
Un completo
extraño
The stranger
was perfect
El extraño era
perfecto
An old friend
Un viejo amigo
My friend is old
Mi amigo es viejo
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ATTRIBUTIVE USE
Example
PREDICATIVE USE
Spanish translation
Example
Spanish translation
An strong
advocate of…
Un gran defensor
de…
The advocate
was strong
El defensor era
fuerte
The present
Minister
El ministro actual
The Minister is
present
El ministro está
presente
6. Predicative adjectives
6.1. A predicative adjective is one that is used as subject complement after
linking verbs like be, seem, look, feel, etc., or as object complement of verbs like
consider, find, believe, etc.
E.g.: I feel sad about it.
I consider that class extremely interesting.
6.2. Some groups of adjectives are generally restricted to predicative position,
such as the so-called “health adjectives”:
E.g.: She looks perfectly well.
Mr. White is seriously ill.
But notice that the adjective sick can also be used in attributive position:
E.g.: She is a very sick lady.
Another group of predicative adjectives is that of the adjectives formed with the
a- prefix:
asleep
afloat
afraid
ajar
akin
alike
alive
alone
awake
aware
E.g.: I could see it all because the door was ajar.
Shhhh! The baby is asleep!
Adjectives with complements are normally used predicatively:
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A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
E.g.: I am accostumed to eating cereals in
the morning.
She is very fond of flowers.
Some other adjectives, like: glad, content, drunk, sorry, etc., are also used
predicatively:
E.g.: The old man was drunk 16.
She was really sorry.
7. Prepositions
For generalities about prepositions, see Chapter 1, B 8. For the different
prepositions, see previous chapters.
8. Movement prepositions: through, across, along,
down / up, past, over.
For the preposition over, see Chapter 11, B 7. For past, see Chapter 18, B 7.
8.1. Through/ across: The primary locative meaning attached to across and
through is the sense of ‘passage’. There is a parallel between across and on
16
Compare to attributive-only drunken: The drunken old man.
CHAPTER 20
347
and through and in. When using the preposition across we have a surface in
mind, whereas if we use through, we think of a volume. Compare:
E.g.: The bus went across the bridge.
The bus went through the tunnel.
He ran across the field.
He ran through the forest. (We see the forest as a volume because
the vegetation is high)
8.2. Along: The preposition along (meaning ‘from one end towards the other’)
contrasts with across in terms of a horizontal axis: If we take a street as a
horizontal axis, the difference between these two prepositions can be seen in the
following examples:
E.g.: The tourists walked across the “Gran Vía” street in Madrid. (=They
crossed the street, from one sidewalk to the other)
The tourists walked along the “Gran Vía” street in Madrid. (= They
walked from one end of the street to the other; a longer way than
when walking across the same street)
8.3. Up/ Down: Up and down are also used in reference to a horizontal axis:
E.g.: I had to rush up and down the stairs in order to finish the cleaning
on time.
Up and down are many times used metaphorically to refer to:
a) Status: We use expressions like ‘going/climbing up the ladder” to mean we
are achieving a higher status. Consider also the expressions to look up to
someone and look down on someone.
b) Size: Up and down here are used in expressions indicating increase and
decrease in size: blow up a balloon, scale up a map, etc
c) Degree of activity or intensity: This metaphorical use can be seen in
expressions such as: cheer up, speed up, calm down, slow down, settle
down, liven up, etc.
Notice that:
➢ When up and down are used geographically, the choice between them
is many times arbitrary. People sometimes talk about going up or down a
given street, even if there are no slopes going in one or the other
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direction. There are various different geographical metaphors in
connection with travel to cities, places, countries, etc, and they
sometimes conflict.
E.g.: He traveled all the way down from the States to Europe.
(Here there’s no apparent reason to say that Europe is
geographically in a lower position than the States, not even
in the sense of north and south, for the trip implies going
from the West to the East.)
I’m going up to London tomorrow. (Even when this implies
traveling from north to south, because London is considered
to be a more prestigious city.)
➢ Up and down are commonly used in association with north and south
respectively. For instance, Upstate New York is the northern part of the
state. Consider these other examples:
E.g.: My friends live up in Canada.
I want to travel from Germany down to Italy this summer.
9. Prepositions between and among
These prepositions were presented and explained in Chapter 19, B 6.
10. Articles
See Chapter 1, B 13.
LIST OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS
Alphabetical list of common irregular verbs
Infinitive
Past tense
Past Participle
arise /ə raiz/
awake /ə weik/
be /bi/
levantarse, surgir
arisen /ə rizən/
awoken /ə wəυkən/ despertarse
ser, estar
been /bin/
bear /beə/
beat /bit/
become /bi km/
arose /ə rəυz/
awoke /ə wəυk/
was/were /wɔz/
/wr/
bore /bɔ/
beat /bit/
became /bi keim/
begin /bi in/
bend /bend/
bet /bet/
bid /bid/
bind /baind/
bite /bait/
bleed /blid/
blow /blɔυ/
break /breik/
breed /bri/
bring /brin /
broadcast
/ brɔdkɑst/
build /bild/
burn /bn/
began /bi n
bent /bent/
bet /bet/
bid /bid/
bound /baυnd/
bit /bit/
bled /bled/
blew /blu/
broke /brɔυk/
bred /bred/
brought /brɔt/
broadcast
/ brɔdkɑst/
built /bilt/
burnt /bnt/
begun /bi n
bent /bent/
bet /bet/
bid /bid/
bound /baυnd/
bitten /bitən/
bled /bled/
blown /blɔυn/
broken /brɔυkən/
bred /bred/
brought /brɔt/
broadcast
/ brɔdkɑst/
built /bilt/
burnt /bnt/
borne /bɔn/
beaten /bitən/
become /bi km/
Translation
llevar, soportar
batir, golpear, latir
llegar a ser,
hacerse
empezar
doblar(se)
apostar
pujar, apostar
atar, encuadernar
morder
sangrar
soplar
romper
criar, educar
traer
emitir
edificar
quemar, arder
350
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Infinitive
Past tense
Past Participle
burst /bst/
buy /bai/
cast /kast/
catch /ktʃ/
choose /tʃuz/
cling /kliŋ/
come /km/
cost /kɔst/
creep /krip/
cut /kt/
deal /dil/
dig /di /
do /du/
draw /drɔ/
burst /bst/
bought /bɔt/
cast /kast/
caught /kɔt/
chose /tʃəυz/
clung /klŋ/
came /keim/
cost /kɔst/
crept /krept/
cut /kt/
dealt /delt/
dug /d /
did /did/
drew /dru/
dream /drim/
drink /driŋk/
drive /draiv/
dwell /dwel/
eat /it/
fall /fɔl/
feed /fid/
feel /fil/
fight /fait/
find /find/
flee /fli/
fling /fliŋ/
fly /flai/
forbid /fə bid/
forecast / fɔkɑst/
forget /fə et/
forgive /fə iv/
forsake /fə seik/
freeze /friz/
get / et/
dreamt /dremt/
drank /drŋk/
drove /drouv/
dwelt /dwelt/
ate /eit/
fell /fel/
fed /fed/
felt /felt/
fought /fɔt/
found /faυnd/
fled /fled/
flung /flŋ/
flew /flu/
forbade /fə beid/
forecast / fkɑst/
forgot /fə ɔt/
forgave /fə eiv/
forsook /fə suk/
froze /frəυz/
got / ɒt/
give / iv/
go / əυ/
grind / raind/
grow / roυ/
hang /hŋ/
have /hv/
gave / eiv/
went /went/
ground / raυnd/
grew / ru/
hung /hŋ/
had /hd/
estallar
comprar
tirar
atrapar
escoger
adherirse
venir
costar
arrastrarse
cortar
tratar
cavar
hacer
trazar, dibujar,
sacar, tirar
soñar
dreamt /dremt/
beber
drunk /drŋk/
conducir
driven /drivn/
residir
dwelt /dwelt/
comer
eaten /itn/
caer
fallen /fɔlən/
alimentar
fed /fed/
sentir, palpar
felt /felt/
luchar
fought /fɔt/
encontrar
found /faυnd/
huir
fled /fled/
lanzar
flung /flŋ/
volar
flown /fləυn/
forbidden /fə bidn/ prohibir
forecast / fɔkɑst/ predecir
forgotten /fə ɔtn/ olvidar
forgiven /fə ivn/ perdonar
forsaken /fə seikn abandonar
helar, congelar
frozen / frəυzn/
conseguir,
got / ɒt/
obtener, llegar
dar
given / ivn/
ir
gone / on/
moler, triturar
ground / raυnd/
crecer, cultivar
grown / rəυn/
colgar
hung /hŋ/
tener
had /hd/
burst /bst/
bought /bɔt/
cast /kast/
caught /kɔt/
chosen /tʃəυzn/
clung /klŋ/
come /km/
cost /kɔst/
crept /krept/
cut /kt/
dealt /delt/
dug /d /
done /dn/
drawn /drɔn/
Translation
351
LIST OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive
Past tense
Past Participle
Translation
hear /hiə/
hide /haid/
hit /hit/
hold /həυld/
hurt /ht/
keep /kip/
kneel /nil/
knit /nit/
know /nəυ/
lay /lei/
lead /lid/
lean /lin/
leap /lip/
learn /ln/
leave /liv/
lend /lend/
let /let/
heard /hd/
hid /hid/
hit /hit/
held /held/
hurt /ht/
kept /kept/
knelt /nelt/
knit /nit/
knew /nju/
laid /leid/
led /led/
leant /lent/
leapt /lept/
learnt /lnt/
left /left/
lent /lent/
let /let/
heard /hd/
hidden /hidn/
hit /hit/
held /held/
hurt /ht/
kept /kept/
knelt /nelt/
knit /nit/
known /nəυn/
laid /leid/
led /led/
leant /lent/
leapt /lept/
learnt /lnt/
left /left/
lent /lent/
let /let/
lie /lai/
light /lait/
lose /luz/
make /meik/
mean /min/
lay /lei/
lit /lit/
lost /lost/
made /meid/
meant /ment/
lain /lein/
lit/lit/
lost /lost/
made /meid/
meant /ment/
meet /mit/
mistake /mi steik/
met /met/
mistook /mi stυk/
mow /məυ/
pay /pei/
put /pυt/
quit /kwit/
read /rid/
rid /rid/
ride /raid/
ring /riŋ/
mowed /məυd/
paid /peid/
put /pυt/
quit /kwit/
read /red/
rid /rid/
rode /rəυd/
rang /rŋ/
met /met/
mistaken
/mi steikn/
mown /məυn/
paid /peid/
put /pυt/
quit /kwit/
read /red/
rid /rid/
ridden / ridn/
rung /rŋ/
oír
esconder
golpear
sostener, agarrar
hacer daño, doler
guardar, conservar
arrodillarse
tejer, hacer punto
saber, conocer
poner
guiar
apoyar(se)
saltar
aprender
dejar, salir
prestar
permitir, dejar,
alquilar
yacer, tenderse
iluminar, encender
perder
hacer, fabricar
querer decir,
significar
encontrar, conocer
confundir(se)
rise /raiz/
run /rn/
saw /sɔ/
say /sei/
see /si/
seek /sik/
rose /rəυz/
ran /rn/
sawed /sɔd/
said /sed/
saw /sɔ/
sought /sɔt/
risen /rizn/
run /rn/
sawn /sɔn/
said /sed/
seen /sin/
sought /sɔt/
segar
pagar
poner, colocar
dejar, irse
leer
librar
montar, cabalgar
sonar, tocar
el timbre
subir, levantar
correr, dirigir
serrar
decir
ver
buscar
352
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
Infinitive
Past tense
Past Participle
sell /sel/
send /send/
set /set/
sew /səυ/
shake /ʃeik/
shed /ʃed/
shine /ʃain/
shoe /ʃu/
shoot /ʃut/
show /ʃəυ/
shrink /ʃriŋk/
shut /ʃt/
sing /siŋ/
sink /siŋk/
sit/sit/
sleep /slip/
slide /slaid/
sold /səυld/
sent /sent/
set /set/
sewed /səud/
shook /ʃυk/
shed /ʃed/
shone /ʃon/
shod /ʃod/
shot /ʃot/
showed /ʃəυd/
shrank /ʃrŋk/
shut /ʃt/
sang /sŋ/
sank /sŋk/
sat /st/
slept /slept/
slid /slid/
sold /səυld/
sent /sent/
set /set/
sewn /səυd/
shaken /ʃeikn/
shed /ʃed/
shone /ʃon/
shod /ʃod/
shot /ʃot/
shown /ʃəυn/
shrunk /ʃrŋk/
shut /ʃt/
sung/sŋ/
sunk /sŋk/
sat /st/
slept /slept/
slid /slid/
slink /sliŋk/
slit /slit/
smell /smel/
sow /səυ/
speak /spik/
speed /spid/
spell /spel/
spend /spend/
slunk /slŋk/
slit /slit/
smelt /smelt/
sowed /səυd/
spoke /spəυk/
sped /sped/
spelt /spelt/
spent /spent/
spill /spil/
spin /spin/
spit /spit/
split /split/
spoil /spɔil/
spread /spred/
spring /spriŋ/
stand /stnd/
spilt /spilt/
span /spn/
spat /spt/
split /split/
spoilt /spɔilt/
spread /spred/
sprang /sprŋ/
stodd /stυd/
steal /stil/
stick /stik/
sting /stiŋ/
stink /stiŋk/
stride /straid/
strike /straik/
stole /stəυl/
stuck /stk/
stung /stŋ/
stank /stŋk/
strode /strəυd/
struck /strk/
Translation
vender
enviar
poner, establecer
coser
sacudir, agitar
derramar
brillar
herrar
disparar
mostrar
encoger, rehuir
cerrar
cantar
hundir(se)
sentarse
dormir
deslizarse,
resbalar
escabullire
slunk /slŋk/
rajar
slit /slit/
oler
smelt /smelt/
sembrar
sown /səυn/
spoken /spəυkən/ hablar
acelerar
sped /sped/
deletrear, escribir
spelt /spelt/
gastar, pasar
spent /spent/
(el tiempo)
derramar
spilt /spilt/
hilar, girar
spun /spn/
escupir
spat /spt/
partir
split /split/
estropear, mimar
spoilt /spɔilt/
esparcir
spread /spred/
brotar, saltar
sprung /sprŋ/
estar o ponerse
stood /stυd/
de pie
robar
stolen /stəυlən/
pegar, fijar
stuck /stk/
picar
stung /stŋ/
apestar
stunk /stŋk/
andar a zancadas
stridden /stridn/
golpear, atacar
struck /strk/
353
LIST OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive
Past tense
Past Participle
Translation
string /striŋ/
strive /straiv/
strung /strŋ/
strove /strəυv/
strung /strŋ/
striven /strivn/
swear /sweə/
sweep /swip/
swim /swim/
swing /swiŋ/
take /teik/
teach /titʃ/
tear /teə/
tell /tel/
think /θiŋk/
thwrow /θrəυ/
swore /swɔ/
swept /swept/
swam /swm/
swung /swŋ/
took /tυk/
taught /tɔt/
tore /tɔ/
told /təυld/
thought /θɔt/
threw /θru/
sworn /swɔn/
swept /swept/
swum /swm/
swung /swŋ/
taken /təikn/
taught /tɔt/
torn /tɔn/
told /təυld/
thought /θɔt/
thrown /θrəυn/
thrust /θrst/
tread /tred/
understand
/ndə stnd/
wake /weik/
wear /weə/
weave /wiv/
weep /wip/
win /win/
wind /waind/
thrust /θrst/
trod /trɒd/
understood
/ndə stυd/
woke /wəυk/
wore /wɔ/
wove /wəυv/
wept /wept/
won /wn/
wound /waυnd/
thrust /θrst/
trodden /trɒdn/
understood
/ndə stυd/
woken /wəυkn/
worn /wɔn/
woven /wəυvn/
wept /wept/
won /wn/
wound /waυnd/
wring /riŋ/
write /rait/
wrung /rŋ/
wrote /rəυt/
wrung /rŋ/
written / ritn/
picar
esforzarse,
ingeniárselas
jurar
barrer
nadar
balancearse
tomar, llevar
enseñar
rasgar
decir, contar
pensar, creer
tirar, lanzar,
arrojar
meter, empujar
pisar
comprender,
entender
despertar
llevar puesto, usar
tejer
sollozar
ganar
dar cuenta,
enrollar
retorcer
escribir
Please note the following differences in verb forms between American English
and British English.
British
American
bet-bet-bet or bet-betted-betted
fit-fitted-fitted
get-got-got
quit-quitted-quitted
bet-bet-bet
fit-fit-fit
get-got-gotten
quit-quit-quit
American: burn, dream, kneel, lean, leap, learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil are
usualy regular.
British: simple past and past participle forms of these verbs can be regular but
more commonly end with -t: burnt, dreamt, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, smelt,
spelt, spilt, spoilt.
CONSULTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
AARTS, F. & J. AARTS (1988). English Syntactic Structures. Great Britain: Prentice
Hall.
ALLSOP, J. (1983). Cassell’s Students’ English Grammar. Eastbourne: Cassell Ltd.
ARAGONÉS, M. & I. MEDRANO (2002): Lengua Inglesa I. (Unidades Didácticas,
Filología Inglesa). Madrid: UNED.
AZAR, B.S. (1989) Understanding and Using English Grammar. 2nd ed. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regents.
BÁRCENA, E. & T. READ (2001). La Gramática Inglesa a Distancia, primera parte.
Madrid: UNED.
— (2003). La Gramática Inglesa a Distancia, segunda parte. Madrid: UNED:
BIBER, D; JOHANSSON, S; LEECH, G.; CONRAD, S. & E. FINEGAN (1999). Longman
Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman.
BUTLER, C.; MAIRAL, R.; MARTÍN ARISTA, F. & F. RUIZ DE MENDOZA (1999). Nuevas
perspectivas en Gramática Funcional. Barcelona: Ariel.
CRYSTAL, D. (1997). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford and
Massachusetts: Blackwell.
DOWNING, A. & P. LOCKE (1992). A University Course in English Grammar. Great
Britain: Prentice Hall.
GIVÓN, T. (1993). English Grammar. A Function-Based Introduction. Amsterdam
and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
G REENBAUM , S. & R. Q UIRK . (1990). A Student’s Grammar of the English
Language. Harlow: Longman.
H EWINGS , M. (1999). Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
HUDDLESTON, R. (1988). English Grammar: An Outline. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
HUDDLESTON, R. & G.K. PULLUM (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of the English
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
LAWLEY, J. (coord); ALVAREZ, M.A.; ARAGONÉS, M.; BÁRCENA, E.; GIBERT, M. T.;
MARÍN, J. & TIM READ (1999). Gramática Contrastiva/ Contrastive Grammar.
Madrid: UNED.
356
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
LEECH, G. & J. SVARTVIK (1994). A Communicative Grammar of English. London: Longman.
MAIRAL, R. & M.J. PÉREZ QUINTERO (eds.) (2002). New Perspectives on argument
structure in Functional Grammar. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
MC CARTHY, M & R. CARTER (1994). Language as Discourse. Perspectives for
Language Teaching. New York: Longman.
MURPHY, R. (2000). Grammar in Use. Reference and Practice for Intermediate
Students of English. New York: Cambridge University Press.
QUIRK, R. & GREENBAUM, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. London:
Longman.
SANCHEZ BENEDITO, F., A.S. DAWSON & E. LAVIN. (1991). English Grammar for
Spanish Speakers. Madrid: Alhambra Longman.
Thomson, A.J. & A.V. Martinet (1986). A Practical English Grammar. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
CONCEPTUAL / WORD INDEX
-able: Ch 3, A 2.1; Ch 12, B 2; Ch 16,
A 1-2.
about: Ch 2, A 4.3; Ch 7, B 9.1;
Ch 9, B 1.3.f; Ch 11, B 4; Ch 11,
B 5.1.b; Ch 14, B 10; Ch 15, B 3;
Ch 15, B 7.
above: Ch 4, B 7.1.
across: Ch 1, B 8.1;Ch 4, B 7.1-2; Ch
20, B 8.
adjective
adjective formation: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 8,
A 2; Ch 12, A 1; Ch 14, A 1; Ch
16, A 1 Ch 19, A 2; Ch 20, A 1-2.
attributive adjectives: Ch 20, B 5.
comparison: Ch 8, B 4.
compound adjectives: Ch 3, B 7;
Ch 18, A 1; Ch 20, A 3.
order of adjectives: Ch 15, B 9; Ch
19, B 2.
possessive adjectives: Ch 2,
B 8.3; Ch 5, B 4.
predicative adjectives: Ch 6, B 2.3
(box); Ch 20, B 6.
adjuncts: Ch 1, B 12.2; Ch 3, B 3; Ch
4, B 4.1-2; Ch 5, B 3.1; Ch 5, B
6.4.1; Ch 6, B 6.2; Ch 6, B 12.3;
Ch 7, B 1; Ch 7, B 5; Ch 11, B 1;
Ch 12, B 11.1; Ch 19, B 6.2.
adverbs
formation: Ch 1, A 2; Ch 13, A 2.
adverbs of manner: Ch 1, A 2; Ch
4, B 10.3.
frequency: Ch 1, A 2 (box); Ch 1, B
7; Ch 1, B 11; Ch 4, B 4.1 &
10.1; Ch 7, B 5; Ch 8, B 8; Ch
10, B 12.
interrogative: Ch 8, B 3; Ch 17, B
8.
order: Ch 4, B 10.3.
position of: Ch 1, B 11; Ch 4, B
12.2-3; Ch10, B 12; Ch 13, B 8-9.
time: Ch 1, B 12; Ch 3, B 8.2.2.3;
Ch 4, B 10.2; Ch 6, B 12; Ch 7,
B 7; Ch 12, B 5; Ch 13, B 5.
adverbs ending in –wards: Ch 10,
B 11.
affix: Ch 1, A 1-2; Ch 2, A 1-3; Ch 3, A
1-2; Ch 4, A 2; Ch 5, A 2-3; Ch 6,
A 1-2; Ch 7, A 2; Ch 8, A 1-2; Ch
9, A 1-2; Ch 10, A 1-2; Ch 11, A
1; Ch 12, A 1; Ch 14, A 1; Ch 15,
A 1-2; Ch 16, A 1; Ch 20, A 1-2.
after: Ch 1, B 12.1 & 14.1; Ch 4, B 5
(box); Ch 5, B 1.2; Ch 7, B 9.2;
Ch 10, B 11; Ch 17, B 9; Ch 18,
B 7.
358
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
againts: Ch 5, B 6.2.3; Ch 8, B 11.d;
Ch 15, B 3.
-age: Ch 8, A 1; Ch 10, A 2.
-al: Ch 3, A 2; Ch 8, A 1-2; Ch 10, A 2;
Ch 13, A 2; Ch 14, A 1.
all: Ch 9, B 10; Ch 13, B 11; Ch 16,
B 12.
along: Ch 20, B 8.
already: Ch 4, B 4.1; Ch7, B 7; Ch
13, B 5.
always: Ch 1, B 11; Ch 4, B 10; Ch 6,
A 12.3; Ch 7, B 5; Ch 12, B 9.
among: Ch 19, B 6; Ch 20, B 9.
-ance; -ancy: Ch 2, A 1.
-ant: Ch 14, A 2.
any
(determiner): Ch 1, B 1-2.
(compound forms): Ch 1, B 3;
Ch12, B 6; Ch 13, B 6.
-ar: Ch 17, A 1.2.
-ary: Ch 12, A 1; Ch 14, A 1.
article (definite; indefinite; zero): Ch
1, B 13; Ch 2, B9; Ch 3, B 9; Ch
4, B 8-9; Ch 5, B 11; Ch 6, B 1011; Ch 7, B 10; Ch 8, B 10; Ch 9,
B 8; Ch 10, B 13; Ch 11, B 10;
Ch 12, B 10; Ch 13, B 10; Ch14,
B 11; Ch 15, B 11; Ch 16, B 11;
Ch 17, B 6; Ch 18, B 8; Ch 19, B
9; Ch 20, B 10.
as: Ch 8, B 11; Ch 10, B 15; Ch 12, B
9; Ch 15, B 12.
as many: Ch 2, B 10.
as many as: Ch 2, B 10.
aspect (perfect or progressive): Ch 3,
B 8; Ch 6, B 3; Ch 6, B 8.1.2 &
12.1 (box); Ch 8 B 7.4; Ch 10, B
1 & 14.1; Ch 17, B 1.
asyndetic coordination: Ch 17, B 7.1.
at: Ch 2, B 4; Ch 5, B 6; Ch 8, B 9;
Ch 11, B 7; Ch 15, B 7; Ch 17, B
9; Ch 18, B 7; Ch 19, B 8.
-(a)tion: Ch 7, A 2.
atributive adjectives: Ch 20, B 5.
backshift: Ch 5, B 7.3.
before
(adverb): Ch 4, B 10.2.
(conjunction): Ch 5, B 1.2; Ch 12, B
11.1.
(preposition): Ch 18, B 7.1 & 9.
behind: Ch 1, B 10.1.
below: Ch 4, B 7.1.
beside: Ch 4, B 7.4; Ch 7, B 9.3.
besides: Ch 1, B 14.1.
between: Ch 18, B 7; Ch 19, B 6; Ch
20, B 9.
-body: (compounds) Ch 1, B 3.1 & 3;
Ch 8, B 3 b; Ch 13, B 6.
both: Ch 9, B 10; Ch 17, B 2.
by: Ch 1, B 13. h; Ch 2, B 8.5c; Ch 4,
B 7.5; Ch 6, B 2.1; Ch 6, B 8; Ch
7, B 9; Ch 9, B 3; Ch 11, B 4; Ch
14, B 4 & 10.
can: Ch 3, B 4; Ch 9, B 7; Ch 10, B 6;
Ch 11, B 1.
clause
finite clause: INTRODUCTION; Ch
1, B 12d; Ch 5, B 5.3; Ch 12,
B 9.
(box); Ch 13, B 1; Ch 14, B 12; Ch
15, B 6.
non-finite clause: INTRODUCTION; Ch 1, B 12d; Ch4, B 2.1-2;
Ch 5, B 5.3.
wh-clause: Ch 11, B 3; Ch 12, B 5;
Ch 17, B 7.2.
dependent clause: INTRODUCTION; Ch 14, B 12.
independent clause: INTRODUCTION; Ch 5, B 7.1.
-ing clause: Ch 15, A 10.
purpose clause: Ch 6, B 6.
subordinate clause: Ch 5, B 3.2.
superordinate clause: Ch 6, B 3.2.
temporal clause Ch 12, B 11.
verbless clause: INTRODUCTION.
cleft sentences: Ch 15, B 6; Ch 16, B
2; Ch 20, B 2.
CONCEPTUAL / WORD INDEX
collocations: Ch 1, B 13.4 h; Ch 2, B
5. 2-3; Ch 11, B.2 (box).
commands:
Indirect: Ch 5, B 7.4.
comparatives: Ch 1, B 6; Ch 4, B 3
Ch 5, B 9; Ch 15, A 10.
compound words: Ch 5, A 1.
compound nouns: See noun.
conditional sentences: Ch 8, B 5; Ch
9, B 1; Ch 11, B 1-3; Ch 20, B1.
conjuncts: Ch 1, B 14.
conjunction: Ch 1, B 8.2 c; Ch 2, B
6.1; Ch 5, B 1.2; Ch 7, B 1; Ch 8,
B 11 a & c; Ch 14, B 12; Ch 16,
B 8.3; Ch 17, B 1; Ch 17, B 7.2.
correlative conjunction: Ch 11, B
8.1; Ch 11, B 1.4.
subordinating conjunction: Ch 12,
B 11.1; Ch 16, B 7.
connectors: Ch 7, B 1; Ch 10, B 15;
Ch 1, B 14.
coordination: Ch. 17, B 7.
correlative coordination: Ch 10, B
11.1; Ch 17, B 7.
could: Ch 1, B 5; Ch 3, B 4; Ch 9, B
7; Ch 11, B 1.
de-: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 9, A 1.
-de: Ch 11, A 1.
defining/non-defining relative clause:
Ch 4, B 1.1; Ch 8, B 2; Ch 16,
B 4.
deictic elements: Ch 5, B 3 Ch 18,
B 4.
determiners: Ch 9, B 10.
any: Ch 1, B 2.
no: Ch 1, B 2.
either: Ch 10, B 8.2.
direct/indirect speech; reported speech: Ch 5, B 7; Ch 11, B 9; CH
12, B 7.
dis-: Ch 2, A 2; Ch 5, A 2; Ch 18, A 2.
disjuncts: Ch 1, B 5; Ch 5, B 5; Ch 7,
B 5.
distribution determiners: Ch 9, B 10.
359
do: Ch 2, B 5; Ch 16, B 1 (empathic
use).
down: Ch 20, B 8.
duration adverbials: Ch 16, B 12.
during: Ch 6, B 8; Ch 6, B 9.
each: Ch 19, B 3.2.
either: Ch 11, B 8; Ch 11, B 8.
else (with pronoun/adverb): Ch 8,
B 3.
en-: Ch 2, A 2; Ch 10, A 2.1; Ch 12,
A 2.
-ence; -ency: Ch 2, A 1.
enough: Ch 16, B 6.
-ent: Ch 14, A 2.
-er: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 17, A 1.2.
even (if): Ch 3, B 3; Ch 10, B 15; Ch
16, B 7.
ever: Ch 1, B 7.
-ever (compounds): Ch 8, B 1; Ch 11,
B 5.
every: Ch 1, B 3; Ch 13, B 11; Ch 19,
B 3.1.
every- (compounds forms): Ch 13,
B 6.
ex-: Ch 2, A 3.
exclamations:
Indirect: Ch 5, B 7.4.
existential there: Ch 14, B 5.
few; a few: Ch 1, B 1; Ch 7, B 4; Ch
18, B 9.
for: Ch 2, B 4; Ch 3, B 6; Ch 5, B 6;
Ch 6, B 8; Ch 7, B 1, 3 & 9; Ch
9, B 3; Ch 10, B 15; Ch 13, B 4;
Ch 14, B 10; Ch 16, B 5-6.
frequency adverbs: Ch 1, B 7 & 11;
Ch 7, B 5; Ch 8, B 8; Ch 10,
B 12.
from: Ch 5, B 6; Ch 7, B 3 & 9; C h
11, B 7; Ch 13, B 4; Ch 15, B 8;
Ch 16, B 10; Ch 18, B 7; Ch 19,
B 8.
-ful: Ch 1, A 1.
functions and categories:
INTRODUCTION
360
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
future continuous: Ch 3, B 8.2.2.2.1
(box); Ch 12, B 6.
future time: Ch 9, B 1, Ch 11, B 3 & 6.
genitive case: Ch 2, B 1.
oblique/double genitive: Ch 14, B 2.
gerund: Ch 10, B 5-7; Ch 11, B 4; Ch
17, B 1; Ch 18, B 5.
gerund vs. infinitive: Ch 12, B 3; Ch
17, B 2-3.
going to: Ch 11, B 6.
habitual present: Ch 3, B 8.1.1.
half: Ch 9, B 10.
have to: Ch1, B 5; Ch 11, B 8.
here/herein: Ch 18, A 3.
how: Ch 17, B 8.2.
hypotaxis: Ch 5, B 3.2.
-ian: Ch 19, A 2.
-ible: Ch 3, A 2.1; Ch 16, A 1.
-ic: Ch 13, A 2.
-ific: Ch 13, A 2.
-ity: Ch 15, A 2.
imperative: Ch 6, B 3; Ch 11, B 1; Ch
16, B 1.
in: Ch 2, B 4; Ch 3, B 6; Ch 8, B 9;
Ch 11, B 7; Ch 13, B 3; Ch 15, B
3; Ch 17, B 9.
in-: Ch 16, A 2;Ch 18, B 7.8.
in back of: Ch 1, B 10.1.
in front of: Ch 1, B 8.2; Ch 1, B 10.1.
in…of: Ch 15, B 5.
in…to: Ch 15, B 5.
in-/im-: Ch 12, A 2, Ch 16, A 2.
indirect
commands: Ch 5, B 7.4 c.
exclamations: Ch 5, B 7.4 b.
questions: Ch 5, B 7.4 a.
speech: Ch 5, B 7.
infinitive: Ch 4, B 2; Ch 10, B 4 & 7;
Ch 12, B 1, 2, 3 & 5; Ch 16, B 5
& 6; Ch 17, B 2 & 3; Ch 20, B 4.
into: Ch 1, B 9; Ch 13, B 4; Ch 19,
B 8.
-ing: Ch 15, B 10; Ch 17, B 1.5; Ch
19, B 4-5.
-ing nominal clauses: Ch 18, B 5.
inside: Ch 1, B 10.3.
instantaneous present: Ch 3, B 8.1.1.
-ious: Ch 12, A 1.
-ise/-ize: Ch 11, A 1; Ch 15, A 2.
-ism: Ch 15, A 3; Ch 17, A 1.
-ist: Ch 17, A 1; Ch 19, A 2.
it (subject): Ch 15, B 6.
introductory it: Ch 16, B 2.
-ity/-ety: Ch 15, A 1.
-ive: Ch 12, A 1; Ch13, A 2; Ch 20, A 1.
-ize: Ch 11, A 1; Ch 15, A 2.
just: Ch 7, B 7; Ch 13, B 5.
-less: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 3, A 2.
let: Ch 20, B 4.
levels:
of analysis: INTRODUCTION
of linguistic description:
INTRODUCTION
linguistic units: INTRODUCTION
like: Ch 12, B 9; Ch 15, B 12.
-like: Ch 20, A 2.
linking words: Ch 1, B 14.
little: Ch 7, B 4.
a little: Ch 7, B 4.
long (time expressions): Ch 2, B 3.
-ly: Ch 1, A 2; Ch 4, A 2; Ch 13, A 2.
make: Ch 2, B 5; Ch 20, B 4.
many: Ch 2, B 10; Ch 9, B 10.
may: Ch 3, B 4; Ch 9, B 6; Ch 11, B
1; Ch 13, B 11.
measurement (expressions of): Ch 3,
B 2.3; Ch 13, B 7.
-ment: Ch 7, A 2; Ch 10, A 2.
might: Ch 3, B 4; Ch 9, B 7; Ch 11,
B 1.
modality: Ch 1, B 5; Ch3, B 4.2; Ch 6,
B 4; Ch 9, B 6.
modal auxiliaries: Ch 3, B 4, Ch 9, B
7; Ch 10, B 5.2 (box); Ch 11, B
1; Ch 16, B 3 (box).
modal verbs: Ch 6, B 4; Ch9, B 7;
Ch 10, B 5.2 (box); Ch 11, B 1;
Ch 16, B 3 (box).
CONCEPTUAL / WORD INDEX
morpheme: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 2, A 1; Ch 3,
A 1; Ch 4, A 1-2; Ch 5, A 1-2; Ch
6, A 1-2; Ch 7, A 1-2; Ch 8, A 1-2;
Ch 9, A 1-2; Ch 10, A 1-2; Ch 11,
A 1-2; Ch 12, A 1-2; Ch 13, A 1-2;
Ch 14, A 1-2; Ch 15, A 1-2; Ch 16,
A 1-2; Ch 17, A 1-2; Ch 18, A 1-2
Ch; 19, A 1-2; Ch 20, A 1-2.
free: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 9, A 1-2.
bound: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 2, B 3; Ch 3,
A 1; Ch 9, A 1; Ch 11, A 1 (box).
more and more: Ch 4, B 3; Ch 5, B 9.
much: Ch 9, B 10; Ch 13, B 11.
must: Ch 1, B 5; Ch 11, B 1 & 8.
mustn’t: Ch 1, B 5.6; Ch 6, B 4.
near: Ch 4, B 7.6.
needn’t: Ch 6, B 4-5.
neither: Ch 2, B 7; Ch 17, B 7.
-ness: Ch 15, A 1.
never: Ch 1, B 7; Ch 7, B 5.
next to: Ch 4, B 7.7.
no: Ch 1, B 2 & 3.
non- (negative prefix): Ch 9, A 2.
nor: Ch 2, B 7.
nouns
abstract: Ch 4, A 3; Ch 5, A 3; Ch
7, A 2; Ch 1, A 1.
compound: Ch 1, A 3; Ch 4, A 1;
Ch 11, A 2; Ch 13, A 1 & 3.
countable/uncountable: Ch 1, B
13.4; Ch 2, B 2; Ch 9, B 10.1.
noun formation: Ch 2, A 1; Ch 5, A
3; Ch 8, A 1; Ch 10, A 2; Ch 13,
B 7; Ch 14, A 2; Ch 15, A 1; Ch
17, A 1; Ch 20, A 1.
plural of: Ch 14, B 1.
premodification of: Ch 2, B 2.
occasionally: Ch 4, B 10.1; Ch 7, B 5.
of: Ch 2, B 1; Ch 5, B 6; Ch 7, B 3;
Ch 15, B 5, 7 & 8.
off: Ch 1, B 10.2 (box); Ch 4, B 7.8.
often: Ch 1, B 11; Ch 7, B 5.
on: Ch 2, B 4; Ch 3, B 6; Ch 4, B 7.9;
Ch 5, B 6; Ch 7, B 9; Ch 11, B 9;
361
Ch 13, B 4; Ch 15, B 5; Ch 17, B
9; Ch 18, B 7.
one (pronoun): Ch 1, B 1.1.3; Ch 14,
B 8.
-one (compounds): Ch 1, B 3.1.
-or: Ch 17, A 1; Ch 17 A 1 & 2.
-ory: Ch 13, A 2.
otherwise: Ch 1, B 14.
ought to: Ch 1, B 5; Ch 3, B 4.1 h; Ch
10, B 3; Ch 11, B 1.
-ous: Ch 12, A 1; Ch 14, A 1; Ch 3,
A 2.
out of: Ch 1, B 8.2 A; Ch 1, B 10; Ch
4, B 7.10; Ch 9, B 4.1; Ch 16,
B 10.
outside: Ch 1, B 10.3; Ch 4, B 7.10;
Ch 10, B 9.
over: Ch 4, B 7.1; Ch 11, B 7; CH 11,
B 8.
particles:
any: Ch 3, B 2.2.
some: Ch 3, B 2.2.
passive voice: Ch 6, B 1; Ch 13, B 1
& 2; Ch 18, B 2.
past: Ch 18, B 7.
past continuous: Ch 2, B 6; Ch 10,
B 1 & 2; Ch 17, B 1.
past simple (simple past): Ch 2, B
6; Ch 4, B 4 & 5; Ch 5, B 2; Ch
7, B 2; Ch 10, B 2; Ch 15, B 4.
past perfect: Ch 4, B 4 & 5; Ch 5, B
1; Ch 5, B 2; Ch 18, B 1.
past perfect progressive/continuous: Ch 3, B 8.2; Ch 18, B 1.
perhaps: Ch 9, B 6.
plurals: Ch 1, A 3.6; Ch 2, B 1 & 2;
Ch 3, B 1 & 2; Ch 14, B 1.
of Latin and Greek origin: Ch 19,
A 1.
zero plural: Ch 3, B 1.
pre-: Ch 2, B 3; C 3, A 1.
prefix: Ch 2, A 2; Ch 2, A 3; Ch 3, A 1;
Ch 5, A 2; Ch 9, A 1 & 2; Ch 16,
A 2; Ch 18, A 2.
362
A GRAMMAR COMPANION TO LENGUA INGLESA I
derivational: Ch 2, A 2.
prepositional passive: Ch 13, B 3.
prepositional time phrases: Ch 1,
B 12.
prepositions
complex: Ch 1, B 8.2; Ch 8, B 11,
d; Ch 9, B 4.1 b; Ch 16, B 10.2.
movement: Ch 20, B 8.
preposition + gerund: Ch 10, B 5;
Ch 11, B 4.
preposition + -ing clause: Ch 17,
B 4.
simple prepositions: Ch 1, B 8.2;
Ch 9, 4.4.1 a.
space prepositions: Ch 1, B 10; Ch
4, B 7; Ch 8, B 9; Ch 19, B 8.
time prepositions: Ch 6, B 8 & 9;
Ch 7, B 1; Ch 9, B 3; Ch 18,
B 7.
present
present progressive/continuous: Ch
3, B 8.2.2.2.1; Ch 8, B 8; Ch 9, B
1.3 b.
state present: Ch 3, B 8.1.1.
simple present: Ch 8, B 7.
present participle: Ch 20, A 3.
present perfect: Ch 1, B 7.1; Ch 3, B
8.2.1; Ch 4, B 4; Ch 7, B 2; Ch
15, B 4.
present perfect progressive: Ch 3, B
8.2.2.3.
pro-: Ch 3, A 1.
pronouns
emphatic: Ch 2, B 8; Ch 6, B 7.
interrogative: Ch 8, B 1.2; Ch 17, B
8.
personal: Ch 5, B 4.
possessive: Ch 2, B 8; Ch 5, B 3;
Ch 14, B 3; Ch 18, B 3.
reciprocal: Ch 9, B 11.
reflexive: Ch 2, B 8; Ch 5, B 8; Ch
8, B 6; Ch 9, B 11.
relative: Ch 5, B 3; Ch 7, B 6; Ch 9,
B 5; Ch 17, B 8.
quantifiers: Ch 7, B 4; Ch 8, B 3 a;
Ch 9, B 10.
quantity and distribution: Ch 9, B 10;
Ch 13, B 11; Ch 19, B 3.
rather than / would rather...than: Ch
18, B 10.
re-: Ch 9, A 1.
relative clauses
defining: Ch 4, B 10; Ch 8, B 2.
non-defining: Ch 4, B 1.1; Ch 16, B
4.
relative pronouns: See pronouns.
requests: Ch 6, B 3.
round; (a)round: Ch 4, B 7.11; Ch 11,
B 7.
sentences and clauses:
INTRODUCTION
several: Ch 19, B 3.3.
shall: Ch 1, B.5; Ch 9, B 1; Ch 11,
B 1.
should: Ch 10, B 3; Ch 11, B 1.
simple future: Ch 9, B 1; Ch 11, B 3.
since: Ch 6, B 8 & 9; Ch 7, B 1; Ch 9,
B 3.
-sion: Ch 4, A 3; Ch 10, A 2.2.
so: Ch 6, B 6.4; Ch 8, B 11; Ch 16, B
8; Ch 20, B 3.
so...that: Ch 16, B 8.
so that: Ch 6, B 6.3; Ch 16, B 8.
some: Ch 1, B 1, 3 & 4.
some-: Ch13, B 6.
-ssion: Ch 4, A 3.
still: Ch 6, B 12; Ch 7, B 7; Ch 10, B
15; Ch 13, B 5.
subject complement: Ch 1, B 12.2;
Ch 5, B 4.2 a; Ch 15, B 6; Ch
20, B 6.1.
subordinator: Ch 5, B 3.2; Ch 11, B
1.4; Ch 14, B 12; Ch 18, B 4.2.
such: Ch 20, B 3.
suffix
derivational: Ch 1, A 1; Ch 2, A 1;
Ch 4, A 3; Ch 5, A 2; Ch 6, A 1 &
2, Ch 8, A 2; Ch 10, A 1 & 2; Ch
CONCEPTUAL / WORD INDEX
12, A 2; Ch 14, A 1; Ch 17, A 1;
Ch 17, A 1; Ch 19, A 2.1.
inflectional: Ch 3, B 1; Ch 6, A 1
(box); Ch 10, A 3; Ch 19, A 1.
superlatives: Ch 1, B 6; Ch 19, B 7.
syndetic coordination: Ch 17, B 7.1.
tense: Ch 3, B 8; Ch 17, B 1.
-th: Ch 13, B 7.
that: Ch 9, B 5; Ch 16, B 8; Ch 18,
B 4.
then: Ch 1, B 14.1; Ch 44, B 10.2;
Ch 10, B 15.
there (unstressed): Ch 14, B 5.
there/therein: Ch 18, A 3.
-thing (compounds): Ch 1, B 3.1; Ch
8, B 3; Ch 13, B 6.
though: Ch 10, B 15.
through: Ch 20, B 8.
time (expressions with): Ch1, B 13.6
f; Ch 2, B 1.3.6 & B 3; Ch 7, B 8.
time phrases (prepositional): Ch 1, B
12.
-tion: Ch 4, A 3; Ch 10, A 2; Ch 14, A 1.
to: Ch 5, B 6; Ch 12, B 2 & 5; Ch 13,
B 4; Ch 15, B 7; Ch 16, B 5 & 6;
Ch 18, B 7; Ch 19, B 8.
too: Ch 12, B 4; Ch 16, B 5.
un- (negative prefix): Ch 2, A 2; Ch 5,
A 2; Ch 16, A 2; Ch 18, A 2.
under: Ch 4, B 7.1; Ch 9, B 4.1 a.
until: Ch 7, B 9; Ch 9, B 3; Ch 16,
B 12.
up: Ch 20, B 8.
363
used to: Ch 16, B 3.
verbs of the senses + object + -ing:
Ch 5, B 10.
-wards: Ch 10, B 11.
when
introducing a dependent clause: Ch
14, B 12.
relative pronoun: Ch 2, B 6.1; Ch 7,
B 8.1.3; Ch 8, B 1.
where: Ch 5, B 3; Ch 8, B 1.
-where (compounds): Ch 1, B 3.1;Ch
13, B 6.
which: Ch 4, B 1; Ch 7, B 6; Ch 9,
B 5.
who: Ch 7, B 6; Ch 9, B 5; Ch 17,
B 10.
whom: Ch 7, B 6; Ch 9, B 5; Ch 17,
B 10.
whose: Ch 17, B 8.
why: Ch 5, B 3; Ch 17, B 8.2.
will: Ch 9, B 1; Ch 11, B 1; Ch 11,
B 6.
will vs. going to: Ch 11, B 6.
with: Ch 5, B 6; Ch 7, B 3 & 9; Ch 10,
B 10; Ch 15, B 3.
within: Ch 19, B 6.
without: Ch 10, B 10.
would: Ch 11; B 1; Ch 16, B 3; Ch
18, B 10.
-y: Ch 1 B 6.5; Ch 6, A 2; Ch 10, A 1;
Ch 13, A 2.
yet: Ch 6, B 12; Ch 7, B 7; Ch 13,
B 5.
ISBN: 978-84-362-4905-7
46102
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