Teoría 2do año - 2011

ESCUELA TÉCNICA DE
VIALIDAD NACIONAL Nº 2
“ING. Juan Domingo Pío”
Cuadernillo de Inglés II
Carrera de
Técnico Superior en Obras Viales
AÑO MMXI
Trelew - Chubut
Docente: Marcela N. Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Índice
Parte I - Gramática
Pág.
Oraciones simples. Orden de las palabras
Presente Perfecto
Presente Perfecto Continuo
Pasado Continuo
Pasado Perfecto
Pasado Perfecto Continuo
Futuro Simple
Futuro Progresivo
Futuro Perfecto
Futuro Perfecto Progresivo
Futuro con “going to”
Oraciones Condicionales
Frases Verbales
Voz Activa y Voz Pasiva
Estilo Indirecto (reported speech)
Oraciones: Causa
Obligaciones y Requerimientos
Oraciones: Causa y Efecto
Escala de probabilidades
Oraciones de Relativo (relative clauses)
Oraciones Subordinadas de propósito y resultado
Adjetives and adverbs
Preposiciones de tiempo
Preposiciones de Lugar
Cuantificadores
Contrastando ideas
Verbos Modales
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Parte II - Actividades
Oraciones simples. Orden de las palabras
Presente Perfecto
Presente perfecto o Pasado simple
Presente perfecto continuo
Presente perfecto continuo y simple
Pasado continuo
Pasado continuo o Pasado simple
Pasado perfecto
Pasado perfecto continuo
Futuro simple
Futuro continuo
Futuro perfecto
Futuro perfecto progresivo
Futuro con “going to”
Tiempos verbales: Presente
Tiempos verbales: Pasado
Tiempos verbales: Futuro
Oraciones Condicionales
Frases verbales
Voz Activa vs Voz pasiva
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Estilo indirecto (reported speech)
Oraciones de causa
Obligaciones y requerimientos
Oraciones: causa y efecto
Escala de probabilidades
Oraciones de relativo (relative clauses)
Oraciones subordinadas de propósito y
resultado
Adjetivos y adverbios
Preposiciones de tiempo
Preposiciones de lugar
Cuantificadores (quantifiers)
Contrastando ideas
Verbos modales
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Parte III – Textos
Portland Cement
Excavator
Bullzoder
Concrete Mixer
Grader
Road roller
Ready-mix
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Este cuadernillo fue diseñado y armado por la Docente Marcela Noemí Morejón
para la Cátedra de Laboratorio de Idioma II de la Carrera de Técnico Superior en Obras
Viales que se dicta en la Escuela Técnica de Vialidad Nacional N°2 “Ing. Juan Domingo
Pío”.
El material fue tomado de distintas fuentes las cuales figuran en el apartado de
Bibliografía y las explicaciones se tradujeron al castellano con el objetivo de proveer al
alumno una fuente de consulta práctica y autónoma
Trelew (Chubut), Abril 2011
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Oraciones Simples
Orden de las palabras
Una oración nos dice “algo”, contiene una idea. Es una Oración Simple aquella que sólo nos
cuenta una sola cosa.
El orden de las palabras en una oración es muy importante. Observa estas dos oraciones.
Ambas contienen las mismas palabras pero no dicen los mismo:
The policeman arrested the thief
The thief arrested the policeman
Una Oración Simple puede tener seis partes, pero no siempre tiene esa misma cantidad.
Estudia la siguiente tabla y nota cómo la columna nro. 6 (When?) puede estar al principio o al final
de la oración.
6
1
When?
Last week
2
Who?
Which?
What?
3
Action
I
I
went
had
The play
was
I
A young man
and a young
woman
They
did not enjoy
were sitting
4
Who?
Which?
What?
5
How?
6
Where?
When?
to the theatre
a very good
seat.
very
interesting.
it.
were talking
behind me.
loudly
Algunos adverbios (por ejemplo always, also, probably) van con el verbo en medio de una
oración.
Tom always goes to work by car
We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry
Estudia estas reglas. (puede haber excepciones)
1- Si el verbo es una palabra (goes/fells/cooked, etc) , el adverbio usualmente va antes del
verbo
Tom always goes to work by car
Observa que estos adverbios (always/often/also, etc) van antes de Have to
Jim never phones me. I always have to phone him
2- Los adverbios van después de am/is/are/was/were:
We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry.
3- Si el verbo es de dos o más palabras (can remember/doesn’t smoke/has been stolen, etc)
al adverbio va después del primer verbo (can/doen’t/has, etc)
I can never remember his name
Ann doesn’t usually smoke
Observa que probably va después del negative:
I probably won’t see you
También usamos all y both en esta posición:
We all felt ill after the meal
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My parents are both teachers
We are all going out this evening
A veces usamos is/will/did, etc en lugar de repetir parte de una oración. Observa la posición de
always/never, etc en estas oraciones.
He always says he won’t be late but he always is
I’ve never done it and I never will
Tiempos Verbales
Present Tenses
Presente perfecto
Sujeto + have / has + pasado participio
Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Cuando hay conexión con el presente. Ej.
I have washed my car (it is clean now)
Para dar información nueva o anunciar un acontecimiento reciente. Ej.
I have lost my purse. Can you help me?
Para hablar sobre experiencias personales o acontecimientos de la vida. Ej.
I have been to America twice
El ‘present perfect simple’ conecta / une el pasado y el presente de una manera parecida al
pretérito perfecto en español. Si decimos que algo ha ocurrido ('has happened'), pensamos del pasado
y del presente a la vez como si hiciésemos un puente del pasado al presente.
Ejemplo:
- I can’t do my homework because I’ve lost my book.
- No puedo hacer mis deberes porque he perdido mi libro.
Así que muchas veces podemos cambiar una frase del ‘present perfect simple’ al ‘present simple’ y
queda con un significado parecido.
I’ve lost my book
I don’t have it now
Have you seen the new Leonardo Di Caprio film
Do you know it.
Your sister has left the door open
The door is open now
Hasn’t Danny got married yet?
Is he still single?
I’ve finally found a job
I have a job now
El ‘present perfect’ es usado frecuentemente con las siguientes expresiones de tiempo:
Ever and never
Have you ever been to Scotland? / ¿Has estado alguna vez en Escocia?
I’ve never eaten paella. / Nunca he comido paella.
Just
I’ve just made tea, would you like a cup? / Acabo de hacer té. ¿Quieres una taza?
Ana and Jesús have just had a baby / Ana y Jesús acaban de tener un niño.
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Recently and lately
I’ve recently passed the F.C.E. exam and I’m studying for the C.A.E. / Acabo de aprobar el
exámen de FCE y estoy estudiando para el CAE.
Have you seen John lately? / ¿Has visto a John ultimamente?
So far
I’ve had three beers so far this evening and it’s only eight o’clock! / He tomado hasta ahora tres
cervezas esta tarde y sólo son las ocho.
Yet and already
'yet' - normalmente se utiliza en frases interrogativas y va al final de la oración. Se usa
cuando esperamos que algo va a pasar en el futuro, no en el pasado ni en el presente.
Have you done your homework yet? / ¿Has terminado ya los deberes?
I don’t think Manoli has done the shopping yet. / Creo que Manoli todavía no ha hecho la compra.
'already' - se usa en frases afirmativas e interrogativas y normalmente va detrás de los
verbos auxiliares o modales y delante de los demás verbos. Con 'already' decimos que algo está en
el presente o el pasado, no en el futuro.
Yes, I’ve already finished my homework / Sí, ya he terminado mis deberes
En Inglés británico yet y already acompaña habitualmente a los tiempos perfectos. En
Inglés Americano prefieren usar los tiempos pasados.
Compara:
Have you phoned your mother yet? (UK)
Did you phone your mother yet? (USA)
I’ve already phoned her (UK)
I already phoned her (USA)
Since and for
'For' - (how long something has lasted) Se usa para decir cuánto tiempo ha durado una
acción. En español suele decirse ‘desde hace’.
We’ve had this computer for about six months. / Tenemos esta computadora desde hace unos
seis meses.
'Since' - (when something started) Se usa como una referencia a un punto de tiempo cuando
algo empezó. En español suele decirse ‘desde’ o ‘desde que’.
We’ve had this car since January / Tenemos este coche desde enero.
Comparar:
I’ve known Eric since 1989.
I’ve known Eric for 15 years (si estamos en 2004)
Presente perfecto continuo
Sujeto + have / has + been + (verbo + ing)
Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Cuando hablamos sobre un periodo de tiempo que continua hasta el presente. Ej.
I have been feeling very tired lately
Para describir una actividad que ha tomado mucho tiempo. Ej.
Where have you been?
I have been playing rugby
Para enfatizar la duración de tiempo que ha tomado una actividad. Ej.
I have been waiting for an hour and she hasn’t phoned yet
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Past Tenses
Pasado Continuo
Sujeto + was / were + (verbo + ing)
Usamos este tiempo verbal
Para describir una acción que estaba incompleta cuando otra acción sucedió. Ej:
While I was doing my homework the phone rang
Pasado perfecto
Sujeto + had + pasado participio
Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Usamos este tiempo verbal para describir un evento que sucedió antes de que otro evento
en el pasado. Ej.
When I arrived at the airport, the plane had taken off
Para hablar sobre dos tiempos a la vez: el pasado y otro pasado anterior a este.
I lived in Spain for 10 years, but I had also lived there for 5 years before that. (Viví en España 10
años pero anteriormente también había vivido aquí 5 años.)
Pasado perfecto continuo
Sujeto + had + been + (verbo + ing)
Usamos este tiempo verbal para expresar por cuánto tiempo algo ha estado sucediendo antes de que
algo más sucediera. Ej.
He had been waiting for twenty minutes when the bus finally arrived
Utilizamos este tiempo para referirnos a eventos pasados que eran continuos y fueron llevado a
cabo durante un periodo de tiempo en el pasado. Ejemplo
He had been waiting for his parcel for one week.
Él había estado esperando su paquete durante una semana
I had been studying all morning. (Había estado estudiando toda la mañana)
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También podemos utilizar el pasado perfecto continuo para mencionar una acción continua en el
pasado que tiene consecuencias en el presente o en el pasado especificando cuando comenzó la
acción. Podemos expresar el momento en el que la acción continua empezó utilizando un adverbio
de tiempo o una frase que indique un punto en el tiempo. Ejemplo
Since he watched that film, he had not been sleeping properly.
Desde que vio esa película, él no había estado durmiendo bien
Future tenses
Futuro simple
Sujeto + will + verbo infinitive
Este tiempo verbal es usado:
Para expresar un evento general o indefinido en el futuro. Ej.
I will probably go on holliday next month
Para ofrecer colaboración en algo. Ej.
That bag is too heavy for you. I will help you with it
Para pedirle algo a alguien. Ej.
Will you take it to the library for me, please?
Futuro progresivo
Esta forma del futuro es usada en inglés con mayor frecuencia que en español. Su estructura
es la siguiente:
sujeto+ futuro de 'to be' + gerundio del verbo a conjugar
You will be flying to Paris tomorrow at this hour / Mañana a esta hora estarás volando hacia Paris
Sirve para indicar una acción que se desarrollará en el futuro. Pueden ser acciones o
situaciones que no conocemos cuándo exactamente se producirán aunque también puede expresar
acciones ya planificadas y que se producirán en un determinado momento.
They will be leaving tomorrow / Ellos saldrán mañana
Las formas negativa, interrogativa e interrogativa-negativa se construyen de forma análoga a
la explicada para el futuro simple.
FORMA NEGATIVA
FORMA INTERROGATIVA
FORMA INT. NEGATIVA
I shall / will not be playing
no estaré jugando
shall / will I be playing?
¿estaré jugando?
shall / will I not be playing?
¿no estaré jugando?
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Futuro perfecto
Sirve para indicar la duración de una acción. Expresa una acción que terminará en un
determinado momento del futuro. Suele ir acompañado de la preposición 'by'.
They will have written the novel by next month / Ellos habrán escrito la novela el próximo
mes.
Su estructura es la siguiente:
sujeto + futuro de 'to have' + participio
FORMA AFIRMATIVA FORMA NEGATIVA FORMA INTERROGATIVA
I shall have played
Yo habré jugado
I shall not have played
Yo no habré jugado
Shall I have played?
¿Habré jugado?
INTERROGATIVO-NEGATIVA: Shall I not have played? / ¿No habré jugado?
futuro perfecto progresivo
Sirve para expresar acciones que se desarrollan hasta un momento determinado del futuro en
el que pueden finalizar o no.
Next year I shall have been studying ten years / El año próximo llevaré diez años estudiando.
Su estructura es la siguiente:
sujeto + futuro de 'to have' + participio de 'to be' + gerundio
FORMA AFIRMATIVA FORMA NEGATIVA
I shall have been playing
Yo habré estado jugando
I shall not have been playing
Yo no habré estado jugado
FORMA INTERROGATIVA INTERROG-NEGATIVA
Shall I have been playing?
¿Habré estado jugando?
Shall I not have been playing?
¿No habré estado jugando?
Más ejemplos:
Afirmativo
I will have been going to London - ( Habré estado yendo a London )
He will have been going to London - ( El habrá estado yendo a London )
Negativo
I won't have been going to London - ( No habré estado yendo a London )
He won't have been going to London - ( El no habrá estado yendo a London )
Interrogativo
Will I have been going to London ? - ( ¿ Habré estado yendo a London ? )
Will he have been going to London ? - ( ¿ Habrá él estado yendo a London ? )
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Futuro con “Going to”
Sujeto + Verbo to be + going to + verbo en infinitive
Este tiempo verbal es usado:
Cuando hay algo en la situación presente que muestra que algo sucederá en un futuro
inmediato. Ej.
Look at these clouds. It is going to rain
Para expresar una intención o evento definido en el futuro. Ej.
I am fed up with walking every day. I am going to buy a car
Oraciones Condicionales
Una oración condicional tiene dos oraciones: La oración con IF y la oración principal. Hay
cuatro tipos principales de oraciones condicionales: Conditional I, Conditional II, Conditional III y
Universal Conditions
Usos:
Usamos oraciones condicionales para hablar sobre la relación entre dos eventos y sus
consecuencias:
If our survey indicates the possibility of oil (event), then we will do some drilling (consequence)
Conditional I
Aquí el hablante ve el evento como una posibilidad real
If the oil field is productive, we will recover our exploration costs in a short time
Conditional II
Aquí el hablante ve el evento como una posibilidad remota
If there was a blowout, we would evacuate the rig immediately
Conditional III
Aquí el hablante reconoce que el evento es imposible, no puede concretarse
If we hadn’t made this find, we would have leased out our tankers
Universal Conditions
Aquí el hablante indica que la consecuencia siempre sigue al evento
If a rock is permeable, it allows water or other fluids, such as oil, to pass through it
Nota:
1) Estas expresiones significan “IF” y “ONLY IF”
Provided / providing (that)
on condition that
so long as
Provided that the results of our surveys are positive, we will continue to drill here
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2) Estas expresiones indicant que un evento future podría o no suceder
In case
In the case of
in the event that
in the event of
In case of corrosion, stop all activity
3) Unless means “if…not”
Do not return to the rig unless the supervisor gives you instructions to do so
Frases Verbales
Ejemplos
-
Next month the production department will start to control stock levels every week.
Next month the production department will start controlling stock levels every week.
Do you like working on the assembly line?
Do you like to work on the assembly line?
Formas
Después de algunos verbos podemos usar:
Verbo ...ing o infinitive + to
We will continue to automate the process
We will continue automating the process
You should never try to operate this machinery unless you are wearing protective clothing.
You should never try operating this machinery unless you are wearing protective clothing.
Usos:
A veces el significado es el mismo, a veces es diferente
1) Igual significado:
Podemos usar ambas formas después de estos verbos
Begin continua intend prefer start
We prefer to inspect stock levels on a monthly basis.
We prefer inspecting them twice a month.
2) Diferente significado
Podemos usar ambas formas después de estos verbos pero con un significado diferente
Forget remember try
Please remember to check the bill of materials. (Don't forget)
l remember checking the bill of materials. (I checked it and l remember it)
We tried to mix the two chemicals that you delivered (we attempted to do it)
We tried mixing the two chemicals that you delivered. (we experimented with it)
3) Pequeña diferencia de significado
The employees like rotating jobs, as it Increases their motivation. (They enjoy it)
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We like to use a subcontractor to maintain this equipment. (it is a good thing to do)
Observación:
1) We would like ______________________ (as is)
2) We prefer to use organic products rather than chemical ones.
We prefer organic products rather than chemical ones.
We prefer carrying out thorough lab tests to field trials.
We prefer carrying out thorough lab tests to trialing the products in the field.
We would like to introduce quality circles next year. (not we would like introducing)
Voz Activa vs Voz Pasiva
Cada oración en Voz Activa tiene al menos 2 partes:
Un sujeto [1] + un verbo en forma activa
We normally produce a preliminary analysis
[1]
[2]
Cada oración en Voz Pasiva tiene al menos 2 partes
Un sujeto [1] + un verbo en voz pasiva [2]
A preliminary analysis is normally produced
[
1
] [
2
]
Regla: Se introduce el verbo To Be en el tiempo del verbo principal. El verbo principal pasa a
Participio. Los auxiliares o verbos modales se mantienen. (Can/must/should/etc).
El objeto directo de la Voz Activa pasa a ser el Sujeto de la Voz Pasiva. Puede incorporarse
la partícula BY en caso que fuese necesario.
Spanish is spoken in Argentina
(sujeto)
Argentinians speak Spanish
ACTIVA
(objeto)
PASIVA
Usos:
Usamos un verbo en voz activa para describir acciones y eventos. Por ejemplo:
Paper still plays a vital role in our lives –newspapers tell us the events of the
day, and books entertain and educate us. Paper has been with us since 105 AD. The
Chinese first used it to make records; later it spread to all parts of the world.
Podemos usar la Voz Pasiva en las siguientes situaciones:
1) No es relevante el sujeto que realiza la acción. Ej.
Ancient paper was made entirely of rags, modern paper is made from wood
pulp –a faster and cheaper alternative.
2) En descripción de procesos. Ej.
First the logs are stripped of barks, cut into smaller sections, and made into
chips. The chips are put into a large tank called a digester and allowed to stew in a
chemical mix under pressure. The wood pulp that is created by this process is then
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
washed to remove any chemicals and pressed through screens to remove chunks and
foreign objects. The pulp is then drained of water to form a mass that is then bleached
and washed again.
3) En lenguaje impersonal. Ej.
The chemicals in this process are toxic: safety clothing must be worn
Este es el estilo de una orden o instrucción escrita.
Estudia la siguiente lista de las formas del verbo en pasiva.
(pp = participio pasado)
Verb Tense
Present simple
Present continuous
Future (will)
Future (going to)
Past simple
Past continuous
Structure
am/are/is + pp
am/are/is being + pp
will be + pp
am/are/is going to be + pp
was/were + pp
was/were being + pp
Present perfect
Past perfect
have/has been + pp
had been + pp
Future perfect
will have been + pp
Example
Spanish is spoken here.
Your questions are being answered.
It’ll be painted by next week.
Terry is going to be made redundant next year.
We were invited to the party, but we didn’t go.
The hotel room was being cleaned when we got
back from shopping.
The President of America has been shot.
When he got home he found that all of his money
had been stolen.
Our baby will have been born before Christmas.
Las Formas Verbales en Activa y Pasiva
Active and Passive Verb Forms
Activo – con el verbo ‘to live’ (vivir)
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Present simple – I live, you live, we live, he/she/it lives, we live, they live
Present progressive (or continuous) – I am living, you are living etc.
Present perfect simple – I have lived, you have lived, he/she/it has lived etc.
Present perfect progressive – I have been living, you have been living etc.
Past simple – I lived, you lived, he/she/it lived etc.
Past progressive – I was living, you were living etc.
Past perfect simple – I had lived, you had lived etc.
Past perfect progressive – I had been working, you had been working etc.
Future simple – I will work, you will work, you will work, he/she/it will work, we
will work, they will work.
Future progressive – I will be working, you will be working etc.
Future perfect simple – I will have worked, you will have worked etc.
Future perfect progressive – I will have been working, you will have been
working etc.
Infinitives – (to) work, (to) be working, (to) have worked, (to) have been
working
-ing forms – working, having worked
Past participle - worked
Pasivo – con el verbo ‘to make’ (hacer)
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Present simple – it is made, they are made etc.
Present progressive – it is being made, they are being made etc.
Present perfect – it has been made, they have been made etc.
Past simple – it was made, they were made etc.
Past progressive – it was being made, they were being made etc.
Past perfect – it had been made, they had been made etc.
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Future simple - it will be made, they will be made etc.
Future perfect – it will have been made, they will have been made etc.
‘Going to’ future – it is going to be made, they are going to be made etc.
Estilo indirecto (Reported speech)
Compara la diferencia entre el estilo directo y el indirecto:
Estilo directo:
- He said: “I don´t want to go home yet.”
Estilo indirecto o reported speech:
- He said (that) he didn´t want to go home yet.
•
•
En estilo indirecto that es opcional. Si se incluye, el registro es algo más formal que si se
omite.
Cuando los verbos como say, ask, tell, etc. (reporting verbs) están en pasado, cambia el
tiempo verbal del resto de la oración en el estilo indirecto. La excepción se produce cuando
hablamos de algo que aún tiene validez en el presente:
They told me: “Water boils at 100 degrees” They told me (that) water boils at 100 degrees.
She said: “He has to work all weekend” She said (that) he had to work all weekend.
Cambios de tiempo verbal en el estilo indirecto:
Estilo directo
Presente simple
I enjoy reading comics.
Presente continuo
She´s washing the dishes.
Pasado simple
I worked for an art gallery.
Pasado continuo
He was making dinner.
Presente perfecto
We have watched all those films.
Futuro
I´ll post those letters.
Can
I can´t wait any longer.
Must
I must take that train.
May
She may lend me some money.
Estilo indirecto (Reported speech)
Pasado simple
He said he enjoyed reading comics
Pasado continuo
He said she was washing the dishes.
Pasado perfecto
He said he had worked for an art gallery.
Pasado perfecto continuo
He said he had been making dinner.
Pasado perfecto
He said they had watched all those films.
Condicional simple (would)
He said he would post those letters.
Could
He said he couldn´t wait any longer.
Had to
He said he had to take that train.
Might
He said she might lend him some money.
Reporting verbs:
- Verbo + (that): say, claim, explain, insist, agree, complain, deny, reply.
- Verbo + pronombre objeto + (that): tell (She told me that...)
- Verbo + infinitivo con to: offer, refuse, agree, promise...
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- Verbo + for + verbo(-ing): apologise, thank
Expresiones que cambian en estilo indirecto:
Estilo directo
Pronombres personales y objeto
Estilo indirecto (Reported speech)
She said she didn´t know me.
He said they were late.
“I don´t know you”
“We are late”
Posesivos
He said that wasn´t his book.
“That´s not my book”
Adverbios y expresiones de tiempo
the next day / the following day
that day
the day before / the previous day
the following week
the week before, the previous week
then / at that moment
there
that week
Tomorrow
Today
Yesterday
Next week
Last week
Now
Here
This week
Peticiones e imperativos en estilo indirecto: (not) to + infinitivo
- “Shut up!” He asked me to shut up.
- “Don´t open that window” He ordered them not to open that window.
Preguntas en estilo indirecto: al pasar de estilo directo a indirecto las preguntas tienen
el orden sujeto + verbo. Hay que diferenciar entre dos tipos de preguntas:
1) Preguntas con palabra interrogativa (what, who, where, etc.):
He asked: “Where are you?” He asked me where I was.
2) Preguntas cuya respuesta es sí o no (sin palabra interrogativa).
She asked: are you ok? She asked me if / whether I was ok.
Sugerencias en estilo indirecto: suggest + ing / that should...
They suggested leaving early.
They suggested that we should leave early.
Oraciones: Causa
-
-
The application of civil engineering techniques has led to more secure structures.
Tighter environmental controls have made many companies use cleaner sources of energy.
These stains result from the extensive use of dyes.
We have moved over to water turbines because they offer significant cost savings.
Many accidents in mining happen due to poar security procedures.
Forma:
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Podemos expresar la relación entre una causa y un efecto de muchas maneras:
1) Verbos y frases verbales
A= la causa
B= verbo que une la causa con el efecto
C= el efecto
Estos Verbos y Frases Verbales tienen un significado similar
Account for a cause result in bring about give rise to be responsible for
Podemos revertir el orden en la oración:
A= el efecto
B= verbo que une el efecto con la causa
C= la causa
Aquí hay otros verbos y frases verbales con similar significado
Arise from be attributable to stem from
2) Oraciones de Causa
We have moved over to water turbines because they offer significant cost savings
Aquí la conjunción une el efecto y la causa. Otras conjunciones que cumplen una función similar
son; since y as
3) Frases de Causa:
Many accidents in mining happen due to poor security procedures
Otras expresiones con similar significado son:
As a consequence of because of on account of owing to
Usos
Observa cómo en el siguiente texto se emplean las frases antes vistas
Obligaciones y Requerimientos
Forma:
Podemos observar la noción de obligación en los siguientes encabezados:
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Obligación de hacer algo
Obligación de no hacer algo, es decir prohibición
No obligación
También podemos ver la noción obligación desde el punto de vista de la persona/situación que causa
la obligación y la persona que recibe la obligación.
Este es un listado de verbos que puede emplear “quien obliga”
1) Obligar a alguien a hacer algo
2) Obligar a alguien a no hacer algo
3) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo
Compel demand forcé make oblige require
Ban forbid prohibit
Not compel not forcé not make not require
Este es un listado de verbos que puede ser empleado desde el punto de vista de “quien es obligado”
4) Obligado a hacer algo
5) Obligado a no hacer algo
6) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo
Be forced to be required to be supposed to have to must need to
Be prohibited from cannot may not must not
not be allowed to not be permitted to
Do not need to need not no have to
Usos
1) Obligar a alguien a hacer algo
We require the general contractor to supervise and co-ordinate the Project
The general contractor made the sub-contractor sign a compensation clause for delays. (No:
made the sub-contractor to sign)
2) Obligar a alguien a no hacer algo
The use of asbestos is banned
Fire regulations prohibit builders from using flammable materials
3) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo
The construction engineers don’t normally forcé painters, plasterers and plumbers to use specific
products
4) Ser obligado a hacer algo
The contractor must apply flame-retardant chemicals to slow down the spread of fire
5) Ser obligado a no hacer algo
A nonload-bearing wall must not support any other load except its own weight
6) No obligado
In this type of soil we needn’t dig the foundations deeper than 10 metres.
Architects don’t have to/need to have the same qualifications as quantity surveyors
Oraciones: Causa y Efecto
Ejemplos
-
We are going to convert the assembly line because we believe I will improve overall
effeciviness
Due to the frequent faults in finished products, we are going to install new machinery.
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As a result of the high cost of local raw materials, we are going to start importing from
China.
Plastics are a versatile family of materials; therefore they are suitable for a wide range of
packaging applications.
Since PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a clear, tough polymer, it is ideal for use in soft
drink bottles.
Formas:
1) Oraciones de Causa
Aquí una conjunción subordinante une el efecto y la causa.
The automotive industry uses plastics because they are durable, resistant to corrosion and lightweight.
Estas también son conjunciones subordinantes: AS – SINCE
2) Frases de causa:
Aquí una frase adverbial introduce la causa
Polystyrene manufacturers phased out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the late 1980s because of
concerns about the ozone layer.
Otras expresiones con similar significado son:
As a consequence of due to on account of owing to
Siempre se coloca una frase sustantiva después de estas expresiones:
Because of a large number of back orders, we have put extra workers on the night shift. (not: because of
the number of back orders is large)
3) Conectores de causa:
Aquí una causa en una oración es unida a un efecto en la oración siguiente por un conector:
The maintenance team are here; therefore we’ll need to shut down the machinery after this shift.
Otras palabras y expresiones con similar significado son:
Accordingly as a consequence/result because of this consequently hence
(formal) so that’s why (informal) that’s (the reason) therefore thus (formal)
Usos:
Observa el siguiente diálogo que ejemplifica el uso de estas oraciones de causa y efecto:
A: Why are we reviewing our quality control practices?
B: Because management is thinking of introducing a zero defect production initiative. So we are starting a
project group to look at current practices in production.
A: So, that’s why everyone has been called to the meeting.
B: Exactly. We’ve scheduled a preliminary meeting on account of this new initiative.
A: But I thought productivity levels had increased.
B: Yes, but because of this it seems that the reject rate has risen, too.
Escala de Probabilidades
Ejemplos:
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The term engineering can have different meanings
A scientist is unlikely to be able to solve engineering problems.
We are likely to see significant advances in robotics in the coming years.
The generators and turbines are bound to use a lot of electrical power.
These rainproof seals can’t possibly let water into the switchboard.
Formas y Usos:
Si consideramos que la escala de probabilidades va de una certeza del 100% a una certeza del 0%,
podemos identificar los siguientes segmentos. (Los números son una indicación general y no valores
exactos)
Ahora observemos cada una de estas categorías en términos de lenguaje:
Certainty
Probability
Possibility
Improbability
Impossibility
I am (absolutely) sure / certain/ positive that power requirements will
increase.
Power requirements will definitely / certainly increase
Power requirements are certain / sure / bound to increase
It is (very) likely / probable that the pumps will use more electricity
The pumps are (quite) likely to use more electricity
They could use more electricity
We may / might need more pumps on site
It is (very/highly) unlikely/improbable that the pumps will use more
electricity.
The pumps probably won’t use more electricity
The pumps are (quite) unlikely to use more electricity
The pumps shouldn’t use more electricity
I am sure/certain/positive that power requirements won’t increase
Power requirements definitely/certainly won’t increase
Power requirements can’t (possibly) increase
Usos:
1) Definitely y Certainly
Observe la posición de los adverbios:
We will definitely / certainly replace the fuses (después de will)
The fuses definitely / certainly won’t fall (antes de won’t)
2) Likely y unlikely
Estos adjetivos pueden tomar dos tipos de construcción
It is likely / unlikely that the pumps will use more electricity. (adjetivo + that + oración)
The pumps are likely / unlikely to use more electricity. (adjetivo + to + infinitivo)
3) May y Might
Algunos creen que hay una pequeña diferencia en la “fuerza” entre estas dos palabras
We may need more pumps on site (50% de probabilidades)
We might need more pumps on site. (45% de probabilidades)
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Oraciones de Relativo
(Relative Clauses)
Ejemplos:
- Logistics is the business function which controls the movement of physical materials in a
factory
- Our logistics department, which controls the movement of physical materials in the factory,
is headed by Barry Perks.
- A mine is a place where ores, coal, and precious stones may be obtained.
- A miner is a person who works in a mine
- You need to speak to John Martin, who is in charge of the coal mine.
Forma:
Las oraciones de relativo nos proporcionan información adicional sobre algo ya
mencionado. Estas oraciones son una clase de oración subordinada:
The man who lives next door is Italian. who se refiere a “the man”
She´s got a cat which she found in the street. which se refiere a “a cat”
Los pronombres relativos principales en inglés son who y which (que a veces se sustituyen
por that) y equivalen en español a “que”. Who se utiliza para referirnos a personas y which a cosas o
animales.
Más ejemplos:
I like those houses which have a garden.
The dress which she bought was very expensive.
These are the cakes which Paul likes.
They are looking for someone who speaks Japanese.
Is that the woman who lives upstairs?
That´s the boy who goes to school with Jill.
Hay dos clases de Oración de Relativo:
1) Defining relative clauses
Ejemplos:
The man who works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house which has been painted is my aunt´s.
En los ejemplos anteriores no se puede omitir la oración de relativo, ya que ésta proporciona
información esencial para poder identificar a “the man” y “that house”.
1. That: en las defining relative clauses, who y which pueden sustituirse por that:
The man that works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house that has been painted is my aunt´s.
2. Omisión de who, which o that: cuando estas palabras actúan como objeto de la oración, y no
como sujeto, pueden omitirse.
The book which/that you bought for me. The book you bought for me.
The person who/that I met on holidays. The person I met on holidays.
Sin embargo, no se pueden omitir en estos casos porque actúan como sujeto:
The man who/that works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house which/that has been painted is my aunt´s.
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2) Non-defining relative clauses
Ejemplos:
My friend Sarah, who lives in Germany, has won the lottery.
We went to see a film yesterday, which was quite good.
En estos ejemplos la oración de relativo nos presenta información adicional, pero no
esencial. Podríamos omitir la oración de relativo y el sentido general del enunciado sería el mismo.
1. Comas: estas oraciones llevan siempre coma delante del pronombre relativo.
2. Who y which: no es posible sustituirlos por that, ni omitirlos.
Si “who” o “which” van en medio, necesito dos comas, una para abrir y otra para cerrar.
Ejemplo:
My friend, who you don't know, is coming today. (Mi amigo, a quien no conoces, viene hoy.)
¿Para qué nos sirve saber distinguir entre “identifying” y “non-identifying relative clauses”?
La distinción entre indentifying y non-identifying relative clauses nos sirve para saber cuándo
utilizar “that”. Estudia esta regla:
• “That” se utiliza generalmente para identificar personas y cosas en las “identifying relative
clauses” (no se usa generalmente en las non-identifying)
Ejemplo:
The woman that you know. También podría decir: “The woman who you know.” La mujer que tú
conoces. Nota: Con “that” estoy identificando a la mujer.
Recuerda: “that” se utiliza generalmente para sustituir a “who” o “which” en oraciones que
identifican a la persona o cosa. No se se sele utilizar en oraciones en las que ya se ha identificado a
la persona cosa: Por ejemplo, no decirmos: “Mr. Smith, my friend, that you know.
Las preposiciones van al final en las oraciones de relativo:
That´s the boy (who) I was talking to.
Tim is the friend (who)she went to the cinema with.
Excepción: puede utilizarse una preposición + whom en lugar de situar who al final, pero
resulta más formal:
The girl (who) he talked to The girl to whom he talked.
The friend (who) Tom went out with The friend with whom Tom went out.
La siguiente tabla muestra el rango de pronombres relativos:
Persona
Cosa
Lugar
Who/that
Which/that
Sujeto
Who/whom/that/ø Which/that/ ø
Where
Objeto
Whose
whose
Posesivo
Tiempo
Razón
When
Why
¿Cuál es la diferencia entre “who” y “whom”?
Whom es más formal que who, lo cual quiere decir que cuando queramos hablar de forma
más elegante utilizaremos "whom" en vez de "who".
Oraciones Subordinadas de Propósito y Resultado
Ejemplos:
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Benton have defined quality standards (in order) to meet minimum product specifications
Last year Markham introduced new quality standards so (that) they detected defective
products before completion
Mansell have initiated a quality review programme so as to meet customer expectations.
We sample and monitor all process so that customers’ needs are exceeded
For zero defects to be achieved, we will have to introduce tighter prevention controls
Formas:
Las oraciones de Resultado y Propósito son oraciones subordinadas. Hay tres posibles
construcciones:
1) (in order / so as) to + infinitivo
Benton have defined quality control standards (in order) to meet minimum product specifications
2) Una conjunción subordinante seguida de un verbo:
We sample and monitor all processes so that customer needs are exceded (Propósito)
Last year Markham introduced new quality standards so (that) they detected defective products before
completion. (Resultado)
3) For + sustantivo seguido de un verbo en infinitive + to
For zero defects to be achieved, we will have to introduce tighter prevention controls
(=so that zero defects can be achieved, we…)
Las principales conjunciones subordinantes son: in order that so that
Antes de un Verbo en Infinitivo + to, se puede usar: for in order (to) so as (to)
Observa las formas negativas
So as not to pay for unnecessary reworking, we simple all raw materials
In order not to lose customers, we have a policy of continuous process improvement
Usos:
Las oraciones de Propósito responden a la pregunta Why (¿por qué?) o What…for (¿para
qué?). Ellas presentan el propósito de la información en la oración principal.
Las Oraciones de Resultado también responden las preguntas Why y What…for. En
contraste con las de Resultado, éstas miran al pasado para ver el resultado de una acción:
Electricity is usually transmitted at the highest voltages possible to minimize energy losses (propósito)
We tied together the electric utilities into large systems so that power was exchanged (resultado)
Observa las diferencias entre las construcciones de las oraciones de Resultado y Propósito:
1) Podemos usar to, in order to y so as to + infinitive cuando el sujeto de ambas oraciones es
el mismo:
Energy is generated from different fuels in order to avoid reliance on one source
2) Usamos so that o in order that cuando el sujeto de las oraciones es diferente:
Electricity producers are able to Exchange power so that one utility can assist another
3) Usamos so that + una oración para las oraciones de resultado
These electric utilities were then combined into larger systems so that power was exchanged
Observación:
Las siguientes oraciones están mal:
We use coal for make energy. (to make)
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We changed to gas for to make energy. (in order to make)
We started producing hydroelectric power for makinng cleaner energy. (to make)
Adjectives and adverbs
Ejemplos
-
Rand D aims to develop new products and the means to produce them cheaply.
Qualitative research investigates current product positioning; and why customers currently
use a particular product.
A coal field is an area containing significant coal deposits; the deposits in this coal field
have been significantly reduced in recent years.
Formas:
Los adjetivos y los adverbios son unidades gramaticales
1) Aquí hay algunos sufijos típicos para adjetivos y formas adjetivas
-ate / -ite
-ful
-al / -ial
-ive
-able / -ible
Accurate
Harmful
Artificial
Active
Renewable
-ic
-ous
-ing
-ed
-ant / -ent
Scientific
Dangerous
Mining
Finished
Transparent
2) Otros adjetivos, particularmente las “palabras cortas”, no tienen un sufijo o terminación
Bad especial
big good old small young
3) La mayoría de los adverbios se forma agregando –LY al adjetivo
Harmful
Active
Scientific
Dangerous
Transparent
Artificial
Adjetivo
Harmfully Actively
Scientifically Dangerously Transparently Artificially
Adverbio
4) Algunos adjetivos tienen la misma forma que los adverbios
early fast hard late straight
A cage provides fast access to the mine (adjetivo)
The cage raises and lowers miners fast (adverbio)
Usos:
Adjetivo
Adverbio
1) Para dar más información sobre un
1) Para dar más información sobre el verbo
sustantivo
The miners reached the surface safely
We carry out pure research
How did they reach the surface? Safely
What type of research? Pure research
2) Después del verbo To Be
2) Para dar más información sobre un
adjetivo
All research is scientific
The mine is extremely dangerous
How dangerous is the mine? Extremely
3) Para dar más información sobre un
adverbio
Miners work very hard
4) Para dar más información sobre una
oración
Firstly, I’ll present the coal cutting equipment.
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Preposiciones de Tiempo
Ejemplos:
-
The timetable looks like this. We will install the software on Monday afternoon. That means
your system will be out of action from 2 o’clock till about 5 o’clock. We also need to
download some programs before starting the system again. Then we'll start testing. That'll
take until Wednesday. After that, we need to configure all the modules. We hope to finish
that by Wednesday evening. That means that you'll be up and running with a brand new
system on Thursday morning. So, please inform everyone that we will need to shut down the
system next Monday.
Formas:
Una preposición va antes del sustantivo: on Monday afternoon
Cuando la preposición está seguida de un verbo, usamos verbo + ing
We also need to download some programs before starting the system again
Las preposiciones de tiempo más importantes son:
After at before between by during for from…in on since to… until / till up to
The drug testing programme will start on 1st July
We hope to get approval for sale of the drug by 2006
Usos:
1) At, in, on y by
At + la hora: at 8 o’clock
On + días de la semana: on Tuesday
In + partes del día: in the morning
(at night)
On + dates: on 1st July
In + meses y años: in August
By + fecha límite: we hope to get approval by 2005
2) By y until / till
Usamos BY para una acción que sucede antes o en una fecha límite:
We hope to finish configuring the system by Wednesday evening.
Usamos UNTIL / TILL para una acción que continúa hasta una fecha límite.
We will work on configuring the system until/till Wednesday evening.
3) Sin preposición
En algunas expresiones de tiempo no usamos preposición de tiempo
a- Antes de this, last y next
We will need to shut down the system next Monday. (not: on next Monday)
b- Con expresiones de “velocidad” y de frecuencia
Megahertz is a unit of measurement equal to one million electrical vibrations or cycles a second. (not:
In a second).
This laser printer prints twenty pages of text a minute. (not: in a minute)
También se puede decir per second, per minute, etc
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Preposiciones de Lugar
Ejemplos:
-
Let me give you a brief update about developments in the production area. On Monday,
components will be moved from the old storage area to the new one. This means that fork
lift trucks will need to move components out of warehouse 1 and into warehouse 2. You will
find more details in the email l sent last week. There are two stages to the movement of old
parts. In the new storage area, the parts will be stored on pallets on the top two shelves.
From there they will be moved to their final destination according to the plan in the email
attachment.
Forma:
Una preposición va antes de un sustantivo: in the production area
[preposition] [nonn]
Las preposiciones de lugar más importantes son:
At from in into on out of to
Oil is transported from the oilfield to the terminal by pipeline.
Corrosion in the pipes is extremely dangerous.
Usos:
1) AT:
Usamos AT para describer un lugar en general más que en términos específicos:
In the event of a blowout at the terminal we evacuate everyone immediately.
We employ some 30 people at the pumping station. Cf Twenty men sleep in the terminal. I.e. inside
2) TO
Usamos TO para describer movimiento hacia un lugar
Then the oil is transported to the terminal.
The roughnecks fly out to the oil rig on a Sunday evening.
3) FROM
Usamos FROM para describir movimiento desde un lugar
After the blowout we managed to pull everyone from the water.
The safety officer has just arrived from headquarters.
4) IN - INTO
Usamos IN para describir un lugar
Corrosion in the pipes is extremely dangerous.
Usamos INTO para describir movimiento en un lugar
The drill bit is fitted into the drill.
5) INTO – OUT OF
Ambos describen movimiento, describen movimientos opuestos
Drilling mud is pumped into and out of the well during drilling.
6) ON ONTO
Usamos ON con objetos que tienen una superficie
We've found some new deposits on the Continental Shelf.
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Usamos ONTO para describir movimiento sobre un lugar que tiene superficie
The oil is then loaded onto tankers. (Here the tanker is seen as a two-dimensional floating object.) cf. The
oil is then loaded into tankers. (Here the tanker is seen as a three-dimensional object.)
Cuantificadores (Quantifiers)
Ejemplos:
- If you have no customer feedback, it is very difficult to understand their needs. That's where
qualitative research comes in. It has many common uses. It can help you to understand why
some customers buy and use a product. It can also investigate a lot of alternative
communication messages. Most of our clients use our services to understand their customers
better. And all of them use this information in the development of new products.
Formas:
Usamos cuantificadores constables con sustantivos plurals contables. Usamos cuantificadores
incontables con sustantivos incontables.
Qualitative market research has many
[quantifier]
If you have no
[quantifier]
common uses.
[countable noun]
customer feedback, it is difficult to understand their needs.
[uncountable noun]
Usos
Aquí hay algunos ejemplos de cuantificadores, primero en un breve diálogo y luego en un fragmento
de una presentación:
A: ls there much demand for civil engineers these days?
B: You wouldn't believe it, but most of the vacancies are for civil engineers.
A: Really? With what type of qualifications?
B: All our vacancies require people with a thorough knowledge of surveying.
A: Don’t most civil engineers need to about surveying?
B: Yes, but there are some jobs in areas not directly linked to construction.
A: Such as?
B: We have a few vacancies for engineers to work in the aircraft industry
A: Anything in nuclear power?
B: No vacancies in that area at the moment, I’m afraid.
A: Well, please let me know if anything turns up
Contrastando Ideas
Ejemplos:
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Although email is a very convenient form of personal communication, most people have
never sent one. But the number of users is increasing very quickly. Despite improvements in
telecoms networks, connection speeds are often very slow; however ADSL promises faster
connections.
Formas:
We can use the following language techniques to contrast ideas:
1)
Oraciones de contraste
Estas consisten en dos oraciones: la oración principal y la oración de contraste
Even though the number of mobil phones users has Increased, call charges remain high.
[ contrast clause ]
[ maÍnclause ]
Las principales conjunciones de contraste son:
Although but even though though whereas while
Notar la diferencia entre BUT y las otras conjunciones:
Videoconferencing is very convenient, but (it) is not as personal as face-to-face contact.
[ main clause ]
[ main clause ]
Although videoconferencing is very convenient, it is not as personal as face-to-face contact.
[ contrast clause ]
[ main clause ]
2) Frases de contraste
La frase de contraste consiste de: preposición (o frase preposicional) + un sustantivo
Despite improved security, hackers can still access many networks.
[phrase of contrast]
La frase de contraste también puede estar al final de la oración
Hackers can still access many networks despite improved security.
Las principales palabras para introducir una frase de contraste son:
Despite in spite of
3) Conjunciones de Contraste
Estas palabras o expresiones unen dos oraciones las cuales están en contraste una con otra
You can download Google from many sitess worldwide. However, some are faster than others.
Las principales conjunciones son:
All the same (informal) but even so however nevertheless still yet
Usos:
Observa el siguiente diálogo:
A: Although we can share many resources, some are not shared. Even so, we should see this as a
vast improvement.
B: I don't understand why all the printers aren't available to all.
A: In fact, everyone can use all the printers; however, one has been designated as default for each
work group.
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
A: I’d prefer to use the colour laser printer.
B: I know you would, but it's very expensive to print each page in colour. And in most cases,
colour isn't necessary
Verbos Modales
CAN
 Podemos usar can para decir que algo es posible o que alguien tiene la habilidad para hacer algo
 Podemos usar can + infinitivo (can do / can see)
We can see the lake from our bedroom window
Can you speak any foreign language?
I can come and see you tomorrow if you like
 The negative is can’t (=cannot)
I’m afraid I can’t come to the party on Friday
Be able to
 Es posible usarlo en lugar de can, sin embargo, es más común el uso de can
Are you able to speak any foreign languages?
 Can sólo tiene dos formas, can (presente) y could (pasado). Por esta razón a veces es necesario
usar be able to… Compara estos ejemplos
I can´t sleep
I haven’t been able to sleep recently
Tom can come tomorrow
Tom might be able to come tomorrow.
could y was able to …
 A veces could es el pasado de can. Could se usa especialmente con:
See
hear smell
taste
feel
remember
understand
When we went into the house, we could smell burning
She spoke in a very low voice, but I could understand what she said
 También usamos could para decir que alguien tenía la habilidad o permiso para hacer algo
My grandfather could speak five languages
We were completely free. We could do what we wanted.
 Usamos could para habilidades pero si estamos hablando sobre qué sucedió en una situación
particular, usaremos was/were able to o managed to… en lugar de could
The fire spread through the building quickly but everybody was able to escape / every managed
to escape (pero no could escape)
They didn’t want to come with us at first but we managed to persuade them / we were able to
persuade them. (pero no could persuade)
Comparar
Jack was an excellent tennis player. He could beat anybody (Tenía la habilidad para ganarle a todos)
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Jack and Alf had a game of tennis yesterday. Alf played very well but in the end Jack managed to
beat him / was able to beat him. (Jack fue capaz de derrotarlo en este juego en particular)
 La forma negativa couldn’t (could not) es posible en todas las situaciones
My grandfather couldn’t swim
We tried hard but we couldn’t persuade them to come with us
Alf played well but he couldn’t beat Jack
could (do) and could have (done)
 Usamos could en varias formas. A veces could es el pasado de can
Listen. I can hear something (Presente)
I listened. I could hear something. (Pasado)
 Pero could no sólo es usado en esta forma. Podemos usar could para hablar sobre acciones
posibles en el presente o en el futuro. (especialmente para hacer sugerencias) Por ejemplo
It is a nice day. We could go for a walk
When you go to New York next month, you could stay with Barbara
 También es posible usar can en estas oraciones (‘We can go for a walk). Could es “menos seguro
o probable” que can. Se debe usar could y no can cuando quien habla realmente no dice “en
serio” o con un sentido literal lo que dice. Por ejemplo:
I’m so angry with him. I could kill him! (Estoy tan enojado con el. Podría matarlo!)
 También usamos could para decir que algo es posible ahora o en el futuro:
The phone is ringing. It could be Tom
I don’t know when they’ll be here. They could arrive at any time.
 Comparemos could (do) y could have (done)
I’m so tired. I could sleep for a week (Presente)
I was so tired. I could have slept for a week. (Pasado)
 Usamos could have (done) para cosas que fueron posibles pero que no sucedieron
Why did you stay at a hotel when you went to New York? You could have stayed with Barbara.
(Tuviste la oportunidad de quedarte con ella pero no lo hiciste)
Jack fell off a ladder yesterday but he’s all right. He is lucky –he could have hurt himself badly.
(pero no se lastimó)
 Could have (done) = Would have been able to (do)
Why didn’t Liz apply for the job? She could have got it
We could have gone away if we’d had enough money
MUST y CAN’T
 Usamos must para decir que estamos seguros de que algo es verdad
You’ve been travelling all day. You must be tired
Carol must get very bored in her job. She does the same thing every day
 Se usa can’t para expresar que estamos seguros de que algo no es posible
You’ve just had lunch. You can’t be hungry already
Brian said he would definitely be here before 9.30. It’s 10 o’clock now and he’s never late. He can’t
be coming.
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
 Para el pasado usamos must have (done) y can’t have (done). Por ejemplo:
The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. I must have been asleep
I’ve lost one of my gloves. I must have dropped it somewhere
Jane walked past me without speaking. She can’t have seen me
Tom walked straight into the wall. He can’t have been looking where he was going.
MAY y MIGHT
 Usamos may o might para expresar que algo es una posibilidad. Usualmente podemos usar may o
might indistintamente.
It may be true / It might be true (tal vez es verdad)
She may know / She might know.
 Las formas negativas son may not y might not
It might not be true. (Tal vez no es verdad)
I’m not sure whether I can lend you any money. I may not have enough (Tal vez no tengo
suficiente)
 Para el Pasado usamos may have (done) o might have (done)
I may have been asleep.
I might have not been waiting for him.
 A veces could tiene insignificado similar al de may y might.
The phone is ringing. It could be Tom (= it may/might be Tom)
You could have left your bag in the shop.(= you may/might have left it…)
 Pero couldn’t (Negativo) es diferente de may not y might not. Compara:
A: I wonder why she didn’t say hello
She was too far away, so she couldn’t have seen you. (= no es possible que ella te viera)
B: She might not have seen you. (= Tal vez no te vió, o tal vez si)
 Usamos may y might para hablar sobre acciones posibles o hechos en el futuro.
I haven’t decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Ireland. (= Tal vez iré a Irlanda)
Take an umbrella with you out. It might rain later. (= Tal vez llueva)
Ana may not come to the party tonight. She isn’t well. (= Tal vez no vendrá)
 Usualmente no importa si se usa may o might. Podemos decir:
I may go to Ireland o I might go to Irelamd
Jane might be able to help you o Jane may be able to help you
 Pero solamente podemos usar might cuando la situación no es real:
If I know them better, I might invite them to dinner (la situation aquí no es real porque yo no los
conozco bien, de modo que no voy a invitarlos)
 Hay también una forma continua: may/might be + (verbo+ing). Compara esto con Will be +
(verbo+ing)
Don’t phone at 8.30. I’ll be watching the football on Tv
Don’t phone at 8.30. I might be watching the football on TV
 También usamos may/might be + (verbo+ ing) para posibles planes. Compara:
I’m going to Ireland in July (seguramente)
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
I may be going to Ireland in July. (Posible)
Might as well / may as well
Helen y Clare han perdido el colectivo. Los colectivos pasan cada hora. Ellas conversan
Helen: What shall we do? Shall we walk?
Clare: We might as well. It’s a nice day and I don’t want to wait here for an hour.
(We might as well do something = Debiéramos hacer algo porque no hay nada mejor que hacer y no hay
ninguna razón para no hacerlo.)
MUST y HAVE TO
 Usamos must y have to para expresar que es necesario hacer algo. A veces no tiene importancia
cual de los dos se usa.
Oh, it’s later than I thought. I must go / I have to go.
 Igualmente hay algunas diferencias entre must y have to y a veces deben tenerse en cuenta.
MUST
Must es personal. Usamos must
expresamos nuestros sentimientos
HAVE TO
cuando Have to es impersonal. Usamos have to para
hechos, no para sentimientos personales.
She is really a nice person. You must
meet her
I haven’t phoned Ann for ages. I must
phone her tonight.
You can’t turn right here. You have to
turn left. (por ley de tránsito)
My eyesight isn’t very good. I have to
wear glasses for reading.
 Si no se está seguro de cual usar, es más seguro usar have to
 Se puede usar must para hablar sobre el presente o el futuro, pero no en el pasado
We must go now
We must go tomorrow.
 Have to se puede usar en todas las formas
I had to go to hospital (past)
Have you ever had to go to hospital? (present perfect)
 En oraciones negativas e interrogativas con have to, normalmente usamos do / does / did
What do I have to do to get a driveing licence?
Why did you have to go to hospital?
Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
 Mustn’t y don’t have to son completamente diferentes
You mustn’t do something = es necesario que You don’t have to do something = no necesitas
no hagas algo
hacer algo.
You must keep it a secret. You mustn’t
You can tell me is you want but you don’t
tell anyone.
have to tell me
I promised I would be on time. I mustn’t
I’m not working tomorrow, so I don’t have
be late.
to get up early.
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
 Se puede usar “have got to” en lugar de “have to”.
I’ve got to work tomorrow
When has Ann got to go?
I have to work tomorrow
When does Ann have to go?
MUST – MUSTN’T – NEEDN’T
‘You must do something = Es necesario que lo hagas
Don’t tell anybody what I said. Yu must keep it secret.
We haven’t got much time. We must hurry
‘You mustn’t do something’ = Es necesario que no lo hagas así que no lo hagas
You must keep it a secret. You mustn’t tell anybody else. (No le digas a nadie más)
‘You needn’t do something’ = Es no necesario que lo hagas, no necesitas hacerlo
You can come with me if you like but you needn’t come if you don’t want to.
 En lugar de needn’t se puede usar don’t need to / doesn’t need to
* We needn’t hurry
* We don’t need to hurry
 Needn’t y don’t need to son similares a don’t have to
We have got plenty of time. We don’t have to hurry
SHOULD
 You should do something = es algo bueno para hacer o la cosa correcta para hacer. Se puede usar
should para dar consejo o una opinión
You look tired. You should go to bed
The government should do more to help homeless people
 Frecuentemente usamos should con I think / I don’t think / Do you think…?
I think the government should do more to help homeless people
I don’t think you should work so hard
 ‘You shouldn’t do something? = no es algo bueno para hacer
You shouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspapers
 should no tiene “tanta fuerza” como must
You should apologise (sería algo muy bueno)
You must apologise. (no hay alternativa)
 También usamos should cuando algo no está bien respecto de lo que esperamos.
I wonder where is Liz. She should be here by now (= ella no está aquí aún y eso no es normal)
Those boys shouldn’t be playing football at this time. They should be at school
 Utilizamos should para expresar que esperamos que algo suceda.
She has been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass. (Espero que pase el examen)
There are plenty of hotels in the town. It shouldn’t be difficult to find somewhere to stay
 ‘You should have done something’ = No lo hiciste pero hubiese sido lo correcto de hacer
It was a great party last night. You should have come. Why didn’t you? (No fuiste pero hubiese
sido bueno que lo hubieras hecho)
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
I’m feeling sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate.
 Comparar should (do) y should have (done)
You look tired. You should go to bed now.
You went to bed very late last night. You should have gone to bed earlier.
 Se puede usar should después de estos verbos especialmente:
Suggestpropose
recommend
insist
demand
They insisted we should have dinner with them
I demanded that he should apologise
 Del mismo modo, se puede usar should después de sugerencias, propuestas, recomendaciones
What do you think of Janes’s sugestion that I should buy a car?
 También después de “It’s important/vital/necessary/essential that…”
It is essential that you should be here on time.
 También puede omitirse el should en las oraciones anteriores:
Should It’s essential that you be here on time
I demanded that he apologise
What do you suggest I do?
 Esta forma (you be/he apologise) es a veces llamada el subjuntivo
 También se puede usar en tiempos verbales del presente y del pasado
It’s essential that you are here on time.
I demanded that he apologised
 Ser cuidadoso con suggest. No se puede usar to… (to do / to buy) después de suggest:
What do you suggest we should do? / What do you suggest we do?
Jane suggested that I (should) buy a car. / Jane suggested that I bought a car
 Se puede usar should después de ciertos adjetivos, especialmente:
Strange
Odd
Funny
Typical
Natural
Interesting
Surprised
surprising
It is strange that he should be late. He is usually on time.
I was surprised that she should say such a thing.
if … should…
 Se puede decir ‘If something should happen…’. Por ejemplo
If Tom should phone while I’m out, tell him I’ll phone him back later. (el uso de should implica para
el hablante que las posibilidades son menores)
I’ve left the washing outside. If it should rain, can you bring it in?
 También se puede poner should al comienzo de estas oraciones
Should Tom phone, can you tell him I’ll phone him back later?
 Se puede usar I should … / I shouldn’t para darle consejo a alguien. Por ejemplo
Shall I leave now? No, I should wait a bit longer
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón
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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón