The Forest Sector in Chile: An Overview and Current Challenges

J. For. 114(●):000 – 000
http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/jof.14-062
Copyright © 2016 Society of American Foresters
REVIEW ARTICLE
international forestry
The Forest Sector in Chile: An Overview and
Current Challenges
Christian Salas, Pablo J. Donoso, Rodrigo Vargas,
Cesar A. Arriagada, Rodrigo Pedraza, and Daniel P. Soto
Chile has a strong forest sector based on plantations of exotic species and an extensive area of temperate
rainforests with unique ecological features and a wealth of biodiversity and endemism. We present an overview
of the forest sector of Chile focused on forest resources, silviculture, economy, social and environmental aspects,
and forestry education and research. The Chilean forest sector is internationally known for its success. Although
this is one of the most important economic activities of Chile, management between exotic species plantations
and natural forests is very asymmetric. Currently, highly intensive silviculture is applied to forest plantations of
Pinus radiata (radiata pine) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus nitens) but only limited operational
silviculture is applied to natural forests, even though there is considerable research to support it. Conversion from
natural forests to forestry plantations has decreased in the last 10 –20 years. There are still unresolved issues
related to pulp mills, and new efforts are needed from the government and large forestry companies to account
for social and environmental demands. There is a good amount of university-level forestry education; however,
there is an oversupply of professional foresters.
Keywords: temperate rain forests, Nothofagus, forestry plantations, sustainability
C
hile has garnered national interest
in recent decades for a variety of political and economic circumstances,
including relatively fast economic growth
compared with that of the rest of Latin
America. For that reason, it has acquired a
privileged position in the developing world
and has established trade agreements with
the United States and the European Union,
among other large markets and now is in the
Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD). On the other
hand, the relatively recent reestablishment
of democracy in Chile after 17 years of dic-
tatorship has exposed the large social and
economic differences within the Chilean
population (Schatan 2001). The forest sector, particularly that associated with commercial plantations of exotic species, has
played a key role in the economic growth of
Chile but has also been controversial because
of the contrasting perceptions about the
current model of forestry among entrepreneurs, scientists, politicians, environmental nongovernmental organizations, landowners, and the general public.
Previous attempts to characterize the
Chilean forest sector have been incomplete.
Among the first English peer-reviewed publications on the forest sector of Chile are
those of Recart (1973), Husch (1982), Jélvez
et al. (1990), and Gwynne (1993). These
mostly focused on forestry plantations and
did not pay much attention to natural forests
and the social aspects of forestry in Chile.
Later, Lara and Veblen (1993) focused on
the levels of substitution of natural forest areas by forest plantations and presented a
rather pessimistic view of forest plantations
in Chile. Paredes (2005), when referring to
forest certification in Chile, gave a particularly negative view of natural forests for timber production. Finally, some recent studies
focused on Chile (e.g., Clapp 2001, Wilson
et al. 2005) have only presented brief overviews of forest conservation. Therefore, we
aim to provide a more comprehensive and,
hopefully, objective and updated forestry
overview of Chile.
Forest Resources of Chile
General Features of Chile
Continental Chile has an area of 185.3
million acres in southwestern South America and stretches from 17° to 56° S latitude,
a length of 2,690 miles from the North to
Cape Horn in the southernmost tip of South
Received June 12, 2014; accepted November 25, 2015; published online January 14, 2016.
Affiliations: Christian Salas ([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera, Departamento de Ciencias Forestales, Temuco, Chile. Pablo J. Donoso
([email protected]), Universidad Austral de Chile. Rodrigo Vargas ([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera. Cesar A. Arriagada
([email protected]), Universidad de La Frontera. Rodrigo Pedraza ([email protected]), Corporación Nacional Forestal. Daniel P. Soto
([email protected]), Oregon State University.
Acknowledgments: We thank Kyle Meister and Chadwick Oliver for their helpful comments on an earlier draft. We also thank the editors and reviewers for their detailed
comments that enhanced the quality of the article. This study was supported by the research projects FONDECYT no. 1151495 and CONICYT-PAI no.
821320069.
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
1
Figure 1. Chile in the world (A) and main cities and neighboring countries (B).
America (Figure 1). Chile borders Peru to
the north, Bolivia and Argentina to the east,
Cape Horn to the south, and the Pacific
Ocean to the west. One-third of its 17 million citizens live in Santiago, the capital and
the country’s largest city. From east to west,
Chile is squeezed between the Andes Mountains range (or the Andean “Cordillera”1),
the Central Depression, and the Coastal
Cordillera. Chile is sometimes referred to as
a geographical “island,” because of its peculiar geographical isolation (Armesto et al.
1995), being located between the physical
barriers of the Atacama desert to the north,
the Antarctic Sea to the south, the Andes to
the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
Chile is within the Andean biogeographic region of Latin America (Morrone
2006). The Andean Cordillera decreases in
elevation from north to south, with its peaks
reaching about 22,965 ft in northern and
central Chile (17°–34° S), 9,842 ft in southcentral Chile (34°– 45° S), and between
3,280 and 6,560 ft. in Patagonia (46°–55°
S). The climate and vegetation of Chile are
greatly determined by the orographic effects
of the Andes (Veblen et al. 1996a). The
Coastal Cordillera is lower in elevation than
the Andes, rarely exceeding 3,280 ft
2
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
(Donoso 1996). In general, the Coastal Cordillera is geologically older than the Andes.
The Central Depression (or central valley) is
a structural depression between the Coastal
and the Andean Cordilleras that has been
filled to great depths with sediments eroded
from the surrounding mountains (Donoso
1996). Soils in Chile are highly influenced
by volcanic activity, which is a product of a
very active volcanic system along the Andean Cordillera. In the foothills of the Andes, soils are derived from recent volcanic
deposits of andesitic-basaltic origin, composed of very deep ashes and have excellent
physical properties for tree growth. In the
Central Depression, there is a great variety of
geological material from the Andean Cordillera (Toro and Gessel 1999). Volcanic activity is one of the main natural causes of forest
fires in Chile, the remaining being anthropogenic or, very rarely, ignited by lightning
(González 2005).
Chile is divided into three major climatic regions: the north region, which contains the Atacama Desert, one of the driest
regions in the world, is characterized by a
hot and arid climate in the lowlands and occasional summer rain in the Andean highlands; the central region, extending about
2,955 miles from 30° to 38° S, has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, wet winters averaging 52° F, and long, dry summers averaging 64° F; and the south region, from 38°
to 55° S, a region of mountains and fjords,
with strong winds and the Valdivian temperate forests, the North Patagonian rain
forests, and the Magellanic temperate forests
(Donoso and Donoso 2007, Veblen 2007).
Annual rainfall is always affected by variable
elevation in the west-east axis that contains
the two Cordilleras (the Coastal and the Andean), but on average it ranges from less than
20 in. in the north (with some places lacking
rainfall records during the last few centuries), to 12–39 in. in the central region, and
up to 39 –197 in. in the South. South of 40°
Management and Policy Implications
This work provides insights about the Chilean forestry sector and guidance for understanding the
ecological, economic, social, and silvicultural complexity of its current framework. This review indicates that
most of the challenges affecting large forestry companies come from social and environmental concerns.
Improving the management of planted and natural stands, plus the relationship between large companies
and indigenous communities, should be the focus of policymakers. In Chile, current socioenvironmental
conflicts associated with large monoculture plantations and large clearcuts and the increasing high grading
of natural forests have called for a new approach in the forestry sector. This new approach should consider
the following: changes in silviculture and landscape management of forest plantations, including recovery
of native forest patches in regions with large and continuous areas of monocultures of exotic species;
adequate subsidies for promoting the conservation and management of natural forests, therefore reversing
the high grading process that is now occurring in these forests; and forestry education and research that
must serve these purposes to train professionals prepared for the challenges of a discipline with major
environmental, social, and economic implications on people and local communities. Chile, with its high
diversity and endemism, plus the opportunities for growing highly productive forests either from
plantations or native forests, could become a model for forest ecosystem management.
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of forestry plantations (A) and the three most abundant natural forest types (B) of Chile. The scale is given
in km (200 km ⴝ 124 miles; 400 km ⴝ 249 miles).
S, rain occurs year-round (di Castri and
Hajek 1976).
Forestry Plantations
Chile is one of the top 10 countries
in the world in terms of land dedicated to
forestry plantations and the fifth in the
Americas (Cubbage et al. 2007), with 71.6
million acres (Corporación Nacional Forestal [CONAF] 2014). The principal species
used in forest plantations are Pinus radiata
(radiata or Monterrey pine), comprising
62% of the total of plantations, followed by
Eucalyptus species (mainly Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens), representing 31%
(Instituto Forestal [INFOR] 2012). Most
plantations have been established from 37°
to 41° S in the southcentral region (Figure
2A), with 71% of the radiata pine plantations located in the Coastal Range, 19% in
the foothills of the Andes, and 10% in the
Central Depression (Toro and Gessel 1999).
There are also approximately 39,536 acres of
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) plantations (INFOR 2012), which have longer rotations than radiata pine, but better growth
rates than in its natural range in North
America, just like radiata pine. In addition,
there are some Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa
pine) plantations in the South (in the North
Patagonia) of Chile, where these plantations
were established to rapidly recover large areas affected by extensive forest fires in the
past century (Morales 1996). There are
16,061 acres of native species plantations,
with Nothofagus (a native genus in Chile)
species the most common.2 Plantations of
the main Nothofagus species (Nothofagus
obliqua: “roble,” Nothofagus alpina3: “raulı́”;
and Nothofagus dombeyi: “coigüe”) have captured research interest during the last 40
years. They have also generated much interest in the United Kingdom, where growth
rates surpass those of most other native broadleaves and approach those of the fastest
growing conifers (Pearce 1977). Less extensive trial plantings with Nothofagus have
been done in France (Salas and García 2006)
and in Germany (Martin 1978). Currently
in Chile, efforts to assess the growth potential of planted Nothofagus in terms of growth
and timber quality indicate that these species
can achieve excellent volumetric growth
similar to that of radiata pine when intensive
silviculture is applied early on appropriate
sites (Donoso et al. 2009, Soto et al. 2009).
Natural Forests
Chile’s temperate forests (Armesto et al.
1995, Donoso 1995, Veblen et al. 1996a,
Donoso and Donoso 2007) are of high ecological importance and currently under
threat, mainly because of illegal logging and
land use change (Lara et al. 1997, Altamirano et al. 2013). These temperate rainforests represent the second largest remaining
area of this type in the world (Donoso 1995,
Wilcox 1996) and are internationally recog-
nized for their ecological importance (Olson
and Dinerstein 1998, Stattersfield et al.
1998). Chile’s peculiar geographical isolation, located between the physical barriers
described earlier, results in a high rate of
plant and animal endemism (Armesto et al.
1995). As indicated by Wilson et al. (2005),
despite their ecological importance, Chilean
temperate forests have experienced a long
history of destruction and are currently
threatened by land-use changes and mismanagement. Furthermore, the strong biogeographic isolation of the southern temperate forest heavily restricts the possibilities of
recolonization after habitat destruction or
sudden climate change (Armesto et al.
1998).
Chilean temperate forests have experienced a long history of anthropogenic disturbance. The influence of the indigenous
Mapuche through timber cutting and clearing fires before European colonization, prior
to the 19th century, was not that important
considering the small population (approximately 1 million) and the great forest cover
in southcentral Chile (Otero 2006). During
the colonization of Chile, Spaniards cleared
vast areas of forests for agriculture and pasture, mainly those located in the Central Depression of Chile (Donoso 1983, Lara and
Veblen 1993, Donoso and Otero 2005).
This clearing, with the use of fire, continued
into the first half of the 1900s by other EuJournal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
3
ropean colonists, such as those from Germany, Switzerland, and Italy (Donoso and
Lara 1999a). Many human-induced forest
fires destroyed immense areas covered with
natural forests, including more than 7.4 million acres in the austral region of Aysén
(Otero 2006). With the promulgation of the
Decree Law 701 (D.L. 701), of 1974, which
subsidized plantations, between 395,370
and 494,210 acres of native forest were replaced by plantations of exotic species during the 1970s and 1980s (Lara and Veblen
1993). Since 1994, plantations have replaced an additional 99,000 acres (Forest
Stewardship Council [FSC]; FSC-Chile4).
Even though several classifications
of the Chilean natural forests exist (e.g.,
Schmithüsen 1956, Oberdorfer 1960, Veblen and Schlegel 1982, Gajardo 1994), the
one provided by Donoso (1981) is the most
accepted by Chilean foresters, probably because it uses the dominant tree species and
forest structure to differentiate among forest
types. This classification also has been used
for defining forest types in the current
Chilean forestry legislation. Donoso (1981)
classified the natural forest of Chile into 12
forest types (Figure 2B), from the sclerophyllous forest type with fairly scattered
trees in central Chile to the simple Nothofagus forest types in the Tierra del Fuego region. The genus Nothofagus, which according to Hill and Dettmann (1996) is
generally considered one of the key genera in
understanding how southern biota have
evolved and migrated, is represented in all
but two Chilean forest types (Donoso
1995). Eight forest types are dominated by
broadleaved trees, in six cases by Nothofagus
species. Three forest types are named for
their dominant conifer species: Fitzroya cupressoides (“alerce,” the second-longest lived
tree species of the world) (Lara and Villalba
1993), Araucaria araucana (“araucaria,”
a tree species associated with the indigenous people called “Mapuche-Pehuenche”)
(González et al. 2006), and Pilgerodendron
uviferum (“Ciprés de las Guaitecas”) (Lara et
al. 2006). The other forest type is dominated
by the Chilean palm Jubaea chilensis.
There are some natural forest types that
are especially suitable for forest management. These are the roble-raulí-coigüe forest
type of the Central Depression and low elevations in southcentral Chile (4.9 million
acres), the coigüe-raulí-tepa (Laureliopsis
philippiana: “tepa”) forest type of the midelevations in the Andes of southcentral Chile
(1.9 million acres), the evergreen forest type
4
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
of southcentral Chile (10.6 million acres),
and the lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) forest
type in southern Chile (8.2 million acres).
The roble-raulí-coigüe forest type is the
most important for timber production because of the high wood quality of these three
Nothofagus species and its location on the
most productive sites in the Central Depression and foothills of the Andes (Figure 2B).
Because of their proximity to human populations and the gentle terrain that they usually cover, these forests are very accessible.
Currently, the roble-raulí-coigüe type is represented mostly in extensive areas of secondary-growth forests that originated after forest fires (both anthropogenic and natural
from volcanic eruptions), clear cutting, and
landslides. The old-growth forests of this
type were largely cleared for agriculture (Veblen et al. 1996a), and only few remnants
persist (Donoso 1995). The coigüe-raulítepa type is mainly restricted to the Andes
between 38° and 41° S within 1,640 –3,280
ft of elevation (Donoso et al. 1986). The
lenga forest type is especially important in
Patagonia (from Coyhaique to Tierra del
Fuego). The evergreen forest type covers the
largest area, ranging from 37° to 45° S, especially above 1,640 ft in both Cordilleras in
their northern reaches, and from sea level in
their southern extent.
Silviculture
Highly intensive silvicultural practices
are applied to forest plantations, using
chemicals and large-scale and mechanized
harvesting. Radiata pine in Chile is managed
as monoculture plantations, and management practices vary considerably according
to factors such as final product, site, and
ownership (Jélvez et al. 1990). Volume
growth rates of radiata pine vary between
257 and 500 ft3/acres/year (Toro and Gessel
1999) with an average of 357 ft3/acres/year.
According to Gerding (1991), Meneses and
Guzmán (2000), and Cubbage et al. (2007)
and our current knowledge, two silvicultural
regimes (pulp-oriented and clearwood-oriented) are typically applied to radiata pine
plantations owned by forestry companies.
For pulpwood, the stands are established
with 648 –1,013 trees/acre, thinned once,
and cut when they are between 18 and 25
years old, yielding 5,002–11,433 ft3/acres
with about 324 – 405 trees/acre. For clearwood, stands are planted with 506 –527
trees/acre, pruned two or three times to
maintain a clear bole up to 13–20 ft, generally thinned twice, and finally cut be-
tween ages 20 and 24, yielding 6,431–
8,575 ft3/acre from 182 trees/acre. In
both regimes, plantation establishment is
highly intensive, and the final cut is only
through clearcutting. However, there are
almost no limitations to the size or slopes
where clearcuts are done, which produces
large clearcut areas in the landscape of up
to 1,236 acres (Figure 3A).
Large-scale forest operations increase
hydrologic and morphological risks (Mohr
et al. 2011). Inadequate planning and execution of clearcuts have resulted in negative
impacts on biodiversity, water and soil processes, and aesthetic values, which has increased opposition to these practices even
where silviculturally warranted (McGinley
et al. 2013). On the contrary to radiata pine
plantations owned by forest companies,
plantations owned by small landowners are
mostly unmanaged (Gerding 1991) and
therefore best suited to produce pulp logs.
Eucalyptus species are largely used for pulp,
and therefore they are neither thinned nor
pruned. They are usually harvested around
14 –15 years, with growth rates of 426 –568
and 568 –710 ft3/acres/year for E. globulus
and E. nitens, respectively (Geldres and
Schlatter 2004, Muñoz et al. 2005).
Management of natural forests in Chile
is allowed by law but is less prevalent than
forest plantation management. Although a
good amount of silvicultural research has
been conducted in second-growth stands of
roble-raulí-coigüe (e.g., Puente et al. 1979,
1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and Quiroz
1999), lenga (e.g., Schmidt and Caldentey
2001, Rosenfeld et al. 2006), and evergreen
forests (e.g., Donoso 1989a, 1989b, Donoso
et al. 1999a, Navarro et al. 1999), only small
areas have undergone silvicultural treatments, especially thinning of second-growth
forests and selection cuttings (Figure 3D
and F). This might be due to the fact that
natural stands have been largely subjected to
illegal cuttings of the best trees and therefore
require further economic investment to become potentially productive units through
thinnings, supplementary planting, and
other restoration activities. This economic
investment could be done mostly by forestry
companies but is much more difficult for
small landowners, given that there is a lack
of suitable policy initiatives to support this
long-term investment and the market for
natural forest products is not as well developed as it is for plantations. Some simulated
scenarios provide positive net present values
for long-term management of these forests
Figure 3. View of a typical clearcut in the landscape (A) and a high graded native forest in the Andes of southcentral Chile (B), a managed
plantation of radiata pine (C), a stand of evergreen forest type under uneven-aged management (D), a plantation of well-managed
Eucalyptus nitens in the Chilean Coastal Range, stream buffers with protection of native vegetation (E), and invasive species management
for restoration to conserve the endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island (F). Photographs were taken by Pablo Donoso (A and D), Daniel
Soto (B, C, and E), and Rodrigo Vargas (F).
(Cubbage et al. 2007, Nahuelhual et al.
2007). The Chilean government, during
2008, approved a forestry law that would
give some economic support to landowners
willing to manage their natural stands under
a sustainable framework, but its application
has been negligible because of the small
amount of the subsidies.
Natural stands of roble-raulí-coigüe are
silviculturally important because of their
high timber value and good growth rates.
The greatest amount of silvicultural research plots (Lara et al. 2000) and published studies are concentrated in this type
of forest. These species are mainly distrib-
uted in second-growth even-aged stands
that are easy to manage because of their
relatively homogeneous structure. The mean
annual volume increment for unmanaged
roble-raulí-coigüe second-growth stands is between 71 and 214 ft3/acres/year (Donoso et al.
1993b, 1999b, Grosse and Quiroz 1999), but
can be as much as 314 ft3/acres/year under appropriate management (Donoso et al. 1993b).
Studies dealing with this forest type have been
focused on forest dynamics (Puente et al.
1979, 1981) and silvicultural research trials
(Puente et al. 1981, Grosse 1989, Grosse and
Quiroz 1999). Overall, roble-raulí-coigüe
stands have both the potential to be managed
based on current knowledge and economic interest.
Roble, raulí, and coigüe are promising
species for use in forest plantations. These
Nothofagus species are easy to propagate in
the nursery (Donoso et al. 1999b), establish
well (Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al.
2009) and are among the most valuable tree
species of the Chilean natural forests
(Siebert 1999, Díaz-Vaz et al. 2002). However, few studies have been done in robleraulí-coigüe plantations (Donoso et al.
1999b, Wienstroer et al. 2003, Donoso et al.
2013). In the last 30 years, some research
trials with plantations of these species have
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
5
been established and during the last 10 –15
years commercial plantations have been established as well. According to Cubbage
et al. (2007), Nothofagus plantations could
be harvested in rotations of 30 –35 years
with internal rates of return of 11–13%,
compared to 16% in radiata pine plantations. A mixture of exotic and native species
plantations also has been promoted and
shows good empirical growth rates (e.g.,
Douglas-fir and Nothofagus) (Siebert 1999).
Furthermore, in a financial assessment study
conducted by Hildebrandt et al. (2010), a
higher proportion of raulí in a mixed plantation with Douglas-fir was shown to be especially profitable under higher degrees of
risk aversion scenarios.
The Forest Sector and Chilean
Society
There are two public institutions related to the forest sector in Chile, the forest
service (CONAF) and the institute of forest
research (INFOR) both under the Ministry
of Agriculture. In addition to enforcing forestry laws and promoting the development
of the forest sector, CONAF supports the
conservation of natural protected areas and
the sustainable use of forest ecosystems.
CONAF promotes the establishment of forestry plantations and the management of
natural forests as a way to contribute to the
economic, environmental, and social development of Chile. INFOR generates scientific and technological knowledge for the
sustainable use of forest resources, including
the statistical information for different aspects of the forestry sector.
Forest products provide Chile’s second
largest export income after minerals, with
US$5.9 billion in 2011, 7.3% of total exports, contributing 2.7% of the total GDP
and providing about 300,000 jobs (INFOR
2012). The forest sector is the third most
important economic activity in the country
and is based largely on forest plantations of
radiata pine and Eucalyptus (Jélvez et al.
1990). Two major Chilean companies,
CMPC (Compania Manufacturera de Papeles y Cartones) and CELCO (Celulosa
Arauco y Constitucion), along with a few
other large companies, own 70% of the
plantations in Chile (INFOR 2005), concentrating the economic benefits in the
hands of a few (Collins and Lear 1995). Natural forests, which cover 34.8 million acres
(CONAF 2014), of which 21.6% are included in Chile’s national system of pro6
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
tected areas (SNASPE), are mostly owned by
small- and medium-sized landowners. It is
estimated that these natural forests have
been mostly subjected to high grading (i.e.,
cut the best and leave the worst) and that
only between 5 and 25% have been managed (Lara et al. 1997). Chile’s forest sector
is asymmetric (Donoso and Otero 2005) in
the sense that plantations are intensively
managed for pulp and other wood products
for export, with little value added (Gwynne
1993), whereas natural forests are mismanaged and high graded, mainly yielding firewood (Frêne and Núñez 2010).
The successes of the Chilean forestry
sector have not benefited most of the population. Although the plantation subsector
contributes the most forest-based exports, it
has not increased the quality of life where
most of these plantations have been established (Donoso and Otero 2005). Indeed,
the regions with more forest plantation
cover are the ones with the lowest human
development index values of the country
(Donoso and Otero 2005). Further details
regarding the conflicts of the Chilean forest
sector can be found in Reyes and Nelson
(2014). As pointed out by Ward (2007),
Chile’s competitive advantages (e.g., natural
resources and low-cost labor) come with
their own baggage, which must be considered when forestry competitiveness among
countries is compared (Sedjo et al. 1999).
For example, the relationship between
large forestry companies and the Mapuche
(i.e., the indigenous people in southcentral
Chile) has always been tense, with ongoing
disputes about land rights and documented
incidents of violence and protests (Montalba
and Carrasco 2005, Ward 2007, Frêne and
Núñez 2010). Mapuche confrontations
with corporate interests have grown more
violent, and according to Aylwin (2009 and
references therein), negligence from the government to resolve many of the Mapuche’s
historical demands have triggered these confrontations.
Indigenous people represent about
4.6% of the Chilean population (Instituto
Nacional de Estadísticas 2003), and the government created an indigenous subsecretary
(CONADI) in 1993 to support indigenous
people’s rights. However, several conflicts
remain.
Reducing the negative environmental
impacts of large-scale operations remains a
challenge for forestry companies. Despite
the fact that many people have portrayed
forestry companies as having a poor environ-
mental record, generally these forest companies have followed Chilean environmental
laws. Nevertheless, the Chilean laws are too
flexible in relation to a major and controversial forest activity: clearcutting (Donoso
2009). Although the size of individual
clearcut units has decreased, especially
among FSC-certified companies, clearcuts
are much larger than those applied in North
America and elsewhere, reaching a maximum allowed of approximately 1,233 acres
(Ward 2007). The impacts of large-scale
clearcuts in Chile have been addressed in
Donoso (2009) and Huber et al. (2010).
Another controversial issue has been
the conversion of native forests to forest
plantations (i.e., substitution). Even though
native forest replacement was more common in the past (Lara et al. 1997), it continues in the present (Altamirano et al. 2013,
Miranda et al. 2015). For instance, according to the monitoring program led by
CONAF in the region between 40° and 41°
S, the average annual loss of natural forest
has been about 4,942 acres.
In the last 10 –15 years, Chilean forestry companies have become more concerned about environmental issues in their
forest management operations. The total
area of FSC-certified plantations in 2004
was 758,487 acres (Paredes 2005), mainly
associated with either small plantationbased or natural forest-based companies.
Today, this number is about 3.7 million
acres (FSC-Chile4) after the incorporation
of large companies into this system in recent
years. Of the forestry plantations in Chile,
52% are now FSC-certified. However, two
main concerns remain: plantations continue
to be managed with traditional harvesting
schemes (e.g., large clearcuts on steep slopes
and intensive widespread use of chemicals to
control competing vegetation), whereas environmental standards are mostly implemented in the matrix surrounding industrial
plantations (e.g., creation of conservation
areas) but not within plantations; and an increasingly empowered society is demanding
environmental standards that are well beyond FSC standards to ensure water supply
from planted watersheds near local communities, landscape quality (i.e., aesthetic and
connectivity), and good maintenance of
public roads.
Forest product facilities (mainly pulp
mills) have experienced a number of environmental problems. For example, a recent
ecological disaster that involved the deaths
of multiple black-necked swans (Cygnus
melancoryphus) in a sanctuary in southern
Chile was linked to effluent from a local
pulp mill. One of the two largest forestry
companies, CELCO, built a US$1 billion
bleached kraft-type paper pulp mill on the
Rio Cruces near the city of Valdivia in
southern Chile. Since this mill began full
operations in February 2004, it has received
multiple complaints from the public concerning noise, noxious odors, and water pollution (Marcotte 2006). An 18.6-mile portion of the Rio Cruces north of Valdivia
corresponds to a large wetland, now a Nature Sanctuary, derived from massive flooding after a major earthquake in 1960 (Lagos
et al. 2008). In January 2004, there were
more than 6,000 black-necked swans in the
Sanctuary, however, during April to May
2004, dozens of these swans were found
dead (Mulsow and Grandjean 2006). Studies have reported that the pulp mill effluent
produced the decline of a subaquatic plant
that is the main source of food of blacknecked swans living in that Sanctuary, probably contributing to the death of these birds
(Mulsow and Grandjean 2006, Lagos et al.
2008). The justice system found CELCO
responsible for the pollution of the Sanctuary. Overall, the public (especially the inhabitants of Valdivia) has developed a negative perception of the CELCO pulp mill
(Marcotte 2006).
Forestry Education and
Research
Forestry education has a long tradition
in Chile. Formal training in forestry in Chile
came with the founding of two forestry
schools in the mid-1950s: the Universidad
de Chile and the Universidad Austral de
Chile. During the “boom” of the forest sector, from the 1980s to the mid-1990s, several new forestry schools were opened in the
country, producing an oversupply of foresters. There is a highly unbalanced proportion
between the amount of forestry schools and
both forested area and population size in
Chile. Although in developed countries,
there is one forestry school per 4 –10 million
inhabitants, at the end of 2004 in Chile
there was one forestry school per 1.5 million
inhabitants (Donoso and Otero 2005). Similarly, in Chile, there is one forestry school
per 3.7 million acres, but this number is between 17.2 and 32.1 million acres in developed countries. In the last decade, foresters
have difficulty in finding jobs, and several of
the newer forestry schools have stopped of-
fering forestry degrees (forest engineering)
because of a decline in enrollment, as also
pointed out by Nyland (2008) for the
United States. We estimate that in the future
only between two and four forestry schools
will offer the traditional forestry curriculum,
whereas careers in natural resources and environmental sciences continue to emerge.
Nevertheless, there is high uncertainty regarding the job market for new careers in
this area, because Chile’s job market is
mostly dominated by traditional professions. For instance, civil engineers are still
largely preferred by companies and government organizations for many of their environmental duties.
There are three doctoral programs in
forestry (i.e., Universidad Austral de Chile,
Universidad de Chile, and Universidad de
Concepción). In general, doctoral degrees
held by Chilean forestry professors have
been mostly obtained from German universities (e.g., University of Gottingen, University of Freiburg, and University of Munich)
and Spain (e.g., Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid, Universidad de Córdoba, and Universidad de Oviedo). However, in the past
15 years the proportion of professors being
trained in universities from the United
States (mainly Colorado State University,
Oregon State University, and North Carolina State University) has been increasing. In
the future, we expect an increasing number
of doctoral programs in areas related to forest science (e.g., environmental sciences,
ecology, and natural resources) rather than
pure forestry programs. Regardless, there is
still uncertainty about where the future doctoral graduates would work, given that new
forestry schools and/or departments are not
being created, INFOR has funding problems, and forestry companies do not usually
hire individuals with doctoral degrees. We
believe that master-level programs are much
needed, because their graduates can work directly in different fields and are more related
to the private sector. Masters programs can
also be focused on different subdisciplines
that can be applied to forestry problems,
such as cartography, energy, economy, environmental education, and others.
There is no guaranteed funding for
INFOR, the government-dependent institution for forest research. CONAF, the national forest service, is mainly in charge of
applying forestry laws and managing
SNASPE, but not for conducting research as
the US Department of Agriculture Forest
Service does. INFOR focuses its research al-
most exclusively on short-term projects, and
its production of peer-reviewed publications
is poor in comparison with those for traditional forestry schools (Acuña et al. 2013).
Technological funding has been mostly
granted to silviculture and industry technology-oriented topics, with only a small part
focused on natural forests. However, there
was an increase in projects granted to forest
management of natural forests in the period
from 2000 to 2004 (Díaz 2006). On the
other hand, ecological restoration in degraded forests and recovery of areas replaced
by fast-growing plantations in the past are
important targets/challenges for researchers,
companies, public service agencies, and
landowners. Some experiences in ecological
restoration are ongoing, but few of them
have been published; some examples are the
work in Pilgerodendron uviferum forests by
Bannister et al. (2013), in the endangered
endemic forest of Robinson Crusoe Island
by Vargas et al. (2013), and in the coigüeraulí-tepa forest type in the Andes (Donoso
et al. 2013).
Researchers at INFOR usually apply for
the same type of grants available for all forestry research projects in Chile, therefore,
competing with research centers such as universities. Although INFOR has been obtaining a larger proportion of grants for technological projects in the last decade (Díaz
2006), their researchers lack independent
funding for their own projects, e.g., nonproduction-oriented research, such as ecology
and wildlife. Furthermore, INFOR does not
have experimental forests where they could
carry out long-term research (Donoso and
Otero 2005).
Research on forest plantations has covered many topics in forestry or at least the
most important for forest production, such
as nursery establishment (e.g., Gerding et al.
1986, Rubilar et al. 2008), genetic improvement, integrated pest management (e.g.,
Lanfranco et al. 1994), thinning and pruning treatments, harvesting, forest planning
(e.g., Weintraub and Abramovich 1995,
Meneses and Guzmán 2000), growth simulators, and carbon markets (e.g., Espinosa et
al. 2005), among others. On the other hand,
research in natural forests has been largely
focused on ecological aspects, such as forest
dynamics (e.g., Donoso 1995, Veblen et al.
1996b), silvics (Donoso 2006), genetics
(Donoso et al. 2004), and silviculture
(Donoso and Lara 1999b, Donoso and Promis 2013). However, more extensive quantitative-oriented studies, particularly for natJournal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
7
ural forest stands, remain to be conducted
(Salas and Real 2013).
Concluding Remarks and Future
Challenges
Forestry in Chile has evolved with
highly different rates of development for
plantations of exotic species and for native
forests. Political efforts should focus on developing sustainable forest management for
plantations and natural forests with public
funding for research in natural forests and
private funding for forestry plantations. The
declining enrollment in forestry schools is
mainly a result of an oversupply of professional foresters, which results in unemployment and low salaries. The main challenges
to the Chilean forest sector can be summarized as follows: (a) to improve the relationship between large forestry companies and
indigenous and local communities; (b) to
promote the silvicultural management of
natural forests; (c) to enhance the potential
of natural forest for climate change adaptation and ecosystem services (e.g., carbon sequestration, provision of quality water, tourism, and nontimber forest products); (d) to
develop a high-value wood market for native
species; (e) to reduce the allowable size and
maximum slope for clear-cutting; and (f) to
improve or create laws and regulations to
address these challenges. We believe that advancing and promoting these issues will contribute to sustainable forest management of
Chilean forests and plantations.
Endnotes
1. We use the Spanish word “Cordillera” when
referring to either the Andes Mountains range
or the Coastal Mountains range.
2. The area of native species plantations only
covers the period between 1998 and 2013.
This area was computed based on data available at sit.conaf.cl/, the CONAF system of
land use information.
3. Two other scientific names, Nothofagus procera and Nothofagus nervosa, are also sometimes used; however, we prefer to use Nothofagus alpina, following the clarification given by
Grant and Clement (2004).
4. Information available from FSC-Chile website cl.fsc.org.
Literature Cited
ACUÑA, E., M. ESPINOSA, AND J. CANCINO. 2013.
Paper-based productivity ranking of Chilean
forestry institutions. Bosque 34(2):211–219.
ALTAMIRANO, A., P. APLIN, A. MIRANDA, L.
CAYUELA, A.C. ALGAR, AND R. FIELD. 2013.
High rates of forest loss and turnover obscured
by classical landscape measures. Appl. Geogr.
40:199 –211.
8
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
ARMESTO, J.J., P. LOBOS, AND M.K. ARROYO.
1995. Los bosques templados del sur de Chile
y Argentina: Una isla biogeográfica [Temperate forests of southern Chile and Argentina: A
biogeographic island]. P. 23–28 in Ecología de
los bosques nativos de Chile, Armesto, J.J., C.
Villagrán, and M.K. Arroyo (eds.). Editorial
Universitaria, Santiago, Chile.
ARMESTO, J.J., R. ROZZI, C. SMITH-RAMÍREZ,
AND M.T. ARROYO. 1998. Conservation targets in South American temperate forests. Science 282:1271–1272.
AYLWIN, J. 2009. Los derechos de los pueblos indigenas en Chile: Un balance a la luz de un
convenio no ratificado (el No. 169 de la OTI)
[The rights of indigenous peoples in Chile: A
balance in the light of a no-ratified agreement].
P. 3– 43 in Territorio y territorialidad en el contexto post-colonia estado Chileno-Nación Mapuche, Calbucura, J., and F. LeBonniec (eds.).
Working Pap. Ser. 30, Ñuke Mapuforlaget.
BANNISTER, J.R., R.E. COOPMAN, P.J. DONOSO,
AND J. BAUHUS. 2013. The importance of microtopography and nurse canopy for successful
restoration planting of the slow-growing conifer Pilgerodendron uviferum. Forests 4:85–103.
CLAPP, R.A. 2001. Tree farming and forest conservation in Chile: Do replacement forests
leave any originals behind? Soc. Natur. Resour.
14:341–356.
COLLINS, J., AND J. LEAR. 1995. Chile’s free market
miracle: A second look. Institute for Food and
Development, Oakland, CA. 320 p.
CORPORACIÓN NACIONAL FORESTAL. 2014.
Catastro de los recursos vegetacionales nativos de
Chile. Monitoreo de cambios y actualizaciones al
anho 2013 [Land vegetation resources of Chile.
Monitoring changes and updates for 2013].
CONAF, Departamento Monitoreo de Ecosistemas Forestales, Santiago, Chile. 35 p.
CUBBAGE, F., P.M. DONAGH, J.S. JÚNIOR, R. RUBILAR, P. DONOSO, A. FERREIRA, V. HOEFLICH,
ET AL. 2007. Timber investment returns for
selected plantation and native forests in South
America and the southern United States. New
For. 33(3):237–255.
DI CASTRI, F., AND E. HAJEK. 1976. Bioclimatología
de Chile [Bioclimatology of Chile]. Dirección de
Investigación, Vice-Rectoría Académica, Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. 163 p.
DÍAZ, J. 2006. Descripción y análisis de la investigación tecnológica forestal en Chile, durante el
período 2000 –2004 [Description and analysis of
forest technological research in Chile during the
period 2000 –2004]. Tesis Ingeniero Forestal,
Univ. de Chile, Santiago, Chile. 79 p.
DÍAZ-VAZ, J.E., H. POBLETE, R. JUACIDA, AND F.
DEVLIEGER. 2002. Maderas comerciales de Chile
[Commercial timbers of Chile]. Marisa Cúneo
Ediciones, Valdivia, Chile. 126 p.
DONOSO, C. 1981. Tipos forestales de los bosques
nativos de Chile [Native forest types of Chile].
Investigacíon y Desarrollo Forestal (CONAF/
PNUD/FAO), Documento de Trabajo No.
38 (Publicación FAO), Santiago, Chile. 82 p.
DONOSO, C. 1983. Modificaciones del paisaje
forestal chileno a lo largo de la historia [Chilean forest landscape changes throughout the
history]. I Encuentro Científico Medio Ambiente Chileno. Vers. Abrev. 1:109 –113.
DONOSO, C. 1989a. Antecedentes básicos para la
silvicultura del tipo forestal siempreverde [Basic silvicultural background for the evergreen
forest type]. Bosque 10(1):37–53.
DONOSO, C. 1989b. Regeneración y crecimiento
en el tipo forestal siempreverde costero y andino tras distintos tratamientos silviculturales
[Regeneration and growth in coastal and Andean evergreen forest type after different silvicultural treatments]. Bosque 10(2):53– 64.
DONOSO, C. 1995. Bosques templados de Chile y
Argentina: Variación, estructura y dinámica
[Temperate forests in Chile and Argentina: Variation, structure, and dynamics], 3rd ed. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, Chile. 484 p.
DONOSO, C. 1996. Ecology of Nothofagus forests
in central Chile. P. 271–292 in The ecology and
biogeography of Nothofagus forests, Veblen,
T.T., R.S. Hill, and J. Read (eds.). Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
DONOSO, C. (ED.). 2006. Las especies arbóreas de
los bosques templados de Chile y Argentina [Tree
species of temperate forests of Chile and Argentina]. Autoecología, Marisa Cuneo Ediciones,
Valdivia, Chile. 678 p.
DONOSO, C., R. DEUS, J.C. COCKBAINE, AND H.
CASTILLO. 1986. Variaciones estructurales del
tipo forestal coigüe-raulí-tepa [Structural variability of the forest type coigüe-raulí-tepa].
Bosque 7(1):17–35.
DONOSO, C., P. DONOSO, M. GONZÁLEZ, AND V.
SANDOVAL. 1999a. Los bosques siempreverdes
[The Evergreen forests]. P. 297–339 in Silvicultura de los bosques nativos de Chile, Donoso,
C., and A. Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria,
Santiago, Chile.
DONOSO, C., AND A. LARA. 1999a. Introducción
[Introduction]. P. 25–34 in Silvicultura de los
bosques nativos de Chile, Donoso, C., and A.
Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Santiago,
Chile.
DONOSO, C., AND A. LARA (EDS.). 1999b. Silvicultura de los bosques nativos de Chile [Silviculture of native Chilean forests]. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, Chile. 421 p.
DONOSO, C., A.C. PREMOLI, L. GALLO, AND R.
IPINZA (EDS.). 2004. Variación Intraespecífica
en las especies arbóreas de los bosques templados
de Chile y Argentina [Intraspecies variation in
the tree species of temperate forests in Chile and
Argentina]. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago,
Chile. 426 p.
DONOSO, P., M. GONZÁLEZ, B. ESCOBAR, I.
BASSO, AND L. OTERO. 1999b. Viverización y
plantación de raulí, roble y coigüe [Nurseries
and plantations of raulí, roble, and coigüe]. P.
177–244 in Silvicultura de los bosques nativos de
Chile, Donoso, C., and A. Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, Chile.
DONOSO, P., T. MONFIL, L. OTERO, AND V. BARRACES. 1993b. Estudio de crecimíento de plantaciones y renovales manejados de especies nativas en el área andina de las provincias de
Cautín y Valdivia [Growth study of plantations and managed secondary forests of native
species in the Andes of the provinces of Cautín
and Valdivia]. Cien. Invest. For. 7(2):253–288.
DONOSO, P., AND A. PROMIS (EDS.). 2013. Silvicultura en los bosques nativos: Avances en la investigación en Chile, Argentina y Nueva Zelanda
[Silviculture in native forests: Advances in research in Chile, Argentina, and New Zealand].
Editorial Maria Cuneo, Valdivia, Chile.
226 p.
DONOSO, P.J. 2009. Tala rasa: Desafío y perspectivas [Clearcuts: Challenges and prospects]. Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile. 88 p.
DONOSO, P.J., AND C. DONOSO. 2007. Chile:
Forest species and stand types. In Encyclopedia
of forests and forestry, Cubbage, F.W. (ed.). Society of American Foresters and International
Society of Tropical Foresters. Available online
at encyclopediaofforestry.org/index.php?title⫽
Chile02; last accessed Dec. 23, 2015.
DONOSO, P.J., AND L.A. OTERO. 2005. Hacia una
definición de país forestal: ¿Dónde se sitúa
Chile? [Towards a definition of a forest country: Where is Chile located?]. Bosque 26(3):5–
18.
DONOSO, P.J., D.P. SOTO, R.E. COOPMAN, AND
S. RODRIGUEZ-BERTOS. 2013. Early performance of planted Nothofagus dombeyi and
Nothofagus nervosa in response to light availability and gap size in a high-graded forest in
the south-central Andes of Chile. Bosque
33(1):23–32.
DONOSO, P.J., D.P. SOTO, J.E. SCHLATTER, AND
C.A. BÜCHNER. 2009. Effects of early fertilization on the performance of planted Nothofagus
dombeyi in coastal Range of south-central
Chile. Cien. Invest. Agr. 36(3):459 – 469.
ESPINOSA, M., E. ACUÑA, J. CANCINO, F. MUÑOZ,
AND D.A. PERRY. 2005. Carbon sink potential
of radiata pine plantations in Chile. Forestry
78(1):11–19.
FRÊNE, C., AND M. NÚÑEZ. 2010. Hacia un
nuevo modelo forestal en Chile [Towards a
new forest model in Chile]. Bosque Nat. 47:
25–35.
GAJARDO, R. 1994. La vegetación natural de Chile.
Clasificación y distribución geográfica [Classification and geographic distribution of the natural
vegetation in Chile]. Editorial Universitaria,
Santiago, Chile. 165 p.
GELDRES, E., AND J. SCHLATTER. 2004. Crecimiento de las plantaciones de Eucalyptus
globulus sobre suelos rojo arcillosos de la provincia de osorno, décima región [Growth of
Eucalyptus globulus plantations on red clay soils
in Osorno Province, Tenth Region]. Bosque
25(1):95–101.
GERDING, V. 1991. Manejo de las plantaciones de
Pinus radiata D. Don en Chile [Plantation
management of Pinus radiata D. Don in
Chile]. Bosque 12(3):3–10.
GERDING, V., J.E. SCHLATTER, AND L. BARRIGA.
1986. Fertilización para el establecimiento de
Pinus radiata D. Don en Valdivia [Fertilization to establish Pinus radiata D. Don in Valdivia]. Bosque 7(2):121–128.
GONZÁLEZ, M., M. CORTÉS, F. IZQUIERDO, L.
GALLO, C. ECHEVERRÍA, S. BEKKESY, AND P.
MONTALDO. 2006. Araucaria araucana. P.
36 –53 in Las especies arbóreas de los bosques
templados de Chile y Argentina, Autoecología,
Donoso, C. (ed.). Marisa Cuneo Ediciones,
Valdivia, Chile.
GONZÁLEZ, M.E. 2005. Fire history data as reference information in ecological restoration.
Dendrochronologia 22:149 –154.
GRANT, M.L., AND E.J. CLEMENT. 2004. Clarification of the name Nothofagus alpina and a
new epithet for a Nothofagus hybrid. Bot. J. Linnean Soc. 146(4):447– 451.
GROSSE, H. 1989. Renovales de raulí, roble,
coigüe y tepa, expectativas de rendimiento
[Secondary forest of raulí, roble, coigüe, and
tepa, yield expectations]. Cien. Invest. For.
3(6):37–72.
GROSSE, H., AND I. QUIROZ. 1999. Silvicultura de
los bosques de segundo crecimiento de roble,
raulí y coigüe en la región centro-sur de Chile
[Silvlculture of second-growth forests of roble,
raulí, and coigüe in the south-central region of
Chile]. P. 95–125 in Silvicultura de los bosques
nativos de Chile, Donoso, C., and A. Lara
(eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, Chile.
GWYNNE, R.N. 1993. Non-traditional export
growth and economic development: The Chilean forest sector since 1974. Bull. Latin Am.
Res. 12(2):147–169.
HILDEBRANDT, P., P. KIRCHLECHNER, A. HAHN,
T. KNOKE, AND R. MUJICA. 2010. Mixed species plantations in southern Chile and the risk
of timber price fluctuation. Eur. J. For. Res.
129(5):935–946.
HILL, R.S., AND M.E. DETTMANN. 1996. Origin
and diversification of the genus Nothofagus. P.
11–24 in The ecology and biogeography of
Nothofagus forests, Veblen, T.T., R.S. Hill, and
J. Read (eds.). Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
HUBER, A., A. IROUMÉ, C. MOHR, AND C. FRÊNE.
2010. Efecto de las plantaciones de Pinus radiata y Eucaliptus globulus sobre el recurso agua
en la Cordillera de la Costa de la Región del
Biobío, Chile [The effect of Pinus radiata and
Eucalyptus globulus plantations on the water resources of the coastal mountain range in the
Biobio Region, Chile]. Bosque 31(3):219 –
230.
HUSCH, B. 1982. Forestry in Chile. J. For. 80:
735–737.
INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ESTADÍSTICAS. 2003.
Censo 2002: Síntesis de resultados [Census 2002:
Synthesis of results]. Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Gobierno de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
50 p.
INSTITUTO FORESTAL. 2005. El sector forestal Chileno en una mirada [A look at the Chilean forest
sector]. Instituto Forestal, Gobierno de Chile,
Santiago, Chile. 64 p.
INSTITUTO FORESTAL. 2012. El sector forestal Chileno 2012 [The forest sector in Chile: 2012]. Instituto Forestal, Gobierno de Chile, Santiago,
Chile. 44 p.
JÉLVEZ, A., K.A. BLATNER, AND R.L. GOVETT.
1990. Forest management and production in
Chile. J. For. 88(3):30 –34.
LAGOS, N.A., P. PAOLINI, E. JARAMILLO, C.
LOVENGREEN, C. DUARTE, AND H. CONTRERAS. 2008. Environmental processes, water
quality degradation, and decline of waterbird
populations in the Rio Cruces Wetland, Chile.
Wetlands 28(4):938 –950.
LANFRANCO, D.M., A.M. AGUILAR, AND R. HORCOS. 1994. Parasitoides nativos en el control de
la polilla del brote del pino (Rhyacionia buoliana): ¿Un complejo funcional? [Native parasites for controlling pine shoot moth (Ryacionia buoliana): A functional complex?]. Bosque
15(1):15–26.
LARA, A., C. DONOSO, AND J.C. ARAVENA. 1997.
La conservación del bosque nativo en Chile:
Problemas y desafíos. P. 335–361 in Ecología
de los bosques nativos de Chile, Armesto, J., C.
Villagrán, and M. Arroyo (eds.). Editorial
Universitaria, Santiago, Chile.
LARA, A., C. DONOSO, B. ESCOBAR, A. ROVERE,
A. PREMOLI, D.P. SOTO, AND J.R. BANNISTER.
2006. Pilgerodendron uviferum (D. Don) florin. P. 82–91 in Las especies arbóreas de los
bosques templados de Chile y Argentina, Autoecología, Donoso, C. (ed.). Marisa Cuneo Ediciones, Valdivia, Chile.
LARA, A., C. ECHVERRÍA, AND C. DONOSO. 2000.
Guía de ensayos silviculturales permanentes en los
bosques nativos de Chile [Guide to long-term silvilcultural trials in native forests in Chile]. LOM
Ediciones, Santiago, Chile. 244 p.
LARA, A., AND T.T. VEBLEN. 1993. Forest plantations in Chile: A successful model? P. 118 –
139 in Afforestation: Policies, planning, and
progress, Mather, A. (ed.). Belhaven Press, London, UK.
LARA, A., AND R. VILLALBA. 1993. A 3260-year
temperature record from Fitzroya cupressoides
tree rings in southern South America. Science
260(5111):1104 –1106.
MARCOTTE, B. 2006. Environmental assessment,
CELCO-ARAUCO, and Chile’s wetland
sanctuary: Ethical considerations. Ethics Sci.
Environ. Politics 6:1– 4.
MARTIN, I. 1978. Anzucht und anbau von
Nothofagus in Deutschland [Propogation and
cultivation of Nothofagus in Germany]. Mitt.
Dtsch. Dendrol. Ges. 70:147–166.
MCGINLEY, K., R. ALVARADO, F. CUBBAGE, D.
DIAZ, P.J. DONOSO, L. GONCALVES, F.L. DE
SILVA, C. MACINTYRE, AND E. MONGES. 2013.
Regulating the sustainability of forest management in the Americas: Cross-country comparisons of forest legislation. Forests 3(3):467–
505.
MENESES, M., AND S. GUZMÁN. 2000. Productividad y eficiencia en la producción forestal
basada en las plantaciones de pino radiata
[Productivity and efficiency in productionforests based on plantations of Pinus radiata].
Bosque 21(2):3–11.
MIRANDA, A., A. ALTAMIRANO, L. CAYUELA, F.
PINCHEIRA, AND A. LARA. 2015. Different
times, same story: Native forest loss and landscape homogenization in three physiographical areas of south-central of Chile. Appl. Geogr.
60:20 –28.
MOHR, C., A. HUBER, AND A. BRONSTERT. 2011.
The effect of large scale clear cutting on infiltration conditions in experimental upland
catchments in the Chilean Coastal Range, BíoBío Region. Geophysical Res. Abstr. 13:
EGU2011-11030-1.
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
9
MONTALBA, R., AND N. CARRASCO. 2005. ¿Desarrollo sostenible o eco-etnicidio?: El proceso de
expansión forestal en territorio mapuche-nalche de Chile [Sustainable development or ecoethnocide? The process of expanding forests
into the Mapuche-Nalche territory of Chile].
Ager Rev. Estud. sobre Despoblación Desarrollo
Rural 4:101–133.
MORALES, R. 1996. Estudio de raleo y poda en
plantaciones de Pinus ponderosa, XI Región de
Aysén. Cien. Invest. For. 10(2):249 –263.
MORRONE, J.J. 2006. Biogeographic areas and
transition zones of Latin America and the Caribbean islands based on panbiogeographic
and cladistic analyses of the entomofauna.
Annu. Rev. Entomol. 51:467– 494.
MULSOW, S., AND M. GRANDJEAN. 2006. Incompatibility of sulfate compounds and soluble bicarbonate salts in the Rio Cruces waters: An
answer to the disappearance of Egeria densa
and black-necked swans in a RAMSAR sanctuary. Ethics Sci. Environ. Politics 6:5–11.
MUÑOZ, F., M. ESPINOZA, J. CANCINO, R. RUBILAR, AND M.A. HERRERA. 2005. Growth characteristics in diameter, height and volume of a
Eucalyptus nitens plantation with different silvicultural treatments for pruning and thinning. Bosque 26:93–99.
NAHUELHUAL, L., P. DONOSO, A. LARA, D.
NÚÑEZ, C. OYARZÚN, AND E. NEIRA. 2007.
Valuing ecosystem services of Chilean temperate rainforests. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 9(4):
481– 499.
NAVARRO, C., C. DONOSO, AND V. SANDOVAL.
1999. Los renovales de canelo [Secondary forest of Canelo]. P. 341–377 in Silvicultura de los
bosques nativos de Chile, Donoso, C., and A.
Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria, Santiago,
Chile.
NYLAND, R.D. 2008. The decline in forestry education enrollment-some observations and
opinions. Bosque 29(2):105–108.
OBERDORFER, J. 1960. Pflanzensoziologishe studien in Chile; ein vergleich mit Europa. Flora et
Vegetatio Mundi II [Phyto-sociological studies in
Chile; A comparison with Europe]. Verlag Von
J. Cramer, Weinheim, Germany. 208 p.
OLSON, D.M., AND E. DINERSTEIN. 1998. The
global 200: A representation approach to conserving the earth’s most biologically valuable
ecoregions. Conserv. Biol. 12(3):502–515.
OTERO, L. 2006. La huella del fuego. Historia de
los bosques nativos Poblamiento y cambios en el
paisaje del sur de Chile [Fire footprint. History of
native forests, settlement, and landscape changes
in southern Chile]. Pehuen Editores, Santiago,
Chile. 171 p.
PAREDES, G. 2005. Certification of industrial forest plantations: A view of production forestry
in Chile. N.Z. J. For. Sci. 35(2/3):290 –302.
PEARCE, M.L. 1977. The Nothofagus in Britain.
For. Br. Timber 6(1):20 –22.
PUENTE, M., C. DONOSO, R. PEÑALOZA, AND E.
MORALES. 1979. Estudio de raleo y otras técnicas
para el manejo de renovales de raulí (Nothofagus
alpina) y roble (Nothofagus obliqua). Etapa I:
Identificación y caracterización de renovales de
10
Journal of Forestry • MONTH 2016
raulí y roble [Study of thinning and other techniques for management of secondary forests of
raulí (Nothofagus alpina) and roble (Nothofagus obliqua). Phase I: Identification and characterization of second-growth stands]. Informe de
convenio No. 5, Proyecto CONAF/PNUD/
FAO-CHI/76/003, Santiago, Chile. 88 p.
PUENTE, M., R. PEÑALOZA, C. DONOSO, R. PAREDES, P. NÚÑEZ, E. MORALES, AND O. ENGDAHL. 1981. Estudio de raleo y otras técnicas
para el manejo de renovales de raulí (Nothofagus
alpina) y roble (Nothofagus obliqua). Etapa II:
Instalación de ensayos de raleo [Study of thinning
and other techniques for management of secondary forests of raulí (Nothofagus alpina) and
roble (Nothofagus obliqua). Phase II: Installation of thinning trials]. Documento de trabajo
No. 41, Proyecto CONAF/PNUD/FAOCHI/76/003, Santiago, Chile. 63 p.
RECART, H. 1973. Development of forestry in
Chile and the role of Pinus radiata. J. For.
71(7):407– 411.
REYES, R., AND H. NELSON. 2014. A tale of two
forests: Why forests and forest conflicts are
both growing in Chile. Int. For. Rev. 16(4):
379 –388.
ROSENFELD, J.M., R.M. NAVARRO, AND J.R.
GUZMAN. 2006. Regeneration of Nothofagus
pumilio [Poepp. et Endl.] Krasser forests after
five years of seed tree cutting. J. Environ. Manage. 78(1):44 –51.
RUBILAR, R., L. BLEVINS, J. TORO, A. VITA, AND F.
MUÑOZ. 2008. Early response of Pinus radiata
plantations to weed control and fertilization
on metamorphic soils of the Coastal Range,
Maule Region, Chile. Bosque 29(1):74 – 84.
SALAS, C., AND O. GARCÍA. 2006. Modelling
height development of mature Nothofagus obliqua. For. Ecol. Manage. 229(1–3):1– 6.
SALAS, C., AND P. REAL. 2013. Biometría de los
bosques naturales de Chile: Estado del arte [Biometrics of natural forests of Chile: The state
of the art]. P. 109 –151 in Silvicultura en los
bosques nativos: Avances en la investigación en
Chile, Argentina y Nueva Zelanda, Donoso, P.,
and A. Promis (eds.). Marisa Cuneo Ediciones,
Valdivia, Chile.
SCHATAN, J. 2001. Poverty and inequality in
Chile: Offspring of 25 years of neo-liberalism.
Dev. Soc. 30(2):57–77.
SCHMIDT, H., AND J. CALDENTEY. 2001. Seguimiento forestal y ambiental del uso de los bosques
de lenga XII Región [Forestry and environmental monitoring of the use of Lenga forests in the
12th Region]. Tech. rep., Univ. de Chile, Corporación Nacional Forestal XII Región, Santiago, Chile. 27 p.
SCHMITH ÜSEN, J. 1956. Die rümliche ordnung
der chilenischen vegetation [The spatial arrangement of vegetation in Chile]. Bonner
Geogr. Abhandl. 17:1– 89.
SEDJO, R.A., A. GOETZL, AND S.O. MOFFAT.
1999. Sustainability of temperate forests. Tech.
Rep. Resources for the Future, Washington,
DC. 102 p.
SIEBERT, H. 1999. La silvicultura alternativa: Un
concepto silvícola para el bosque nativo chil-
eno [Alternative silviculture: Concepts for
Chilean native forests]. P. 381– 407 in Silvicultura de los bosques nativos de Chile, Donoso,
C., and A. Lara (eds.). Editorial Universitaria,
Santiago, Chile.
SOTO, D.P., P.J. DONOSO, D. UTEAU, AND A.
ZÚÑIGA-FEEST. 2009. Environmental factors
affect the spatial arrangement of survival and
damage in a outplanted Nothofagus dombeyi
plantation seedlings in the Chilean Andes. Interciencia 33(1):23–32.
STATTERSFIELD, A.J., M.J. CROSBY, A.J. LONG,
AND D.C. WEGE. 1998. Endemic bird areas of
the world: Priorities for biodiversity conservation.
Birdlife International, Cambridge, UK.
TORO, J., AND S.P. GESSEL. 1999. Radiata pine
plantations in Chile. New For. 18(1):33– 44.
VARGAS, R., S. GÄRTNER, M. ALVAREZ, E. HAGEN,
AND A. REIF. 2013. Does restoration help the
conservation of the threatened forest of Robinson Crusoe Island? The impact of forest gap
attributes on endemic plant species richness
and exotic invasions. Biodivers. Conserv. 22(6):
1283–1300.
VEBLEN, T.T. 2007. Temperate forests of the
southern Andean region. P. 217–231 in The
physical geography of South America, Veblen,
T.T., K.R. Young, and A.R. Orme (eds.). Oxford University Press, New York.
VEBLEN, T.T., C. DONOSO, T. KITZBERGER, AND
A.J. REBERTUS. 1996a. Ecology of southern
Chilean and Argentinean Nothofagus forests.
P. 293–353 in The ecology and biogeography of
Nothofagus forests, Veblen, T.T., R.S. Hill, and
J. Read (eds.). Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
VEBLEN, T.T., R.S. HILL, AND J. READ. (EDS.).
1996b. The ecology and biogeography of
Nothofagus forests. Yale University Press, New
Haven, CT. 428 p.
VEBLEN, T.T., AND F.M. SCHLEGEL. 1982. Reseña
ecológica de los bosques del sur de Chile [Review of forest ecology of southern Chile].
Bosque 4(2):73–115.
WARD, N. 2007. FRA’s Chilean tour challenges
and realities. For. Oper. Rev. 9(1):9 –11.
WEINTRAUB, A., AND A. ABRAMOVICH. 1995.
Analysis of uncertainty of future timber yields
in forest management. For. Sci. 41(2):297–
304.
WIENSTROER, M., H. SIEBERT, AND B. MÜLLERUSING. 2003. Competencia entre tres especies
de Nothofagus y Pseudotsuga menziesii en plantaciones mixtas jóvenes, establecidas en la precordillera andina de Valdivia [Competition
between three species of Nothofagus and Pseudotsuga menziesii in young mixed stands
planted in the foothill zone of the Andes
Mountains, Valdivia/Chile]. Bosque 24(3):17–
30.
WILCOX, K. 1996. Chile’s native forests: A conservation legacy. Ancient Forest International,
Redway, CA. 161 p.
WILSON, K., A. NEWTON, C. ECHEVERRÍA, C.
WESTON, AND M. BURGMAN. 2005. A vulnerability analysis of the temperate forests of
south central Chile. Biol. Conserv. 122:9 –21.