pax romana - Universidad de Granada

PAX ROMANA
MUÑOZ, Francisco A.
Pax (stem pac-) is the Latin feminine noun from which the English word “peace” is
derived. The Latin word comes from the Indo-European root pak-/pag-, which meant
“fasten, fix” (as in the setting up of a post to mark a land boundary) and to settle by
convention, to reach an agreement between two parties”. Pax has numerous meanings:
the reaching of agreement between two parties; pact; agreement; peace; respect for
others; quality of life; friendship; peaceful time; peace in death; mental tranquility;
calmness; equity; civil safety and security; god; and the imperturbability of the gods. It is a
term used by nearly all the great Roman writers, all of whom use the term pax for various
practices engaged in by Roman society through which conflicts were regulated in a
peaceful manner.
The Roman people's ideas of peace were influenced by their experience in the early
years of the Republic, through the relations established with other people of the Italian
peninsula and the Mediterranean basin, and, in particular, with the Greek tradition that put
them in contact with different theories and practices used in the regulation and
management of relationships between conflicting groups.
Quality of Life and Well-Being
Pax in its sense of quality of life could be expressed by a greeting. It is a person's
intrinsic quality that is shared with his or her fellows, and its presence is reinforced through
an expressive ritual, in which people wish each other good health, well-being, and
personal, family, and agreement. Through pax it is possible to achieve well-being and to
save personal and social energy when suffering injury or when destruction of the land or
cities occurs. Pax helps define the relationship between people by means of expressions
which give it a sincere human, affective meaning, and it is reinforced through relations with
other virtues like love and friendship. Pax is often depicted as a feminine virtue, and the
goddess Pax is intimately tied to the idea of reproduction of life (maternity, education,
domestic work).
The relation of pax with the gods is a clue to its pervasiveness in Roman activities, both
private and public. The gods themselves must possess a serene everlasting life with
profound peace, detached from worldly matters, to guide humans in achieving good
conduct. Prayer is necessary; through it, the gods are begged to intercede in the
attainment of desired peacefulness. To this end, the role of the goddess Pax is assisted by
the other gods.
Likewise, the Roman people's interest in peace is reflected in many Latin
aphorisms, such as Nihil tam populare quam pacem (Nothing is a popular as peace).
Peace is pleasant and desired by all; it means unity, tranquility, and dignity for the res
publica (the state). Pax is supported by all the different social groups that see its
immediate benefits or that are affected by war (e.g., farmers, tradesmen, women).
Facing Violence
Throughout the Republic and the Empire, pax as intended to strengthen the political
regime and social harmony between the state and its citizens, the assemblies, and the
Senate. Good rulers were supposed to promote a pax guaranteed by the state and the
laws and to avoid civil war or wars with foreign nations. The emperor Augustus was an
outstanding example: He succeeded in pacifying (defeating, negotiating, and reaching
agreements with) all his internal adversaries and external enemies. The Pax Romana he
attained meant a breakthrough in the conception of the Roman state. With it, conquests
were consolidated and the promotion of further wars was significantly curtailed. Because
the emperor was its direct promoter, his relationship with pax was a sign of his power;
when granted an official character, pax became a matter of public interest for the whole
state.
The expression pax ac bello is used frequently in Roman literature, where it defines
the dialectical relationship between war and peace. The Roman state, the Senate, the
social institutions, the people, all yearned for lasting peace, despite the fact that they did
occasionally benefit from war. In countless texts, pax appears in connection with the army
as an executive institution of war and at the same time as an institution seeding peace.
War is something at once possible and desired. In the event that peace breaks down, war
must therefore be “just” (bellum iustum). This explains the abundant coins minted during
the Roman Empire on which Pax appeared on the reverse, with the emperor on the
obverse. Although their wide circulation makes their monetary function clear, they also
performed other functions, both political (e.g., strengthening the coiner's authority) and
ideological. Thus we find Pax represented by a woman with various attributes- such as a
spear, a caduceus (a rod of Mercury), a cist (a wooden box used in rituals)- standing over
a sphere with a cornucopia (horn of plenty) or an olive branch, or identified with Justice.
Other symbols include a temple and a handshake. The appearance on coins of
expressions such a pax aeterna, pax et libertas, pax orbis terrarum and pax aeterna
indicates the widespread ideological use of such coinages.
International Relations
Roman imperialism was based on the industry of war, which made possible
conquests and the keeping of law and order, while at the same time allowing for the
laborious process of negotiation an peace. War was the means for attaining wealth,
slaves, land, and taxes in order for the Empire to operate successfully, and feverish
diplomatic activity was undertaken to minimize problems and to foster contact and
exchange.
Army generals sought to achieve their war aims as expeditiously as possible,
perhaps only to reach victory- Victoria was a form of negative pax because it guaranteed
the end of war- attain glory, and be able to distribute the booty among their soldiers. With
pax, soldiers were less likely to become victims of the struggle, and peasants (often forced
into conscription, a form of involuntary servitude) were less likely to see their land ravished
and impoverished, a situation that led to complete slavery form the debs contracted.
It is clear what pax meant for the victorious elite, the emperors and the generals,
who enjoyed the attainment of their aims (wealth, power), but for the vanquished and
conquered communities, subjected to a foreign and violent power, pax was the means to
an end: no more violence, or at least less violence, even though in the negotiation process
their collective strengths and identity were at stake. That may be the reason for Seneca's
assertion that, “To seek the return of peace is good for the victorious and necessary for the
defeated …. Let a lasting peace grow among all peoples …. Let all iron be visible in the
ploughshare and hidden in the swords”.
For these reasons, the term pax resonates with its associations to other words with
far-reaching temporal and spatial connotations: universa, longa, aeterna, diutura,
perpetua, constans, semipterna, futura; pax thus became a guarantee for the living
conditions of ensuing generations. These expressions broaden the scope of the term pax,
its meaning taking on special senses when combined with nouns such as otium,
tranquilitas, and concordia, all of which make up a lexical field encompassing a broad
realm where pax is at work: personal, domestic, local, peninsular, provincial, and imperial.
Bibliography:
•
MELKO, Matthew, and WEIGEL, Richard D. Peace in the Ancient World. Jefferson,
N.C.: McFarland, 1981.
•
MUÑOZ, Francisco A. and MOLINA RUEDA, Beatriz eds. “La Paz Romana”. In
Cosmovisiones de paz en el Mediterráneo antiguo y medieval , pp. 191-228.
Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada, 1998.
•
SORDI, Marta. “Pax Romana”. In La Pace nel mondo antico, pp. 127-145. Milan:
Vita e Pensiero, 1985.
•
WENGST, Klaus. Pax Romana and the Peace of Jesus Christ . Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1987.
•
ZAMPAGLIONE, Gerardo. The idea of Peace in antiquity. Translated by DUNN,
Richard. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1973.
Si citas el texto, cita la fuente:
MUÑOZ, Francisco A. “Pax Romana”. En: The Oxford International Encyclopedia of
Peace. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press (USA), 2010. Pp. 350-352.