Apuntes de inglés ESO y Bachiller

NÂº 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.- TEMAS Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO ALL + Clause (OraciÃ³n Subordinada) Any + Comparativo ArtÃ−culo: Usos y Omisiones CaracterÃ−sticas de los Verbos Defectivos ColocaciÃ³n de Both/All ComparaciÃ³n del Adjetivo y del Adverbio Compuestos de Some/Any/No Conjunciones “ALTHOUGH/THOUGH” Conjunciones IN CASE/UNLESS ConstrucciÃ³n ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA inglesa Cuadro de Pronombres Diferencias entre BEEN TO/GONE TO Diferencias entre Say/Tell/Speak/Talk Diferencias entre Seem/Look ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech) Estructuras: • ItÂ´s (about) time + Simple Past 18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.- • ItÂ´s no good + Gerundio (-ING) Exclamaciones Expresar DESEOS y LAMENTOS (Wish and If Only) False Friends (Palabras que pueden confundir) Formas de expresar la EDAD de una persona FORMULAS PARA COMPOSICIONES (Frases hechas) GÃ©nero en personas, animales y cosas en inglÃ©s GERUNDIO GLOSARIO DE C.O.U. GRAMÃ”TICA ESPAÃ OLA • ArtÃ−culo determinado e indeterminado espaÃ±ol • Adjetivo espaÃ±ol y sus clases • ComparaciÃ³n del Adjetivo espaÃ±ol • Pronombres espaÃ±oles y clases de Pronombre • ConjugaciÃ³n espaÃ±ola (Resumida) 27.- • Correspondencias de tiempos espaÃ±oles e ingleses Tabla de tiempos ingleses (Todos los tiempos activos y pasivos) 38 50 45 7 - 11 30 25 - 27 28 - 29 4 46 48 47 4 33 32 32 - 33 55 - 63 33 34 47 33 71 - 73 71 105 - 119 81 - 84 34 - 35 70 97 97 97 99 100 - 102 103 104 104 1 28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.45.46.47..48.49.50.51.52.53.54.55.56.57.58.59.60.61.62.63.64.65.66.- Hacer Comparaciones Impersonal “YOU” INFINITIVO de PropÃ³sito o Finalidad Locuciones Verbales: Would rather/sooner//Had better Nombres Compuestos (Lista y significado) Nombres Contables e Incontables Oraciones CONDICIONALES (Conjunciones: if, unless, etc.) Oraciones de RELATIVO Oraciones FINALES Oraciones TEMPORALES Pares de palabras (pareados) Participio de Pasado Participio de Presente Participio Falso o “False Participle” Participios en vez de Oraciones Subordinadas PartÃ−cula “AS” PartÃ−cula “EVER” PartÃ−culas “QUITE/RATHER/SUCH a/an + Nombre Contable Singular PartÃ−culas “SO/SUCH … THAT” PartÃ−culas “TOO/ENOUGH” Phrasal Verbs (lista y significados) Plural de los Nombres Ingleses PosiciÃ³n de Adverbios y Frases Adverbiales PosiciÃ³n de los Adverbios Preposiciones (bÃ¡sicas) Preposiciones Finales o “End-prepositions” Prepositional and Phrasal Verbs Pronombres Reflexivos Pronombres, Adjetivos y Adverbios Interrogativos con “-EVER” Proverbs (Refranes) PuntuaciÃ³n en InglÃ©s Quehaceres DomÃ©sticos Significados de la palabra “LEFT” Significados del verbo “To FEEL” Significados segÃºn la PronunciaciÃ³n SinÃ³nimos Sufijos y Prefijos Tail Questions o Questions-tags Tiempos Verbales 48 - 49 6 41 19 - 20 90 - 91 1- 2 51 - 53 64 - 66 67 66 - 67 96 35 35 36 35 - 36 45 6 45 46 46 79 - 80 11 - 12 43 - 44 68 75 45 41 - 42 48 47 - 48 76 - 78 42 6 33 22 74 - 75 74 69 50 - 51 12 • Presente Simple/Presente ContÃ−nuo • Pasado Simple/Presente Perfecto 2 • Presente Perfecto ContÃ−nuo 67.68.69.70.71.72.73.74.75.76.77.78.79.80.81.82.83.84.85.86.87.88.89.90.91.92.93.94.95.96.97.98.- • Pasado Perfecto ContÃ−nuo Top Forty Fatal Mistakes Uso de auxiliaries en afirmativa Usos de Both/All/Neither/None Usos de Can/Could Usos de Either…or/Neither… nor Usos de Going to/Will Usos de May/Might Usos de Much/Many/Little/Few Usos de Must/Have to Usos de Ought to Usos de Shall/Will Usos de Should/Would Usos de Some/Any/No Usos de Verbo “To HAVE” Usos del verbo “To DO y To MAKE” Usos del Verbo “To Get” Verbo “NEED + -ING” Verbo “To Be + INFINITIVO con TO” Verbo “To Dare” Verbo “To Feel like” Verbo “To GET” Verbo “To Happen” Verbo “To Help” Verbo “To Look” Verbo “To Mind” Verbo “To Need” Verbo “To Seem” Verbo “TO SUGGEST” Verbo GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING Verbo MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING Verbos Irregulares Ingleses (Lista y significado) Verbos Principales AUXILIARES-MODALES 99.100.101.102.103.104.- • Must/Need/Can/May Verbos que no se pueden utilizar en tiempos continuos Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con Cambio de significado Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin Cambio de significado Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO sin TO Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS de Perfecto Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS 94 - 95 20 6 16 - 17 27 17 - 18 17 24 - 25 15 - 16 19 14 - 15 18 - 19 2-3 5-6 91 21 32 41 23 21 - 22 20 - 21 21 22 23 24 23 24 53 49 49 92 - 93 30 30 - 31 36 - 37 39 - 40 38 37 40 40 3 105.106.107.108.109.110.111.- Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO con TO Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o Participio de Presente Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + INFINITIVO Verbos Think/Suppose/Hope Verbos y palabras que rigen una preposiciÃ³n/es determinadas VOZ PASIVA Wh-words + INFINITIVO con TO 38 40 38 33 85 - 89 53 - 55 45 - 46 NOMBRES CONTABLES E INCONTABLES: Las categorias de singular y plural se aplican a todo aquello que se puede contar; son estos los que llamamos nombres contables, materiales como: girls, houses, flowers, o abstractos como: days, hours, mistakes, ideas. Pero hay otra serie de nombres que no se pueden encuadrar dentro de unos lÃ−mites numÃ©ricosÂ - los llamamos incontables, ya sea a su vez materiales, como: silver, butter, cheese, o abstractosÂ como: music, traffic, success. Asi como los nombres contables se pueden contar tomados en la medida de uno, dos tres etc., los incontables se pueden cuantificar con las expresiones: much, little, some, a great deal of, plenty of ... etc. Podemos utilizar “a lot of” delante de nombres contables e incontables, pero la expresiÃ³n “a large number of” sÃ³lo se utiliza ante contables. Television companies receive a large number of letters every day. “A great deal of” sÃ³lo se utiliza con incontables: The psycologist had spent a great deal of time studying the problem. Para la afirmativa se prefieren estas expresiones a “much” o “many”, dejÃ¡ndoles a Ã©stos el uso exclusivo de las interrogativas y negativas, o tambiÃ©n si son “sujeto” o “parte del sujeto” nunca “complemento”. Television companies don't receive many letters. The psycologist hadn't spent much time on the problem AdemÃ¡s de la expresiones ya vistas hay otras formas de referirnos a in contables como son: • A piece of: news, advice, furniture ... • A bit of: information • A stroke of: luck (golpe de suerte) • A matter of: common sense (un poco de sentido comÃºn). Asi mirada la distinciÃ³n entre nombres contables e incontables no ofrece dificultad; hay que tener en cuenta, sin embargo, que hay un gran nÃºmero de palabras que pueden tomarse, en distintos contextos, como contables o tambiÃ©n como incontables: contable Incontable Ice: helado ; hielo Iron: plancha ; acero 4 Paper: periÃ³dico ; papel Glass vaso ; cristal Wood: bosque ; madera Otra distinciÃ³n a tener en cuenta es la que se refiere al animal como contable, y a su carne como incontable: Ox (buey), carne: beef Calf (ternera) carne: veal Sheep (oveja) carne: mutton Pig or swine (cerdo)Â carne: pork Desde el punto de vista meramente lÃ³gico, podrÃ−amos deducir que, puesto que los nombres incontables denotan lo que no podemos contar, las categorÃ−as de singular y plural no les son aplicables; sin embargo hay muchos nombres incontables que son plurales por su forma: sweets (caramelos) rickets (el raquitismo) weeds (malas hierbas) hysterics (la histeria) goods (mercancias) measles (el sarampiÃ³n) ashes (cenizas) Otro grupo de nombres son los terminados en -ics, que denotan materias: mathematics - matemÃ¡ticas politics - polÃ−tica statistics - estadÃ−stica Tanto este grupo de nombres como el anterior pueden ir seguidos de un verbo en singular o en plural: Measles is/are very infectious Politics donÂ´t/doesn't interest me. USOS DE SOME, ANY y NO Some y any son adjetivos o pronombres indefinidos que se emplean con sustantivos incontables en singular y con sustantivos plurales contables, o sustituyendo a estos mismos sustantivos. Some: Con nombres incontables en singular equivale al partitivo francÃ©s y tiene el significado de un poco (de), algo (de), o puede prescindirse de su traducciÃ³n en espaÃ±ol. Con los nombres contables en plural significa algunos/as: There is some water in the jug. 5 I have some English books at home. Como pronombre sustituye a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural a los que se ha mencionado previamente. Significa: un poco, algo, algunos/as: I like some milk. I feel like drinking some now. You need many pins for that. I can lend you some if you want. Por regla general el uso de some se limita a oraciones afirmativas. En las oraciones interrogativas y negativas, detrÃ¡s de if, hardly, barely, scarcely se emplea any con los mismos significados de some: Is there any water in the glass? Are there any books on the table? I haven't any money left. There is hardly any sugar. There are scarcely any papers on the floor. If you want any help, let me know. SÃ³lo si la pregunta implica una invitaciÃ³n u ofrecimiento, o si se espera una respuesta afirmativa, se puede emplear some en las oraciones interrogativas: Would you like some more tea?Â Did he buy some new books? Se emplea: • En ocasiones con los nombres contables tiene el valor de plural del artÃ−culo indeterminado a: Come with me and I'll show you some English books I bought. I have bought some too. There is some milk in that glass; I'll have some. • Cuando ofrecemos algo, para dar a este ofreciemiento mÃ¡s fuerza: Would you like some tea? • En las preguntas cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea afirmativa: He has some tea already, hasn't he? • Para expresar indiferencia al referirnos a una persona, o para indicar irritaciÃ³n: Some man came and told me the most stupid story. 6 Some stupid boy must have broken this lamp. Any: AcompaÃ±a o sustituye tambiÃ©n a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural: Se emplea: • Sustituyendo a some en las oraciones interrogativas: Is there any wine in the bottle? Have you got nay books here? • En las oraciones negativas y en las que tienen valor negativo a causa de las expresiones: hardly, barely, scarcely, estas expresiones tienen matiz negativo: There isn't any bread at home. He has hardly any money. You haven't any paper. • En las oraciones condicionales detrÃ¡s de if especialmente si creemos que la condiciÃ³n no se va a cumplir: If I see any of your friends I'll tell them to meet you at the cinema. • En oraciones que expresan duda: I doubt whether they will have any gin at home. • En oraciones afirmativas con valor distinto de some. Significa cualquiera no importa cuÃ¡l: Don't worry; any book will do. NO: Se emplea en oraciones afirmativas para expresar negaciÃ³n. Su valor es similar al de any, como adjetivo, con el verbo en forma negativa: I haven't any money = I have no maney. There aren't any stamps = There are no stamps. COMPUESTOS DE SOME, ANY, NO FORM VERB ASSERTIVE Affirmative someone NON-ASSERTIVE Negative Anyone NEGATIVE Affirmative no-one somebody something somewhere sometimes somehow Anybody Anything Anywhere Ever in any way nobody nothing nowhere never in no way Personas Cosas Lugar 7 already Any more/any longer still Yet There is somebody with you. no more/no longer No form Don't give him anything before lunch. It must be somewhere in the class. There aren't any tourists here this summer. There was nobody at home. EVERY solo tiene la forma ASSERTIVE FORM VERB ASSERTIVE Affirmative Everybody Everyone Everything Everywhere PRONOMBRES PERSONALES, POSESIVOS Y REFLEXIVOS PERSONALES POSESIVOS Sujeto Complemento Adjetivos Pronombres I me my mine you you your yours he him his his she her her hers it it its its? we us our ours you you your yours they them their theirs PRONOMBRES RECÃ PROCOS REFLEXIVOS Pronombres myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves • Each other: (uno a atro) se (entre dos personas o cosas) • One another: (unos a otros) se (entre mÃ¡s de dos) USOS DEL VERBO TO HAVE AdemÃ¡s del uso mÃ¡s frecuente de “have” que es la de auxiliar en la formaciÃ³n de los tiempos compuestos de cualquier verbo, tiene otros usos: 1.- Significado de TENER, POSEER She has a black cat. Lo encontramos tambiÃ©n significando lo mismo en la forma “have got” 8 Have you got a cigarette? Con este significado no usamos normalmente el auxiliar “do” para la forma negativa e interrogativa, sobre todo si la posesiÃ³n a la que nos referimos es en el momento en que hablamos: You have a lot of maney to buy that. You haven't much money to buy that. Si la posesiÃ³n no es en este momento, sino de vez en cuando se pone los auxiliares do/does/didÂ para formar la ineterrogativa y negativa: He doesn't usually have more than one pound in his pocket. Por supuesto si la forma que empleamos es “have got” nunca se puede utilizar “do”:En afirmativa suele emplearse en inglÃ©s britÃ¡nico la estructura HAVE GOT, asÃ−Â “have” hace la interrogativa y negativa mientras que “got” actua como comodÃ−n: I have got a car 2.- ObligaciÃ³n TENER QUE El verbo “to have” seguido de infinitivo con “to” indica ObligaciÃ³n y significa “tener que” y este es el verbo que suple las deficiencias de “must”. Necesita de auxiliares para formar la interrogativa y negativa. Si se utiliza el comodÃ−n “got to” el que hace la interrogativa y negativa es “have”: I have to leave. I have got to leave I must leave Have you got to leave? Do you have to leave? La negativa e interrogativa de “have to” puede hacerse de dos formas: con o sin “do”; es mÃ¡s frecuente la forma con “do” sobre todo en presente: Have you to leave? Do you have to leave? (mejor) 3.- Uso Causativo Este uso se utiliza cuando se quiere expresar que alguien ha hecho algo por uno. La estructura es “To HAVE/GET + Objeto + past participle. Usamos esta construcciÃ³n cuando queremos dar la idea de que no es el sujeto el que realiza la acciÃ³n, sino que mÃ¡s bien recae sobre sÃ− mismo; por tanto tiene significado pasivo.Para hacer la negativa e interrogativa necesita tambiÃ©n de auxiliares: I had my car washed yesterday I had my hair cut yesterday. I didnÂ´t have my car washed yesterday. He had his windows cleaned last Saturday. 4.- Con el sigificado de tomar, recibir, experimentar, comer etc. En este uso la palabra que acompaÃ±a al verbo “have” es su complemento directo, por tanto actua como un verbo lÃ©xico u ordinario. TambiÃ©n necesita de auxiliares ara formar la interrogativa y negativa: 9 I had a cup of coffee at six o'clock (tomÃ©). I had a present from Charle (recibÃ−). I had a lovely time with him (experimentÃ©). To have a bath; to have a shower; to have breakfast. 5.- Acabar de + infinitivo: To have just + past participle Indica que una acciÃ³n acaba de desarrollarse hace un instante: He has just arrived home. QUEHACERES DOMÃ STICOS (Chores) TO DO + artÃ−culo determinado + -ING, excepto = To make the beds Ej: Mrs Wildes cooks the meals every day. Mrs Wildes does the cooking every day. To do the washing = lavar la ropa, hacer la colada To do the washing-up = lavar los platos To do the cleaning = limpiar la casa. To do the spring cleaning = limpiar la casa a fondo. To do the gardening = trabajar en el jardÃ−n etc. BOTH / ALL / NEITHER / NONE Both - ambos, los dos All - mÃ¡s de dos Neither - ninguno (de dos) None - ninguno (mÃ¡s de dos) both ... and - tanto ... como neither ... nor - ni ... ni Both, All, None - rigen el verbo en plural. IMPERSONAL: YOU 10 You equivale al impersonal espaÃ±ol uno Ej: Uno sale de casa y luego no vuelve. PARTÃ CULA: “EVER” Significa: alguna vez Hardly ever - casi nunca; puesto que en inglÃ©s no se pueden poner dos partÃ−culas negativas juntas; la partÃ−cula hardly tiene matiz negativo por tanto no se puede poner never. EVER se emplea en preguntas con el significado de alguna vez; y con el superlativo relativo significa jamÃ¡s. Preguntas: Have you ever been to London? Yes, several times. No, never Superlativos: He is the most intelligent man I have (I've) ever seen. EL ARTÃ CULO El artÃ−culo determinado en inglÃ©s se pone cuando se habla de un sustantivo en concreto, determinado, no en sentido general. The boy next door to us is full of mischief The book that you gave me is very interesting En ambos ejemplos hay algo que define a la persona o cosa a que nos referimos. En el primer caso es next door to us y en el segundo es that you gave me. Esta definiciÃ³n del obejto o la persona de quiÃ©n hablamos nos la puede dar la pregunta: WHAT? o la pregunta WHICH?, y Ã©sto ocurre en singular y plural: The animals I saw were beautiful. What animals? Those I saw (not all animals). The dogs in your farm don't like meat. Which dogs? The ones you have in your farm. La determinaciÃ³n se puede expresar por medio de una oraciÃ³n de ralativo (The book that you gave me) o por un complemento con preposiciÃ³n (The dogs in your farm) The carpet of the dining-room; The house near the church. Si hablamos de algo en sentido general utilizamos el artÃ−culo indeterminado si la persona o cosa de que hablamos es singular y nada si es plural: A play by Shakespeare is something interesting to be seen. Films are good entertainment. 11 Usos del ArtÃ−culo Determinado: • - Cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que sÃ³lo existe un ejemplar: The sky, the earth, the moon. • - Cuando empleamos el superlativo relativo, pero no el absoluto: This is the most interesting poem I have read. pero es: It is most interesting. • - Con los nombres de mares, rios y oceanos: the Thames, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean etc. • - Con los nombres de cordilleras y archipiÃ©lagos, pero no con los nombres de mantaÃ±as y de una sÃ³la isla: The Canary Islands, the Alps, the Grampians pero es: Mont Balnc, Sicily. • -Con los nÃºmeros ordinales en tÃ−tulos honorÃ−ficos: Elisabeth the Second (Elisabeth II), Charles V (Charles the Fifth). • - Con los nombres de trenes, barcos y aviones famosos: The Queen Mary, The Arrow, the Concorde • - Con nombres de paises que o son plurales o estÃ¡n formados por mÃ¡s de una entidad territorial: The United States, The United Kingdom, The Netherlands; pero no Spain, France, Germany, Italy. • - Con las palabras theatre, cinema, movies, pictures, opera, ballet ... cuando se utilizan como lugar de esparcimiento: I went to the cinema last week, We should go to the ballet. • - Cuando se hace referencia a una cosa que ya se ha citado: We bought a house and an apartment. The house is not far from the sea. • - Con los adjetivos cuando se quieren sustantivar, se convierten por medio del artÃ−culo en nombres plurales: The poor are happier than the rich. En singular: the poor man. 12 • - Se emplea el artÃ−culo determinado en con el comparativo para decir que algo aumneta o disminuye: The more you giove him the more he wants. El artÃ−culo indeterminado se emplea delante de los nombres discontinuos (contables) que van en singular. El artÃ−culo indeterminado no tiene pluralÂ . Cuando en singular tiene el valor de 1 haciÃ©ndo Ã©nfasis en la cantidad, su plural puede ser some, a few etc. Usos del artÃ−culo indeterminado: • - Con el significado de “uno cualquiera”: I would like to have a fur coat. • - Con valor distributivo en expresiones de tiempo y con medidas: Peter comes twice a year. Cheese costs 90p a kilo • - Delante de cantidades: hundred, thousand, million, dozen: He knows a hundred English words. • - Con apellidos de personas no identificadas, equivalente al espaÃ±ol: un tal: A Mr White came to see you • - Con nombres de profesiones y religiones: She is a student. I am a teacher. He became a Protestant. • - Con sustantivos cuando queremos rferirnos a ellos en general: A car is a useful thing. • - Con las expresiones: What a ..Â !; Such a ...Â !; Quite a ...Â !; Rather a ...Â ! + nombres contables en singular: What a pity; itÂ´s quite a good book. It was such a nuisance. I read quite an interesting storyÂ ! OmisiÃ³n de los dos artÃ−culos: • - Con las palabras: school, church, prison, jail, bed, hospital ... cuando se utilizan para el fin para el que se hiceron: We go to school everyday. I feel tired; I'm going to bed Peter stole a car and he is in prison now We go to school at 8.30 every morning. 13 • - Con nombres abstractos o nombres concretos no determinados ni limitados: Happiness, Freedom Happiness is what I long for. • - Con los nombres de idiomas, deportes, calles, comidas: I speak Italian, Spanish. I play football, tennis, basketball. I have breakfast, dinner, supper. • - Con los dÃ−as de la semana, que en su lugar llevan “on”: On Monday, On Friday. • - No se usa con los nombres propios aunque formen parte de un genitivo sajÃ³n, al igual que con Mr, Mrs, Miss: MaryÂ´s teacher lives far from here. Mary's scarf; ArthurÂ´s car; Mr Smithers; Mr Harrison. • - Con las palabras: next y last, ciando nos referimos al perÃ−odo inmediatamente posterior o anterior al que estamos: Mary left home last week. I see you next Friday pero I met your brother the last week I spent in London (no tiene por quÃ© ser la semana pasada). USES OF “A” / “AN” • With a subject complement He is a doctor Mr Smith became an engineer I was made a director She remained spinster She found herself a widow • In distributive phrases (a = each) 14 The cloth costs five pounds a yard I take this medicine twice a day These flowers cost a pound a dozen Coal costs ten pounds a ton Coffee is sixpence a cup • With complements introduced by “AS” and “FOR” You must fulfil your duties as a son I wish we had you for a teacher • In expressions of drgree, measurement, number He is not as rich a man as you He lives in too expensive a manner The waiter has quite a hard time This is rather a long street I studied for half an hour He serves a hundred people He won a hundred pounds • In exclamations with “WHAT”, and “SUCH” What a pity! What a nice day! It is such a pity! It is such a nice day! He has such a different life! • After “WITH” and “WITHOUT” He wrote with a pen There is no rose without a thorn • In emphatic negatives 15 I havenÂ´t a penny! I canÂ´t see a thing! I donÂ´t understand a word! • In adverbial phrases In On As to be in a hurry on a large scale as a rule to speak in a low voice on an average • In some idioms to have a right to make a noise to make a fortune • “A certain” a certain man • “A”, “ONE” Give me a book = any book Give me one book = one, not two Monday is a weekday = one of several He entered a restaurant one day = one certain day Just a moment, sir = unemphatic Just one moment, sir = emphatic USE and OMISSION of “THE” • Generic and determined nouns Generic Determined nouns I admired courage I admired the courage of poor people Good books are rare The good books I bought are rare We pray for peace We pray for the peace of the world Happiness does not depend on money The happiness of most people does not depend on the money they have 16 He spends his money on pleasure He spends his money on the pleasures of food They suffered from cold and hunger The cold and hunger they suffered was intense He was sent to prison He was sent to the new prison They go to school They go to the school in that street • Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper names Persons Places Mr Brown Cairo Captain Brawn Mecca Queen Elisabeth Peru King George Canada Pope Pius Lake Superior • Omitted before the names of languages, games, days, meals, streets English football Monday breakfast Oxford Street French tennis Tuesday lunch Piccadilly Circus German cricket Wednesday tea Trafalgar Square Russian rugby Thursday dinner Mount Avenue Italian hockey Friday supper Edgware Road • Next, last, the next, the last next, last the next, the last I will meet you next week He fell ill and died the next week I returned from my holiday last week This is the last week of the year EL PLURAL DE LOS NOMBRES La Regla General: El plural de los nombres se forma aÃ±adiendo “S” al singular. Excepciones: 17 • - Los sustantivos terminados en -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x aÃ±aden la terminaciÃ³n -es para formar el pluralÂ y adquieren asÃ− una sÃ−laba mÃ¡s: Glass - glasses, Church - churches; box - boxes. • - Los que terminan en -o aÃ±aden tambiÃ©n -es, excepto si son nombres extranjeros o apocopados (cortos): potato - potatoes; negro - negroes; piano - pianos; photo -photos. • - Los que terminan en -f o en -fe, cambian la “f” por “v” y aÃ±aden la terminaciÃ³n -es: wolf -wolves; wife - wives; life - lives. excepto: handkerchief - handkerchiefs; cliff - cliffs • - Los que acaban en -y si va Ã©sta precedida de consonante, cambia a “i” latina y aÃ±ade -es, pero si va precedida de vocal, sigue la regla general, aÃ±ade -s: lady - ladies; baby - babies boy - boys; toy - toys • - Las palabras latinas y griegas forman el plural segÃºn las reglas del latÃ−n o del griego: crisis - crises; thesis - theses; datum - data; radius - radii Si son palabras de uso muy frecuente se siguen las reglas del inglÃ©s: gymnasium - gymnasiums (gym - gyms). 6. - Finalmente tenemos que destacar que hay una serie de sustantivos que no siguen estas reglas. Al referirnos a ellos hablamos de plurales irregulares: man - men; woman - women; foot - feet; tooth - teeth; mouse - mice; loose - lice; goose - geese; child children. En inglÃ©s antiguo y sobre todo en textos religiosos se encuentra el plural brethen, de brother, que hoy estÃ¡ practicamente en desuso. Plurales de nombres compuestos: • - En general se pone en plural el Ãºltimo elemento, pero si “man” o “woman” son el primer elemento del compuesto, ambos se ponen en plural: teapot - teapots; manservant - menservants; raincoat - raincoats. • - Cuando el compuesto estÃ¡ formado por otros elementos y nombres (por ejemplo, preposiciones o adverbios) sÃ³lo se pone en plural el nombre: passer-by - passers-by; looker-on - lookers-on. 18 • - Si el segundo elemento del compuesto es un adjetivo, solo se pone en plural el primero: court-martial - courts-martial; mouthful - mouthfuls; La excepciÃ³n a esta regla es que los nombres que terminan en el sufijo -ful (del adjetivo full) forman el plural aÃ±adiendo -s. handful - handfuls; mouthful - mouthfuls. TIEMPOS VERBALES Presente Simple, Presente Continuo.El Presente Simple o habitual se utiliza con acciones que estamos haciendo constantemente; hÃ¡bitos en el presente: I get up at 7 o'clock every day. El Presente Continuo se utiliza con acciones que estamos realizando en el momento en que hablamos, y se sobreentiende la partÃ−cula NOW: I am reading a book. Tanto el Presente Simple como el Presente Continuo tienen valor de futuro. En caso del Presente Simple, el valor de futuro lo da la expresiÃ³n temporal que le acompaÃ±a: The train leaves the station at 8 o'clock in the evening. El Presente Continuo tiene valor de futuro cierto a diferencia de shall o will (que indican futuro simplemente) o la forma going to (que indica futuro prÃ³ximo o premeditado): Tomorrow IÂ´m playing tennis. Pasado Simple.Se emplea para acciÃ³nes que empezaron en el pasado y terminaron en un momento del pasado, este momento puede estar expresado o puede sobreentenderse: They came last night. He joined the army in 1977. He sent me a present last week. I bought this in America. TambiÃ©n se em`plea el pasado simple oara hacer preguntas sobre cosas que se sabe que terminaron en un momento determinado del pasado: When did you graduate? Where did you get that prize? Otro uso del pasado simple es para referirnos a costumbres que se tenÃ−an en el pasado, o para acciones que van acompaÃ±adas de los adverbios: sometimes, never, often, always etc.; tambiÃ©n con expresiones de tiempo que indican repeticiÃ³n: once a week, three times a month, on Mondays, every Friday night etc.: He always went to school by bus. 19 He visited his father once a month. John never drank wine. Presente Perfecto.Se emplea para hablar de una acciÃ³n, que si bien comenzÃ³ en el pasado, no se ha terminado aÃºn o en cierto modo tiene relacÃ³n con el momento actual, y se emplea por tanto, con expresiones de tiempo no terminado. Suele emplearse con: this year, this morning, this summer, today etc.: I have eaten quite a lot today. We have written each other five times this month. El Present Perfect es un tiempo que se emplea para referirnos a acciones que acaban de terminar hace un instante. En inglÃ©s esta proximidad del momento en que se ha terminado una acciÃ³n se expresa por medio de just y el Present Perfect. Su traducciÃ³n al espaÃ±ol es: ACABAR DE + INFINITIVO: I have just seen your mother in the street. (Acabo de ver a tu madre ...) We have just moved to a new house. TambiÃ©n se emplea este tiempo para acciones pasadas cuando no se da el momento en que terminaron. Parece como si la idea de tiempo no terminado la tuviese que dar la vida de uno. Al menos esto facilita el saber emplear este tiempo: She has been to France many times (in her life). I have met lost of clever people in my life. Si las acciones a las que hacemos referencia van acompaÃ±adas de expresiones como: already, lately, recently, tambiÃ©n se emplea el Presente Perfecto si estas acciones comenzaron en el pasado: We havenÂ´t seen him yet. I havenÂ´t already been there. We havenÂ´t heard much of you recently. Por Ãºltimo se emplea este tiempo para hacer preguntas sobre el pasado cuando queremos saber si algo ha ocurrido alguna vez. En inglÃ©s se utiliza el adverbio interrogativo EVER: Have you ever seen anything like that? Has he ever tried to learn English properly? Presente Perfecto Continuo.Tiene tres usos: • - Acciones que empezaron en el pasado, continuan en el presente o acaban de terminar: Arthur has been studying very hard. • - TambiÃ©n se usa con expresiones com: recently, this morning, today etc. que son expresiones de tiempo no terminado: I have been waiting for you this morning. 20 • - Se usa con las partÃ−culas: How long ......? y las contestaciones con: Since y For. How long have you been living here? I've been living here since January. Pasado Perfecto Continuo.Tres usos: • - Reemplaza al Presente Perfecto Continuo cuando nos referimos al pasado: Arthur is tired because he has been studying very hard. (Present) Arthur was tired because he had been studying very hard. (Past) • - TambiÃ©n se usa en oraciones temporales con acciones anteriores a otra acciÃ³n pasada: After Arthur had been driving for six months, he found it quite easy. • - En el Estilo Indirecto como pasado (backshif) del Presente Perfecto Continuo: “Have you been studying English long?” He asked me if I had been studying English long. Usos de shall y will.Son estos dos verbos especiales que se emplean para formar el futuro de los demÃ¡s verbos. Son, pues, auxiliares de tiempo. El futuro en inglÃ©s, cuando lo Ãºnico que queremos expresar es que algo va a tener lugar, se construye con shall para la primera persona de singular o plural y will para las demÃ¡s, seguidos de infinitivo sin to del verbo que conjugamos: I shall work They will work La contracciÃ³n de la afirmativa es Â´ll para todas las personas, y la contracciÃ³n de la negativa es shanÂ´t o wonÂ´t. Pero no siempre se utilizan estos verbos para expresar simplemente el futuro. Hay una serie de casos en que el futuro se tiÃ±e de un matiz que puede ser de mandato, sÃºplica, sugerencia etc.: SHALL: • - Cuando se emplea con las primeras personas y terceras puede expresar ofrecimiento en el presente o en el futuro: (Se traduce al espaÃ±ol po Querer que + subjuntivo) Shall I help you? Shall my wife take you home? • - Con la segunda o tercera personas expresa promesa o amenaza: You shall have a present if you work hard. 21 My wife shall help you as soon as she comes. • - Con todas las personas se emplea shall en las subordinadas finales introducidas por SO THAT, para expresar determinaciÃ³n en el presente o en el futuro: My wife drives very slowly so that I shall not be afraid. WILL: • - Con todas las personas, si el Ã©nfasis recae sobre el, indica determinaciÃ³n o propÃ³sito: I will not go out (I am determined to stay at home) • - Si no se le dÃ¡ Ã©nfasis, expresa deseo de hacer algo, sobre todo de hacerlo en el presente, con todas las personas: If he is hungry I will give him something to eat. • - Con la segunda persona suele indicar invitaciÃ³n o sÃºplica, si se emplea en la forma interrogativa: (Se traduce al espaÃ±ol por Querer + infinitivo) Will you close the window, please? Will you do me a favour, please? • - Con todas las personas puede indicar hÃ¡bito en el presente: She will sit there for hours waiting for her son. • - Con la segunda y tercera personas expresa tambiÃ©n deducciÃ³n: He will be there by now. Usos de MUST y HAVE TO MUST: Esta es la forma Ãºnica de un verbo defectivo que no tiene mas que presente de indicativo. Su tercera persona no tiene -s y rige siempre infinitivo sin to. La forma contracta de la negativa es mustn't. Las formas que le faltan a este verbo, que son practicamente todas, se pueden suplir con las expresiones: TO HAVE TO o TO BE TO (tener que). Must puede expresar: • - ObligaciÃ³n: Candidates must answer all the questions. • - Necesidad 8segÃºn la idea del hablante): He must leave early tomorrow morning. • - SuposiciÃ³n (DeducciÃ³n): She must be at least forty. • - Consejo o recomendaciÃ³n (en tono mÃ¡s fuerte que should): You will have to have your hair cut before you join the army. Must puede anteceder a un infinitivo de perefecto. Indica entÃ³nces una suposiciÃ³n (deducciÃ³n) pasada por parte del hablante: It must have been a shock to him. 22 Have to: Lo empleamos normalmente para completar la conjugaciÃ³n de must. Para formar la negativa e interrogativa empleamos do, does, did Do you have to go now? Did you have to buy a stamp? Con el mismo significado de to have to podemos usar to have got to: I have got to go = I must go. Have you got to go? = Must you go? En el presente de indicativo, que tambiÃ©n puede utilizarse have to, hay frecuentemente una diferencia de significado entre esta forma y must. MUST expresa obligaciÃ³n desde el punto de vista del que habla y HAVE TO, como en los otros tiempos, desde el exterior, es decir, que la obligaciÃ³n es externa. Para expresar ausencia de obligaciÃ³n o de necesidad, es decir, lo opuesto a MUST, se emplea a veces la forma NEED NOT (neednÂ´t). Otras alternativas son: havenÂ´t got to, donÂ´t have to, donÂ´t need to. Usos de CAN y COULD Can: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son: Presente: CAN Futuro: CAN Pasado y Condicional: COULD Las contracciones son: canÂ´t o cannot y couldnÂ´t Can puede expresar: • - PERMISO: (para pedirlo o concederlo): Can I speak to you for a moment? You can speak to the patient if you wish. Con mÃ¡s Ã©nfasis en la idea de permiso usariamos COULD o MAY o MIGHT Could I speak to you for a moment, please? • - POSIBILIDAD: You can come if you want to. Para expresar posibilidad en el futuro no podemos utilizar CAN; tenemos que utilizar TO BE ABLE TO o el giro MANAGE TO: • - HABILIDAD o CAPACIDAD: Can you type? (Sabes escribir a mÃ¡quina?) MANAGE TO o TO BE ABLE TO no expresa capacidad del sujeto, sino mÃ¡s bien que la acciÃ³n ha sido llevada a tÃ©rmino o realizada totalmente: Although he was hurt, he managed/he was able to explain the accident. • - SUPOSICIÃ N: (negativa) 23 He canÂ´t be forty. It couldnÂ´t be her husband; he is died two years ago. TO BE ABLE TO es el verbo que se emplea para suplir los tiempos que le faltan a CAN. Son todos los compuestos (porque no tiene participio pasado), el futuro y el condicional (porque no tiene infinitivo). Usos de MAY y MIGHT May: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son: Presente: MAY Futuro: MAY Pasado y Condicional: MIGHT Las contracciones de las formas negativas son: maynÂ´t y mightnÂ´t. May expresa permiso, lo mismo en forma interrogativa que negativa: You may open the window if you are feeling hot. May y Might pueden expresar tambiÃ©n: • - POSIBILIDAD: He may/might come tomorrow. En el estilo indirecto utilizamos might si el verbo principal estÃ¡ en pasado: He said that he might come. • - SUPOSICIÃ N en el pasado: si usamos may/might seguidos de infinitivo de perfecto: The other road might have been better. • - Podemos usar ambos verbos en las oraciones condicionales: If you called him he might answer back. • - Usamos MAY o MIGHT seguidos de as well para expresar intencionalidad vaga: He might as well apply for the job (he doesnÂ´t care about it.) Especulaciones sobre el pasado con MIGHT • Para una posibilidad pasada. En esta estructura MIGHT es sinÃ³nimo de MAY + infinitivo de perfecto: The Sound of Music might have finished by now. The Sound of Music may have finished by now. • Puede ponerse en las oraciones condicionales (tipo 3, igual que would have): If he had gone to the agency earlier, there might have been more choice. • En estilo indirecto como tiempo pasado de MAY: He admitted that he might have made a mistake. 24 • Se puede utilizar en “quejas”: I didnÂ´t know her husband had died. You might have told me! Usos de GOING TO o WILL Going to: Esta formas seguida de un infinitivo se utiliza en inglÃ©s para acciones futuras que son premeditadas y que de un modo u otro necesitan una preparaciÃ³n para llevarlas a cabo. A veces, aunque no siempre, van acompaÃ±adas de una expresiÃ³n de tiempo: I'm going to ring my brother up. I need some soap because IÂ´m going to wash up Peter has bought some paint because he's going to paint his bedroom. Will: Se emplea para acciones futuras no premeditadas. Generalmente se dice que se utiliza para acciones que no necesitan preparaciÃ³n, que son expontÃ¡neas: Give your coat. I'll take it to my room. That cake is very good; I will have some more. La distinciÃ³n no es tan clara como a simple vista parece. Algunas gramÃ¡ticas dan un ejemplo como el que vamos a citar, pero no siempre que hablamos nos vamos a encontrar con casos tan claros: Peter has sold his car. Yes, heÂ´s going to buy a new car. (La preparaciÃ³n estÃ¡ en el hecho que Pedro ha vendido el coche viejo previamente para comprar despuÃ©s otro nuevo) As Peter has sold his car I will buy him a new one. (No hay nada premeditado. El hecho de que Pedro haya vendido el coche me ha hecho pensar en regalarle uno nuevo). Will se emplea sin poder ser sustituido por la forma going to en las oraciones condicionales o en las subordinadas temporales, yendo will en la oraciÃ³n principal: If you come with me I will do some shopping. TambiÃ©n hay que emplear will con los verbos que no tienen forma progresiva o continua: believe, understand, know etc. Pero excepcionalemente con estos verbos se puede emplear going to aunque no es normal. Usos de SHOULD y WOULD Should: Aparte de ser auxiliar de condicional puede expresar deber (leve), consejo o recomendaciÃ³n, al igual que ought to. We should see the doctor if you arenÂ´t feeling well. • - Se suele usar en oraciones completivas con that detrÃ¡s de verbos como: suggest, decide etc.: He suggested that I should see a lawyer. • - TambiÃ©n se emplea con sentido final detrÃ¡s de las conjunciones so that, in order that, in case etc.: 25 He banged the door so that someone should hear him. • - En el estilo indirecto sustituye a shall: He asked, “Shall I help you? He asked whether he should help me. • - Se suele usar tambiÃ©n detrÃ¡s de ciertos adjetivos que expresan placer, sorpresa, disgusto etc.: It is amazing that she should have laughed at you! It is fair that your parents should hear from you. Would: Aparte de ser tambiÃ©n auxiliar de condicional, es el equivalente de will con referencia al pasado cuando will se usa como futuro ordinario, normal: He knows he will be late He knew he would be late. • - Se usa en lugar del verbo want cuando queremos pedir algo de forma educada: I want to see Mr Steele I would like to see Mr Steele • - TambiÃ©n lo usamos para expresar ruego: Would you open the window? • - Indica tambiÃ©n hÃ¡bito o repeticiÃ³n: She would sit there for hours waiting for her son. • - Would seguido de rather o sooner mÃ¡s infinitivo sin to expresa PREFERENCIA: I would rather walk than sit. • - Al igual que used to, sirve para describir hÃ¡bitos pasados. Se utiliza especialmente en inglÃ©s escrito: During the weekend he would see him in his flat going through the paper. IÂ´d often go off camping at weekends when I was young. Usos de OUGHT TO Ought to es un verbo defectivo que rige infinitivo sin to puesto que la partÃ−cula to pertenece al verbo. Tiene una forma Ãºnica: ought to para todas las personas. Ought to puede utilizarse como presente, pasado y futuro y expresa: • - ObligaciÃ³n, pero no por parte del hablante (como must), ni de tipo externo (como have to), sino como un simple recuerdo o llamada a la atenciÃ³n por parte del hablante; en este sentido es mucho menos enfÃ¡tico que must y muy similar a la idea que expresa should: You should not tell lies. You ought not to tell lies. 26 • - TambiÃ©n se puede emplear expresando consejo, igualmente en este caso con menos Ã©nfasis que must: You ought to read this book. • - Ought to puede ir seguido de infinitivo de perfecto, igual que should para lamentar algo que no se realizÃ³: I canÂ´t do anything for you now. You ought to have told me yesterday afternoon. Las locuciones verbales WOULD RATHER/SOONER y HAD BETTER Would rather o sooner: expresa preferencia entre dos cosas, por tanto se traduce por preferirÃ−a esto a aquello (entre dos acciones) IÂ´d rather go than stay • Si es el mismo sujeto en las dos acciones: • Va seguido por infinitivo de presente sin to para acciones presentes o futuras: IÂ´d rather study English. • Va seguido por infinitivo de perfecto sin to cuando se refiere a acciones pasadas: IÂ´d rather have gone to the cinema yesterday • Cuando son sujetos diferentes en las acciones: • Va seguido de simple past para referirse a presente o futuro: IÂ´d rather Tom went • Va seguido de past perfect al rferirse a acciones pasadas: IÂ´d rather Tom have gone yesterday. Had better significa serÃ¡/serÃ−a mejor para el sujeto que sea: • Va seguido de infinitivo de presente sin to para referirse a presente o futuro: IÂ´d better go • Va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto sin to para referirse al pasado: IÂ´d better have gone • Es equivalente a la estructura It would be better for me, you, him ... to ... Nota: Estas locuciones van siempre seguidas por INFINITIVO sin TO Uso de “auxiliares” en afirmativa 27 • Se pueden usar “los auxiliares” en afirmativas como: mandatos, invitaciones, oraciones enunciativas para dar mÃ¡s Ã©nfasis: Come on, Arthur! Do open the door! • En inglÃ©s hablado se acentÃºa el auxiliar, y en inglÃ©s escrito puede aparecer subrayado, en cursiva o en negrita, para resaltarlo: John canÂ´t come tomorrow. -But he can (he told me so) The Verb “TO GET” = to obtain I got some tickets for the theatre. to receive What time do you get the mail every day? He got very angry when the lawyer came. = to become We get older every day. The news got about that John had gone abroad. How are you getting along? = movement The prisoners got away by climbing the walls. GET INTO GET ON GET OFF GET OUT GET OVER GET TO GET UP GET THROUGH I shall be out this morning but I shall get back by 12 o'clock The bad boy is always getting into trouble. • I always get on the bus here to get home. • IÂ´m getting on well at school. c) IÂ´m getting on well with my parents. I always get off the bus at the end of my journey. • The teacher told the children to get out their books. • After being ill, you must get out into the fresh air and the sunshine. I had a grave (serious) illness but finally I got over it. The train gets to London at 3 o'clock. I get up at 7 o'clock every morning. • He got through his work in three hours. • He got through his examination. Usos de verbo to GET • El uso bÃ¡sico del verbo get es obtener, conseguir: Has Mary got a job yet? • get + past participle o adjective, significa become (hacerse, llegar a ser); en este caso verbaliza al participio o al adjetivo ill = enfermo to get ill = enfermar 28 tired = cansado to get tired = cansarse wet = mojado to get wet = mojarse married = casado to get married to = casarse con • get + object + past participle: uso causativo (al igual que have + object + past participle); significa que alguien hace algo por uno, por tanto tiene significado pasivo): I must get my hair cut. I must have my hair cut • have got + infinitivo con to: indica obligaciÃ³n lo mismo que have to: IÂ´ve got to go now. • get to: significa llegar a un sitio (cubierto), normalmente a una estaciÃ³n de tren: What time do we get to London? The Verb “TO HAPPEN” • HAPPEN to somebody or something What has happened to John. Where is he? A strange thing happened to me. ItÂ´s not here. What has happened to my pen? It doesnÂ´t work. What has happened to this radio? • HAPPEN to + infinitive = I know it by chance. I happen to know the answer. = John was there by chance. John happened to be here. • As it HAPPEN; Whatever HAPPENS As it happens, I know the answer. = By chance, I know it. You must tell the truth whatever happens The Verb “TO FEEL LIKE” + NOUN = I feel that I am ... This morning I feel like the strongest man in the world. = I want to have ... This morning I feel like a long way + -ING = I want to walk. This morning I feel like walking. = Do you want to play ...? 29 Do you feel like playing cards? + IT = because I donÂ´t want to. This morning IÂ´m not going to work because I donÂ´t feel like it. + ANYTHING This morning I donÂ´t feel like anything. Significados de to FEEL =I donÂ´t want to eat or drink anything. • Con adjetivos: estar en un estado emocional o fÃ−sico: Arthur had felt terrible all day. • Con adjetivos cuando el sujeto es una parte del cuerpo significa dar la impresiÃ³n: His chest felt painful • Con objetos significa tocar, palpar: Mary felt his forehead. • Feel like = “want”, en coloquial significa apetecer, dar la gana. Rige gerundio. I donÂ´t feel like going to Baiona tomorrow. • Concompletivas de “that” significa tener una opiniÃ³n, creer: I feel that we may have made a mistake. The Verb “TO HELP” 1.- HELP SOMEONE (TO) INFINITIVE: Arthur Mrs Steele collect the dirty glasses Sheila helped Mrs Steele (to) do the washing up. Mr Smithers Mrs Harrison move the chairs and tables. 2.- With the meaning of remedy, AVOID: I cannot (canÂ´t) help coughing I cannot (canÂ´t) be helped 3.- When HELP is needed in a emergengy: Help! Yelled the trapped children. 4.- HELP is frequently used in informal contexts: Help your mother; help with the housework; Help Father with the gardening; help with the washing up. 30 The Verb “TO NEED” +NOUN I need a friend. + INFINITIVE with TO I need to go. I donÂ´t need friends. I do not need to go. Do you need friends? The Verb “TO DARE” Do you need to go? + PERSONAL OBJECT I dare you to go. + INFINITIVE with TO I dare to go. + INFINITIVE without TO I need not (neednÂ´t) go Need you go? + INFINITIVE without TO I dare not (darenÂ´t) go He dared me to sing. I do not dare to go. He dared us to say anything. The Verb “TO LOOK” Do you dare to go? Dare you go? a) To LOOK + adjective = to seem, appear = He seems happy. He looks happy = They seem sad. They look sad = John appears tired. John looks tired = He didnÂ´t appear old. He didnÂ´t look old • To LOOK LIKE + Noun = to resemble, to have the appearance of The soldier looked like a boy = He had the appearance of a boy. He looks like a policeman = He has the appearance of a policeman. I look like my father Look here! = Look at this! Listen! = I resemble my father. = Mira! Look out! = Be careful! = Cuidado! He looked up = He raised his eyes. = levantar He looked down = He dropped his eyes. = bajar I will look in on you = I will visit you. = visitar I looked away = I looked in another direction = desviar Look at Look at your book! Look at it! seek Look for your book! Look for it! be careful Look out for the traffic. Look out for it! 31 examine Look into the problem! Look into it! Look up to = admire Children should look up to their parents. Look down on = despise I look down on liars. The Verb “TO SEEM” 1.- SEEM TO / SEEM THAT ... I seem to be right. They seemed to know him. It seems that I am right. It seemed that they knew him The Verb “TO MIND” 1.- To MIND = To LOOK AFTER: IÂ´ll mind the baby while you are out. Will you mind my luggage, please, for a few minutes? 2.- To MIND = To BE CAREFUL: Mind that chair! DonÂ´t fall over it! If it rains, mind you donÂ´t get wet! Mind you get the tickets! DonÂ´t forget! Mind you donÂ´t spend too much money during your holidays! 3.- To MIND = To TAKE NOTICE: Never mind! ItÂ´s not important. DonÂ´t mind John. HeÂ´s not really angry. 4.- Do you MIND ...? / Would you MIND ...?: Do you mind closing the window? Would you mind closing the window? Do you mind if I close the window? Would you mind if I close the window? Usos de “MUCH, MANY, LITTLE y FEW Para expresar en inglÃ©s poca cantidad empleamos LILTTLE y FEW. FEW se emplea con los nombres contables y significa pocas cosas. LITTLE va con nombres incontables y significa poco/poca. 32 Tanto LITTLE como FEW tienen valor negativo y niegan la existencia de una cantidad. En lengua hablabda no es muy frecuente el uso de little y few a menos que vayan precedidos de too, extremely, very etc. Es mÃ¡s frecuente el uso de NOT MANY, HARDLY EVER o NOT MUCH con el verbo en forma afirmativa o emplear MUCH o MANY con el verbo en forma negativa: AsÃ− en vez de decir: He said little about his illness, en conversaciÃ³n se prefiere: He didnÂ´t say much about his illness o He said hardly anything about his illness. Cuando FEW y LITTLE van precedidos de artÃ−culo indeterminado a, entÃ³nces tienen valor afirmativo, con el significado de unos cuantos (a few) o una pequeÃ±a cantidad (a little). DonÂ´t worry if you havenÂ´t any money. I have a few pounds here. He was very thirsty but he has drunk a little water and he feels better now. Para expresar mucha cantidad empleamos en inglÃ©s MUCH y MANY. Tanto much como many son adeverbios de cantidad. MUCH se emplea con los nombres incontables con el significado de gran cantidad: He hasnÂ´t drunk much this morning. Pero su uso debe quedar restringido a las oraciones negativas e interrogativas a menos que sea el sujeto de la oraciÃ³n o que califique al sujeto: Much has been said about him but nobody believes it. Much money has been spent in that building. Excepto en ejemplos como los que hemos dado, a veces incluso en casos asÃ−, much se sustituye por a lot, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, lots of etc. en las oraciones afirmativas: He always eats a lot of bread for breakfast. There is a great deal of noise in this room. MANY con el mismo significado que MUCH, se emplea con los nombres contables en plural: There were many people outside the church. Have you seen many films this summer? MANY se usa indistintamente en oraciones afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas aunque a veces se emplea en afirmativas expresiones como VERY MANY. La Ãºnica excepciÃ³n en el empleo de MANY es cuando se utiliza con un nombre en singular precedido del artÃ−culo a: Many a person has died because of that (=many people). ColocaciÃ³n de “BOTH y ALL” 33 Cuando son sujeto de la oraciÃ³n en una frase larga pueden ir delante del sustantivo al que acompaÃ±an: Both live far from here (of) the children All are English TambiÃ©n pueden ir detrÃ¡s del sustantivo: both The boys (they) love chocolate All Si un verbo normal como el del ejemplo, van colocados antes de Ã©l. Si el verbo es auxiliar va detrÃ¡s de Ã©l: both The girls are our friends all Cuando son sujetos de una oraciÃ³n, pero Ã©sta es corta, o cuando se trate de respuestas breves, si hay verbo auxiliar tenemos dos posibiliadades: • Que vayan entre el pronombre y el auxiliar. • Que vayan delante del auxiliar empleÃ¡ndolos con la preposiciÃ³n of o sustituyendo la forma del sujeto del pronombre por la de complemento, como exige la preposiciÃ³n: (a) both They can all (b) Both of them can All Si en estas respuestas breves prescindimos del verbo, la construcciÃ³n que empleamos es la b) Both of them Who can go? All of them Cuando acompaÃ±a al sustantivo que hace oficio de complemento, en oraciones largas, podemos emplearlos inmediatamente detrÃ¡s del verbo utilizando la preposiciÃ³n of y la forma del complemento del pronombre. TambiÃ©n hay posibilidad de posponerlos a la forma de complemento del pronombre prescindiendo de la preposiciÃ³n of: (a) both The girls ate the sandwiches all 34 (b) both They didnÂ´t eat the sandwiches all (c) both They wanted them all (d) both They wanted them all Si van con el complemento pero en las respuestas cortas o en frases tambiÃ©n cortas, se usan seguidas de of y el pronombre complemento: Both of us All Usos de “EITHER ... OR // NEITHER ...NOR” Las oraciones coordinadas disyuntivas se construyen en inglÃ©s con la conjunciÃ³n OR si son afirmativas y con NOR si son negativas: Will you come or will you stay? I donÂ´t know, nor can I guess. Cuando queremos darle mÃ¡s fuerza a la oraciÃ³n que ofrece la alternativa, en vez de emplear sÃ³lo OR utilizamos EITHER ... OR...: You must either stay or go with me. He can either keep it or give it to his sister. Si la oraciÃ³n es nagativa, esta disyuntiva se expresa con NEITHER ... NOR... y el verbo en forma afirmativa, o con EITHER ... OR ... y el verbo en forma negativa. Se puede emplear cualquiera de las dos construcciones, aunque quizÃ¡s la de uso mÃ¡s extendido es la primera: Neither my brother nor my sister found the money you had lost. They are neither German nor Russian. They arenÂ´t either German or Russian. Por regla general en estas construcciones hay concordancia entre el verbo y el sujeto que estÃ¡ prÃ³ximo a Ã©l, aunque a veces suene extraÃ±o: 35 Either Mary or you are wrong. Neither Peter nor I am feeling well. Normalmente y para evitar Ã©sto se emplea la construcciÃ³n similar a la de Addition to Remarks: Either Mary is wrong or you are. Peter is not feeling well, neither am I. ComparaciÃ³n del “ADJETIVO y del ADVERBIO” Los Adjetivos Calificativos tienen tres grados. POSITIVO, COMPARATIVO, SUPERLATIVO bright ---------------- brighter --------------------- brightest intelligent----------- more intelligent --------- most intelligent La ComparaciÃ³n puede ser de tres tipos: IGUALDAD, SUPERIORIDAD, IFERIORIDAD: La ComparaciÃ³n de igualdad se forma con AS ... AS y el adjetivo en grado positivo: Mary is as clever as Peter That book is as interesting as mine. La ComparaciÃ³n de superioridad se construye con la forma del comparativo del adjetivo seguido de THAN: Your brother is taller than your father. Geography is more difficult than I thought. El Comparativo de los adjetivos se forma siguiendo las siguientes reglas: 1.- Los adjetivos de una sÃ−laba toman el sufijo -ER, doblando la consonante final en los casos en que vaya una vocal sÃ³lo entre dos consonantes: Old ---------------- older; hard ---------------- harder; big ----------------- bigger 2.- Los adjetivos de tres o mÃ¡s sÃ−labas llevan antepuesto MORE al grado positivo del adjetivo: more helpful; more intelligent; more interesting. 3.- Los adjetivos de dos sÃ−labas siguen una de las dos reglas ya expuestas: unos toman el sufijo -ER y a otros se le antepone MORE. Como regla general los que terminan en -y, -w, -er, -ly toman el sufijo -ER y los que terminan en -re, o -ful se le antepone MORE: pretty ----------------- prettier; helpful ----------------- more helpful. El Comparativo de inferioridad se forma con LESS y el grado positivo del adjetivo, pero es mÃ¡s frecuente construirlo con NOT AS ... AS o NOT SO ... AS: 36 Your dress is less long than MaryÂ´s Your dress is not (as) so long as MaryÂ´s. El SUPERLATIVO se forma siguiendo las mismas reglas del COMPARATIVO pero con la terminaciÃ³n -EST en vez de -ER y anteponiendo MOST en vez de MORE. El uso del Superlativo en inglÃ©s asÃ− formado corresponde al superlativo relativo espaÃ±ol. Es decir, no expresa una cualidad en grado mÃ¡ximo unicamente sino que lo que hace es compraralo con un grupo: Mary is the most intelligent girl in her class. Soria is the smallest capital in Spain. La preposiciÃ³n espaÃ±ola DE despuÃ©s de superlativos en inglÃ©s se traduce por IN seguido de un sustantivo de lugar y por OF cuando no es de lugar. Cuando se emplea el superlativo sin artÃ−culo su valor es similar al que tiene el adjetivo precedido de VERY, TERRIBLY, TREMENDOUSLY etc. Hay que destacar una serie de excepciones idiomÃ¡ticas en las que interviene el comparativo o el superlativo: • THE seguido de comparativo .... THE seguido de comparativo indica que algo aumenta o disminuye. Su equivalente al espaÃ±ol es: Cuanto mas/menos ... mas/menos: • Comparativo and comparativo. Equivale a: CADA VEZ MÃ”S: • HAD BETTER seguido de infinitivo sin TO. Significa: SerÃ¡/SerÃ−a mejor que con subjuntivo: Hay una serie de comparativos y superlativos irregulares que no se forman siguiendo las reglas dadas y que son los siguientes: Positivo Good/well Comparativo Better Superlativo Best Bad/badly Worse Worst Much/many More Most Little Less Least Near Nearer Nearest (distancia) Far Farther Next (orden) Old Further Farthest (para distancia ambos) Late Older Elder Furthest (para algo adicional) Later Odest 37 Latter Eldest (persona misma familia) Latest Last Resumen: COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: Form: One-syllable and most two-syllable adjectives: adjs + -er/est: tall - taller, tallest (except adjs: -ed/ing) adjs + ier/-iest: heavy - heavier, heaviest Irregular: better/best; worse/worst; less/least; more/most; farther/farthest Two or more syllables: more convinient/most convinient. Intensifiers: quite/fairly/rather/very/too/extremely/increasingly (good) a bit/a lot/much/very much/a food deal (better)/more (convinient) Use: Comparing two: John is as tall as Mary (AS ................. AS) John is not as/so tall as Mary (NOT AS/SO ... AS) John is taller than Mary (-ER/-IER ... THAN) Comparing more than two: John is the tallest/the most intelligent student in our class. CaracterÃ−sticas de los VERBOS DEFECTIVOS Se denominan verbos defectivos a aquellos que carecen de alguna forma vebal, es decir, todos los verbos en inglÃ©s tienen tres formas bÃ¡sicas: infinitivo, pasado, participio pasado, alrededor de las cuales se forman todos los tiempos verbales. Pues bien los verbos que carezcan de alguna o algunas de estas formas se denominan DEFECTIVOS: • Todos ellos carecen de infinitivo (por tanto no se le puede poner la partÃ−cula to, ni tampoco pueden hacer el futuro ni el condicional) y participio de pasado (con lo que no pueden hacer tiempos compuestos ni tiempos pasivos). • Van seguidos siempre de infinitivo sin to (bien sea de presente o perfecto), excepto OUGHT TO y USED TO, puesto que este to pertenecen a estos defectivos. • Nunca llevan -s en las terceras personas de singular del presente de indicativo. • Como verbos auxiliares-defectivos hacen la interrogativa y negativa por sÃ− solos. • Si van seguidos por infinitivo de presente se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras • Si van seguidos por infinitivo de perfecto se refieren a acciones pasadas. PRINCIPALES VERBOS AUXILIARES MODALES o DEFECTIVOS must; can/could; may/might; will/would; shall/should; ought to; used to; need/dare (se denominan tambiÃ©n semimodales, puesto que pueden ser modales o lÃ©xicos). 38 MUST / NEED / CAN / MAY Verbos que suplen las deficiencias can could to be able to may might to be allowed/permitted must --to have to Must en afirmativa implica OBLIGACION interna, es decir, impuesta por el que habla o escribe, a diferencia de have to en donde la OBLIGACIÃ N es externa, Ã©sta la imponen terceras personas o circunstancias. TambiÃ©n puede implicar DEDUCCIÃ N, dependiendo del contexto. Presente/Futuro Pasado/Condicional Must en negativa (MustnÂ´t) implica PROHIBICIÃ N. TambiÃ©n dependiendo de contextos, puede implicar que es erroneo o equivocado llevar a cabo ciertas acciones. NeednÂ´t es la negativa de must como obligaciÃ³n, por tanto indica ausencia de obligaciÃ³n y se traduce por “no es necesario”. CanÂ´t es la negativa de must como deducciÃ³n. No se puede confundir la forma canÂ´t con cannot, esta Ãºltima solo puede ser tomada como negativa de can (poder). Diferencia de “CAN y MAY” Can tiene tres sigificados: May tiene dos significados: • Poder (capacidad fÃ−sica). - Poder (posibilidad). • Habilidad (saber = how to know). - Permiso. • Permiso (darlo o concederlo). Donde se pueden confundir los significados de los dos verbos es en cuanto a permiso y la diferencia es que may se utiliza mucho mÃ¡s que can con este significado, puesto que can implica ademÃ¡s esa capacidad fÃ−sica. • Ver ejemplos en los apartados de los Usos de CAN / COULD // MAY / MIGHT. He may come = quizÃ¡s He might come = posibilidad remota COULD = acciÃ³n no terminada: He could swim across the river. WAS ABLE = acciÃ³n terminada: He was able to swim across the river. CANÂ´T: significa DEDUCCIÃ N en negativa (canÂ´t # cannot (negativa de can)). MUSNÂ´T: aparte de PROHIBICIÃ N puede tambiÃ©n significar que algo es erroneo, peligroso, o tonto el hacerlo. SHOULD y OUGHT TO: significan deberÃ−a. Should es deber de consejo. Ought to es mÃ¡s bien deber moral. 39 You should read more books. You ought to read more books. OBLIGACIÃ N: must - have to - should - ought to de mayor a menor fuerza de obligaciÃ³n USED TO: sÃ³lo tiene forma pasada. Significa “solÃ−a”. Se utiliza para costumbres en el pasado. Siempre va seguido de Infinitivo: I used to read Si se quiere expresar costumbre en presente: I usually read. Como verbo defectivo puede hacer la interrogativa y negativo por si solo, o tambiÃ©n con el auxiliar “did”: I used not (usednÂ´t) to read I did not use to read Used you to read? Did you use to read? Sin embargo en las respuestas cortas se hace con auxiliar (Yes, I did.) • Una caracterÃ−stica propia para todos los auxiliares defectivos, independientemente de que vayan en forma PRESENTE o PASADA: Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PRESENTE se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras. Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO se refieren a acciones pasadas. Used es adjetivo con el significado de “acostumbrado” cuando va precedido de verbos como to be/become/seem/appear. Rige tambiÃ©n la preposiciÃ³n “to”, por tanto a continuaciÃ³n hay que poner este caso gerundio (la forma -ING), puesto que en inglÃ©s la regla general es que despuÃ©s de preposiciÃ³n hay que poner siempre GERUNDIO: IÂ´m used to reading “to” funciona como preposiciÃ³n si aparte del infinitivo espaÃ±ol puede entrar un pronombre personal de complemento o un sustantivo. NEED + GERUNDIO (-ING) Need seguido de GERUNDIO tiene siempre significado pasivo: IÂ´m afraid the flat needs doing up a bit. Esta estructura significa: IT IS/WAS NECESSARY + FOR + OBJECT + TO BE DONE. Diferencias entre SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK SAY: Normalmente no va seguido por la persona a la que uno se dirige: 40 What did you say? TELL: Con frecuencia va seguido de la persona a la que nos dirigimos: • ConstrucciÃ³n de infinitivo (o acusativa): He told me to get on with my work. • TambiÃ©n se utiliza con partÃ−culas interrogativas + infinitivo con to: He told me what to do. • En frases hechas: To tell lies / Tell me a story / Tell me the truth SAY: Significa: expresar por medio de palabras, y TELL significa DECIR en el sentido de contar, relatar, narrar. SPEAK: tiene cuatro significados: • Con idiomas: Do you speak English? • Con objeto: tiene el sentido de dar una conferencia, echar un discurso: Today IÂ´m going to speak about Shakespeare. • En el telÃ©fono: cuando se descuelga: This is Vigo 430387. WhoÂ´s speaking? • Con el significado de decir algo rige las preposiciones to (con) y about (de): She was so angry with me that she didnÂ´t speak to me all day. TALK: Tiene dos significados: • Charlar, conversar. Rige las preposiciones to y about: What were they talking about? • Alborotar (make a noise with words): Stop talking and get on with your work! Diferencias entre SEEM y LOOK Ambos significan parecer. Y la diferencia estÃ¡ en que cuando van seguidos de adjetivo, se usa LOOK cuando queremos resaltar la apariencia fÃ−sica de algo o alguien. Mientras que si despuÃ©s va un infinitivo hay que usar siempre SEEM. LOOK tiene, sin embargo, otros significados, dependiendo de la preposiciÃ³n que le acompaÃ±e: look at (mirar a); look for (buscar); look up (buscar algo en el lugar apropiado); look out! (cuidado!); look forward 41 to (esperar allgo con ilusiÃ³n, ansiar); look on to (admirar a alguien); look down on (despreciar); look like (parecerse a). THINK / SUPPOSE / HOPE I think so - creo que si I donÂ´t think so - creo que no I suppose so - supongo que si I suppose not - supongo que no I hope so - espero que si I hope not - espero que no IÂ´m afraid so - me temo que si IÂ´m afraid not - me temo que no Â¡Â¡Â¡Â¡ no se puede negar nunca LA COMPLETIVA DE “THINK” !!! Significados de la palabra “LEFT” • Right // Left. • To Leave Left Left = dejar, partir, marchar, irse. • Sobrante, que queda de sobra left-overs = sobras (de la comida). Diferencia entre “BEEN TO” y “GONE TO” Ella ha ido al banco: - She has gone to the bank. - She has been to the bank. BEEN TO = ir, implicando estar de vuelta, que ya ha vuelto. Have you ever been to England? GONE TO = que estÃ¡s allÃ¡, implica solo ida. Expressing WISHES and REGRETS • Si nos referimos a presente o futuro. Se hace con wish + simple past: I wish he had a bit more more money ... Do you wish you could speak Portuguese? • Con el verbo to be, se utiliza were para todas las personas (subjuntivo) I wish the kitchen were a bit longer. Estos deseos som imposibles. Wish suele traducirse por: OjalÃ¡. • Si nos referimos al pasado. Se hace con wish + past perfect: I wish I had seen you yesterday. I wish you had married me instead of him. 42 I WISH and IF ONLY Se utiliza wish y if only + simple past or could cuando queremos que algo cambie en el presente: I wish I could sing ( I can't sing) If only I wasn't ill (I am ill) Se utiliza wish y would para quejarse de alguna situaciÃ³n o circunstancia: I wish he would stop smoking! I wish they would be quiet! Se utiliza wish o if only + past perfect o could + infinitivo de perfecto cuando queremos cambiar una situacion pasada: Matt wishes he had apologized (he didn't apologise) If only I had told the truth (I didn't tell the truth) ItÂ´s (ABOUT) TIME + Simple Past Va seguido siempre de pasado simple con significado de presente o futuro: ItÂ´s (about) time we found a flat. ItÂ´s time he was here. He is late. ItÂ´s NO GOOD + -ING ItÂ´s no good / It isnÂ´t any good siempre va seguido de gerundio (-ing) con significado de there is no advantage: ItÂ´s no good looking up hundreds of flats. GERUNDIO Como forma no personal del verbo tiene todas las funciones del sustantivo: • Como sujeto de la oraciÃ³n: Living in London is expensive. • La misma funciÃ³n tambiÃ©n la tiene el infinitivo con to y la diferencia que hay en poner de sujeto un gerundio o un infinitivo estÃ¡ en que con el gerundio se ha experimentado la acciÃ³n, mientras que con el infinitivo no necesariamente: To live in London is expensive. La estructura de gerundio como sujeto equivale a: ITÂ´S + ADJETIVO + TO-INFINITIVE: 43 It is expensive to live in London. • DespuÃ©s de los siguientes verbos hay que utiizar gerundio: admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny detest enjoy excuse* finish forgive* imagine involve keep mind miss postpone resist rest stop help (en canÂ´t help) stand (en canÂ´t stand) • A los verbos que llevan asterisco se le suele poner un adjetivo posesivo antes del gerundio. Arthur didnÂ´t enjoy cleaning the flat. My husband detests doing his own cooking. • Se pone gerundio despuÃ©s de ciertos phrasal verbs, principalmente en aquellos phrasal que van seguidos de dos partÃ−culas, dÃ³nde la segunda partÃ−cula siempre es preposiciÃ³n: carry on, give up, keep on, leave off, put off, do away with, put up with... Many firms are giving up employing their own typists • La regla en inglÃ©s es que despuÃ©s de preposiciÃ³n hay que poner siempre gerundio; por tanto hay que poner gerundio despues de los verbos que rigen preposiciÃ³n, dentro de esos verbos, los mÃ¡s utilizados son: accuse someone of, approve of, to be fond of, to be good/bad at, to be used to, to feel like, to insist on, to look forward to, to succeed in, to think of/about, what about ...? She left without saying anything. • TambiÃ©n hay que poner gerundio despuÃ©s de los adjetivos posesivos: Mary insisted on ArthurÂ´s helping / on his helping. En inglÃ©s hablado o en inglÃ©s informal se puede cambiar este posesivo por un nombre o pronombre personal de complemento: Mary insisted on Arthur helping Will you excuse my leaving early? // Will you excuse me leaving early? Puede hacerse tambiÃ©n con la estructura de condicional, evitando asÃ− el posesivo: Will you excuse me if I leave early? Participio de presente El uso bÃ¡sico del participo de presente es para la formaciÃ³n de tiempos continuos. Se forma al igual que el gerundio aÃ±adiÃ©ndole -ing al infinitivo. Usos: 44 • Con los vebos de percepciÃ³n (de los sentidos): see, hear, smell, watch, notice. • En la estructura impersonal there is/are. • Para aÃ±adir algo nuevo a una oraciÃ³n. • Come adjetivo “activo”. • Va siempre despuÃ©s de los verbos come y go, si es un verbo de actividad fÃ−sica IÂ´m going to swimming this afternoon. • DespuÃ©s del verbo keep. IÂ´m sorry to keep you waiting. • DespuÃ©s de los verbos: spend y waste. • Se puede utilizar en vez de oraciones causales, reemplazando a las conjunciones: because, since, as I went to the station expecting to meet you but you didnÂ´t arrive as I thought at first. Participio de pasado Su uso principal es para la formaciÃ³n de los tiempos compuestos (con have) y los tiempos pasivos (con to be) de los verbos. • Como participio pasivo o pasado para aÃ±adir algo nuevo a una oraciÃ³n: There were a lot of bottles thrown into the river. Cars parked on double yellow lines will be taken away. • Como adjetivo “pasivo”: He tried to sell me a stolen watch. PARTICIPIOS en vez de ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS a) en vez de ORACIONES DE RELATIVO (Present and Past Participles). b) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PRESENTE (Present Participle). c) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PASADO (Perfect Participle). d) en vez de ORACIONES CAUSALES (Present and Perfect Participles). a) en vez de oraciones de relativo (Present and Past Participles): He stays in a cottage in Wales belonging to his aunt. The cottage was in a village called Penol. There were heavy winds blowing across the motorway. Leave a note out telling him what you want. 45 Tanto el Participio de Presente como el Participio de Pasado se pueden usar en lugar de oraciones de relativo. b) en vez de oraciones temporales de presente (Present Participle): While walking down Earls Court Road, he happened to bump into as fellow student. When thinking about Wales, one remembers that the Welsh are renowned for their singing. He drove down the road thinking about his problems. AquÃ− el Participio, con o sin “while” o “when” reemplaza a una oraciÃ³n temporal de presente para mostrar que las dos acciones estan teniendo lugar simultaneamente. c) en vez de oraciones temporales de pasado (Perfect Participle): Having made a reasonable amount of maney, Arthur didn't need to do any more work. Having got to Camarthen, he took a wrong turning. El Participio de Prefecto se puede usar -generalmente en inglÃ©s escrito- como alternativa de oraciones subordinadas introducidas por "when", "after", "as soon as" etc. d) en vez de oraciones causales (Present and Perfect Participles): Consisting of mountains, castles and seaside resorts, North Wales is the best known to tourists. Not knowing what to do, she decided to do nothing. Having lost his job, he is now unemployed. En estas oraciones los Participios se usan como alternativas para oraciones subordinadas introducidas porÂ “as”, “because” or “since”. Falsos Participios Se les llama asÃ− porque se les aÃ±ade -ED a un sustantivo. Es la combinaciÃ³n de un adjetivo por medio de guiÃ³n con un sustantivo en -ED. Se pueden hacer “falsos participios” con todos los sustantivos: We have a house with four bedrooms We have a four-bedroomed house. Verbos que no se pueden poner en “tiempos continuos” La siguientes verbos no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos, aunque algunos de ellos se pueden encontrar en tiempos continuos pero con otro significado: to see* to like to trust to appear (seem) to hear to think* to be* to smell to keep (continue) to wish to believe to seem to notice to care to expect* to belong to contain to realize to recognize to remember 46 to forget to refuse to forgive to understand to matter to know to mind to mean to suppose to concern to want to possess to love to hate to consist to own to dislike to have* to feel (think) Hay 5 verbos que si se pueden poner en tiempos continuos: • El verbo to see: cuando tiene el significado de visitar (visit, meet): Tomorrow IÂ´m seeing to my doctor I shall be seeing John tonight if you want me to give him the message. • To think: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando no se da ni se pide opiniÃ³n: What are you thinking about? • To be: se puede emplear en continuo cuando es “auxiliar” de tiempos continuos pasivos de los demas verbos: Many buildings are being built in this street. • TambiÃ©n cuando tiene el significado de comportarse (to behave): You are being very silly!!! • To expect: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando es sinÃ³nimo de wait for (esperar fisicamente, mientras que expect no implica esperar fÃ−sico): IÂ´m expecting a telephone call from Ireland. IÂ´m expecting a letter tomorrow. • To have: se puede poner en continuo si es sinÃ³nimo de comer, recibir, tomar ... es decir, cuando le acompaÃ±an palabras que son su complemento directo: DonÂ´t disturb, heÂ´s having a rest. They were having lunch when I arrived. Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO sin TO Los verbos seguidos por infinitivo sin to son los verbos de los sentidos (percepciÃ³n), los verbos to make (que toma infinitivo con to cuando se conjuga en pasiva) y to let, el verbo to help (que puede ir seguido de infinitivo con o sin to) y las locuciones verbales would rather/sooner y had better (que van casi siempre contraidas con el pronombre personal sujeto: IÂ´d rather/sooner, IÂ´d better). Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO 47 To agree to expect to learn to refuse to appear to fail to manage to regret to arrange to forget to neglet to seem to ask to help to prepare to swear to care to hesitate to pretend to tend to decide to hope to promise to want Arthur managed to find a seat. • TambiÃ©n se puede poner construcciÃ³n negativa (not + to-infinitive) con algunos de estos verbos: to agree to decide to manage to seem to appear to hope to pretend to swear to ask to learn to promise to tend Arthur decided not to wait. Verbos seguidos de Objeto + INFINITIVO con TO Es la construcciÃ³n acusativa o de infinitivo, en dÃ³nde el objeto del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto de infinitivo (es la estructura procedente del infinitivo no concertado latino, donde el sujeto del infinitivo va en caso acusativo): Esta estructura en inglÃ©s se da con verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo etc... en oraciones compuestas sustantivas en funciÃ³n de Complemento Directo (donde nunca se puede hacer con completivas de “THAT” (that-clause)) to advice to order to allow to permit to ask to prefer to expect to teach to forbide to tell to help to warn to invite to want He told him to come back the next day. Do you want me to help you? Verbos seguidos por “HOW TO + TO-INFINITIVE” Los verbos son: ask, discover, explain, find out, forget, remember, tell, understand, wonder: Another student explained to Arthur how to register. 48 Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO able happy afraid likely angry sad delighted sorry disgusted suppose disappointed surprised glad unable The principal was delighted to see so many students. • TambiÃ©n la estructura IT IS/WAS + Adjective + TO-INFINITIVE se usa con los siguientes adjetivos: difficult, easy, hard, impossible, possible: It is difficult to light a pipe when you are driving a car. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin cambio de significado to begin to bother (fastidiar) canÂ´t bear to continue to love to hate to like to prefer to start It started snowing/to snow while we were on the train. • Los verbos: to like, to love, to hate y to prefer tienen que ir sÃ³lo seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO cuando van conjugados en condicional Would you like to come to the cinema tonight or would you prefer to go to a solitary place? Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con cambio de significado to remember to forget to try to stop to regret to mean to allow/permit • To REMEMBER: • Va seguido de gerundio cuando significa “recordar algo que ya se ha hecho”, es decir, cuando nos referimos al pasado: I remember seeing the Queen when I was 10 years old. • Va seguido de infinitivo cuando significa “acordarse de que uno tiene que hacer algo”, es decir, cuando nos referimos al futuro: I must remember to go to the bank tomorrow. • Este verbo puede ir seguido de un completiva de “that” (that-clause), cuando los sujetos de cada parte de la oraciÃ³n son diferentes: 49 She remembered that Arthur had forgotten to take his overcoat. • To FORGET: • Tiene el mismo cambio de significado que remember. Sin embargo, cuando va seguido de gerundio puede colocarse la preposiciÃ³n about: Surely, you havenÂ´t forgotten (about) meeting her already. I forgot that you asked me to go to the bank. • To TRY: • Seguido por gerundio significa “experimentar, probar o hacer algo para ver que efecto tiene”: He tried taking a couple of aspirins, but they didnÂ´t have any effect. • Con infinitivo significa “intentar”: He tried to do this exercise. • To STOP: • Seguido de gerundio significa “dejar de, parar de hacer algo (not continue)” Will you please stop making that noise? • Seguido de infinitivo significa “parar de hacer lo que estÃ¡ en curso para hacer otra cosa” When we got to the top of the hill we stopped to look at the view. • To REGRET: Significa “lamentarse en general” • Con gerundio toma el significado de “sentir que uno ha hecho algo” I donÂ´t regret leaving my last job at all. • Con infinitivo significa “sentir que uno tenga que hacer algo” Dr Newton regrets to say that that he cannot answer readersÂ´ questions. • Sin embargo, este verbo a menudo va seguido de la completiva de “that” (that-clause) con ambos significados: I donÂ´t regret that I left my last job at all. • To MEAN: • Con gerundio significa “involve” (tener que ver con), usado sÃ³lo impersonalmente: Having a bad-chest means going without cigarettes. 50 • Con infinitivo significa “intentar”: • To ALLOW / To PERMIT: Van seguidos de gerundio cuando la persona o personas no son mencionadas. Por otra parte si se menciona la persona o personas, entÃ³nces tienen que ir seguidos de infinitvo: DonÂ´t allow smoking in class! I donÂ´t allow my students to smoke in the classroom. Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE Todos los verbos de sensaciÃ³n: see, hear, feel, smell ... y los verbos listen to y watch pueden ir seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE (-ING): I have ever seen so many people all waiting to be served. I have already heard him tell some of those stories on TV. Hay una diferencia entre emplear infinitivo o participio de presente, especialmente si la acciÃ³n es corta. Sin embargo, el uso del infinitivo indica que la acciÃ³n estÃ¡ finalizada: I heard the Beatles play “Yesterday” on the radio. (escuchÃ© toda la canciÃ³n) I heard the Beatles playing “Yesterday” on the radio. (puede que no escuchara la canciÃ³n entera) Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS • En la lista de verbos mencionada hay ciertos verbos que van seguidos de infinitivos pasivos Some policiemen themselves would prefer to be armed. • VERBO + OBJETO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO They wanted the car to be returned on Monday morning. c) ADJETIVO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO I was surprised not to be invited to the party. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO CONTINUO • AcentÃºa o enfatiza el aspect continuo de la actividad, es decir, lo que sucede en el momento de hablar: appear, expect, hope, pretend, regret, seem, be supposed to: Some students appeared to be taking notes. Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO • Se utiliza para referirse a algo que ya ha sucedido o se supone que habrÃ¡ sucedido, y se utiliza con los veerbos: appear, expect, fail, hope, pretend, promise, seem, be supposed to: Galileo is supposed to have invented the telescope. 51 INFINITIVO de PROPÃ SITO o FINALIDAD • Indica la finalidad o propÃ³sito de la acciÃ³n (Vease oraciones finales): The students were waiting to hear what the Principal had to say. TO BE + INFINITIVO con TO • Sirve para describir planes o acciones futuras. Va seguido de infinitivo de presente. Con esta misma funciÃ³n puede emplearse el presente contÃ−nuo o futuro contÃ−nuo. Pero cuando los planes o acciones son pasadas no hay posible alternativa: In the second week of the term they were to visit a car-factory in Vigo • TambiÃ©n puede describir planes que han fracasado o no se han llevado a cabo. En este caso el verbo to be va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto: The new car model was to have been out last month, but there was a strike. • ObligaciÃ³n: particularmente cuando el hablante estÃ¡ repitiendo Ã³rdenes dichas por terceras personas: You are to be back at the bus at 2 oÂćlock. PREPOSITIONAL VERBS y PHRASAL VERBS • Se entiende por preposional verb, la combinaciÃ³n de un verbo con una preposiciÃ³n. Son todos transitivos, puesto que despuÃ©s de una preposiciÃ³n siempre tiene que haber algun elemento sea sustantivo, gerundio, pronombre o frase preposicional. • Un phrasal verb es la combinaciÃ³n de un verbo con un adverbio, la mayor parte de las veces no tiene nada que ver con el significado original del verbo. A su vez pueden ser transitivos o intransitivos. TAKE OFF (tr.) something = to remove (tr.) someone = to imitate He took off his hat. TAKE OFF (intr.) = to leave the ground The plane took off at 12.30 p.m. • En cuanto a la posiciÃ³n del complemento directo en los phrasal, hay que tener en cuenta tres aspectos: • Si el C.D. es corto, es decir, compuesto de una o dos palabras, puede ir antes o despuÃ©s del adverbio: He took off his hat. He took his hat off. 52 • Si el C.D. es largo, es decir, compuesto por varios elementos, hay que colocarlo inmediatamente despuÃ©s del adverbio para que el phrasal no pierda asÃ− su significado. He took off his hat which was too large. • Si el C.D. es un pronombre personal de complemento, hay que colocarlo entre el verbo y el adverbio, de lo contrario serÃ−a falta gramatical: He took it off. • una excepciÃ³n: en cuanto al phrasal get over, donde hay diferencia en cuanto a significado: He got over it (recuperarse, recobrarse de una enfermedad ...recover) He got it over (deshacerse, desembarzarse de .... get rid of) • Si se trata de prepositional vebrs, el complemento tiene que ir colocado siempre despuÃ©s de la preposiciÃ³n: Arthur and Mary talked to their old friends (they talked to them). La PuntuaciÃ³n 1) Exclamation mark (!): Se utiliza despuÃ©s de mandatos, exclamaciones e interjecciones: Go away! What a beautiful day! Hell! 2) Semi-colon (; ): Se utiliza para unir oraciones de igual importancia, yustapuestas: This is s very good car; in fact it is the best. • Colon (: ): Se utiliza para introducir una lista, o tambiÃ©n para unir oraciones cuando la segunda es consecuencia o explicaciÃ³n de la primera: Let me give you some advice: donÂ´t trust him! Learn the following: the present, the past, the future and ..... • Inverted commas or quotation marks (“ ”): Se utilizan en el estilo directo o tambiÃ©n para resaltar o destacar en un artÃ−culo algo, o para acotaciones: “I donÂ´t know”, said Mary, “why did you tell it to me?” The advertisement was put in the paper by a “large expanding company” • Comma ( , ): • Se utiliza delante o despuÃ©s del nombre de la persona a la que uno se dirige: Come on, Arthur! Mary, are you in? • Delante de la tail questions o question-tags: 53 You arenÂ´t happy, are you? • DespuÃ©s de Yes o No en las respuestas cortas y despuÃ©s de expresiones de introducciÃ³n. Yes, I did. No, I didnÂ´t. Well, never mind! • Delante o despuÃ©s de palabras o expresiones entre parÃ©ntesis y nombres en aposiciÃ³n: ArthurÂ´s tutor, Mr Traddford, gave him his timetable. • DespuÃ©s de cada palabra o expresiÃ³n en una lista de mÃ¡s de dos, pero no delante de la palabra and (aunque en inglÃ©s americano se ponga): The Registrar, the Librarian and the Lodging Officer said a few words. f) Antes y despuÃ©s de la oraciones de relativo explicativas: The Open University, which is open to all, is a unique institution. • DespuÃ©s de la oraciones subordinadas cuando van delante de la oraciÃ³n principal: When I was a boy, I used to drink milk. • En el estilo directo para separar la oraciÃ³n del verbo introductor de la oraciÃ³n de estilo directo (la que va entre comillas) y tambiÃ©n para separar palabras en acotaciones del resto de la oraciÃ³n: “All you need”, he said, “is love” POSICIÃ N DE ADVERBIOS y FRASES ADVERBIALES EN LAS ORACIONES.• Adverbios de modo: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW? y se colocan despuÃ©s del C.D. si lo hay, si no, despuÃ©s del verbo: The first term seemed to go by very quickly. The rest of the day was spent in a very relaxed way. Los adverbios de modo se forman normalmente aÃ±adiÃ©ndole al adjetivo la terminaciÃ³n -LY: quick --> quickly; Ã©sta misma terminaciÃ³n si se le aÃ±ade a un sustantivo da su correspondiente adjetivo: friend --> friendly. En los casos en que las palabras terminadas en −-LY sean adjetivos, como en el Ãºltimo caso, para formar en espaÃ±ol su correspondiente adverbio de modo se recurre a la estructura: in + adjetivo + way: in a friendly way. • Adverbios de lugar: Contestan a la pregunta con WHERE?, siguen al C.D., y si no lo hay, al verbo: Mary did all the Christmas shopping in Oxford Street. • Adverbios de tiempo: Contestan a la pregunta con WHEN? o HOW LONG? normalmente se colocan al final de la frase, pero a veces pueden aparecer al principio: 54 It continued snowing for the rest of the day. • Adverbios de frecuencia: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW OFTEN?, tienen tres colocaciones: - DespuÃ©s de los tiempos simples del verbo to be: Arthur was often late to work. - Antes de los tiempos simples de los demÃ¡s verbos: Jennifer always preferred to play with ArthurÂ´s trains. - DÃ³nde haya uno o mÃ¡s auxiliares se coloca despuÃ©s del primero: I have never heard such awful music. • Adverbios de grado: Son los que modifican a un adjetivo o a otro adverbio y se colocan delante de las palabras a las que modifican: The weather was usually cold. Algunos de estos adverbios de grado modifican a verbos, entÃ³nces se ponen delante del verbo principal o despuÃ©s del primer auxiliar: He almost had an accident in his car. • El adverbio YET: Normalmente se coloca al final de frase, pero puede aparecer, sobre todo en inglÃ©s escrito, despuÃ©s de un auxiliar. Con el verbo en negativa significa: todavÃ−a; y con el verbo en interrogativa significa: ya. Como no puede ir con el verbo en afirmativa, hay que poner already con el significado de ya; y still con el significado de todavÃ−a. Tanto already como still tienen la misma colocaciÃ³n que los adverbios de frecuencia en la frase (Repasar las partÃ−culas any more/any longer o no more/no longer): Jennifer had not arrived home yet o Jennifer had not yet arrived home. Jennifer had already arrived home. Churches are still well attended. • Otras caracterÃ−sticas: Si hay dos o mÃ¡s adverbios en una oraciÃ³n la colocaciÃ³n serÃ−a MODO-LUGAR-TIEMPO. Pero si se trata de VERBOS DE MOVIMIENTO, la colocaciÃ³n serÃ−a LUGAR-MODO-TIEMPO: Arthur and Mary went to Applefield by train at Christmas. La PartÃ−cula “AS” • Como CONJUNCIÃ N: • CAUSAL (=because, since) Arthur did not go as he does not like to be pushed. 55 She put the puddings on the stove as they take a long time to cook. • TEMPORAL (=when, while) I got to the station just as the train was leaving. • Como PREPOSICIÃ N: La diferencia entre as y like es que as tiene el significado de igualdad, es decir, que lo es realmente, mientras que like indica comparaciÃ³n, es decir, que no lo es: He spoke as a lawyer (HablÃ³ como un abogado (es abogado)) He spoke like a lawyer (HablÃ³ como un abogado (pero no es abogado)) He works as a slave. he works like a slave. QUITE/RATHER/SUCH + A/AN + NOMBRE SINGULAR CONTABLE.La forma mÃ¡s dÃ©bil de expresar gradaciÃ³n es quite a/an y la forma mÃ¡s fuerte es such a/an: It was quite a good play, i suppose (not bad, but not really good either). Arthur sat down to breakfast with rather a long face. PREPOSICIONES FINALES Estas preposiciones se ponen al final de la frase cuando se trata de preguntas directas o indirectas, y en las oraciones de relativo (especificativas) cuando el verbo que lleva en las frases rige preposiciÃ³n: Who are we waiting for? I wonder what she is thinking about. The play our teacher spoke about was rather amusing. ANY + COMPARATIVOS DespuÃ©s de verbos negativos y la preposiciÃ³n WITHOUT se emplea ANY delante de adjetivos y adverbios en grado comparativo: Arthur didnÂ´t need to do any more work. Can you push any harder? Without any further delay Arthur phoned David. WH-WORDS + TO-INFINITIVE Se emplean para hacer preguntas indirectas para pedir consejo o informaciÃ³n de algo: 56 Arthur had no idea what to do with his artichoke. If you donÂ´t know where to look, start with the book-case. Tanto “which” como “what” pueden funcionar tambiÃ©n como adjetivos interrogativos, es decir, pueden preceder a un sustantivo: Can you tell me which bus to take? Your teacher will advise you what books to read. LAS PARTICULAS: “TOO” e “ENOUGH” Too siginifica “demasiado” cuando va con adjetivos y adverbios y significa “tambiÃ©n” cuando va al final de frase despuÃ©s de coma. Se coloca delante de los adjetivos y adverbios pero cuando hay sustantivos hay que intercalar las partÃ−culas “much” o “many” entre too y el sustantivo. Los adjetivos y adverbios siempre tienen matiz negativo y para resaltar este matiz se suele hacer con la estructura “for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to”: This window is too dirty for me to see through. Enough significa “bastante, suficiente”. Se coloca despuÃ©s de adjetivos y adverbios, pero delante de los sustantivos (good enough, enough money). Va siempre, al contrario que too, con palabras que tienen matiz positivo; y para resaltar este matiz tambiÃ©n se hace con la estructura “for + pronombre personal de complemento + infinitivo con to”: This window isnÂ´t clean enough for me to see through. Estructuras cuando queremos decir lo mismo: This window was so dirty that we couldÂ´t see through it This window was too dirty for us to see through. This window wasnÂ´t clean enough to see through. SO/SUCH ... THAT Las partÃ−culas so/such ... that se utilizan para hacer oraciones con el significado de tan/tanto .... que. SO se emplea con adjetivos (donde se incluyen much,many,little y few + sustantivos) y advebios. Por otra parte SUCH se emplea con sustantivos (se pondrÃ¡ SUCH A/AN si el sustantivo es contable singular y SUCH solamente si el sustantivo es incontable o plural): It was so cold that the river froze. There were so many people that we couldÂ´t see. He is such a fool that he doesnÂ´t understand anything. It was such a hot day that I took off my shirt. ALTHOUGH / THOUGH 57 Though es la forma apocopada (corta) de Although. Son conjunciones concesivas y significan “aunque, sin embargo”. La diferencia entre ellas estÃ¡ en la colocaciÃ³n en la frase: • Tanto Although como Though pueden ponerse ambas al principio de frase: Although/Though they were poor they were happy. • Though puede ponerse al final de la frase despuÃ©s de coma. Although puede ponerse tambiÃ©n en medio de la frase: They were happy. They were poor, though They were happy although they were poor. CONSTRUCCIÃ N ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA Se da esta estructura en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funciÃ³n de Complemento Directo que dependa de verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo, deseo, en donde el C.D. del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto del infinitivo y este infinitivo se traduce al espaÃ±ol por subjuntivo que le sigue (es igual al infinitivo no concertado latino): Quiero que Ã©l venga = I want him to come Si el verbo principal no es de voluntad, se hace con that + indicativo o con gerundio precedido de adjetivo posesivo: No creo que ella haya dicho eso = I donÂ´t believe that she has said that I donÂ´t believe her having said that. EXLAMACIONES Normalmente en inglÃ©s se hacen las exclamaciones de dos maneras: • What + a/an + sustantivo contable singular What + sustantivo (plural o incontable) What a beautiful day! What beautiful days! What weather! • How + adjetivo o adverbio + pronombre sujeto + verbo: How beautiful she is! How beautifully she dances! PRONOMBRES, ADJETIVOS y ADVERBIOS INTERROGATIVOS con “EVER” 58 • Se usa “ever” para enfatizar el pronombre, adjetivo o adverbio, expresando sorpresa. Con todos, “ever” se une directamente excepto con WHY, con el que se pone por separado: Whatever are you doing now? Why ever can they get back on time? • Ever es sinÃ³nimo de any o every, y se traduce por “cualquiera que, quienquiera que, lo que quiera que etc...” y se utiliza para traducir el subjuntivo en inglÃ©s, llamÃ¡ndose Ã©sto traducciÃ³n por reduplicaciÃ³n: Whatever = anything that, everything that. Whoever = anyone that, everyone that. • Se utilizan estas partÃ−culas para introducir oraciones nominales, bien como sujeto o como complemento directo del verbo principal: Whoever is tired of London is tired of life. IÂ´ll do whatever you want. • Puede ser sinÃ³nimo de NO MATTER, e introducir oraciones adverbiales, equivalente a la estructura: It doesnÂ´t matter what-/who-/which-/where-/when-/how...: Whatever else he did, he had better get a vacation job. Wherever you go there is always someone we have to wait for. However busy you are IÂ´m sure you have time for a cup of tea. IN CASE / UNLESS IN CASE se utiliza para evitar cosas que no se desean como sinÃ³nimo de “providing eventualities”. Se utiliza para resguardarse contra algo que estÃ¡ sucediendo o para evitar que suceda, y se traduce por si acaso. Suele ir con tiempos o locuciones verbales que indican tiempo presente (normalmente subjuntivo): Paddy brought his overalls in case Arthur needed any help. Take your umbrella in case it rains UNLESS es una conjunciÃ³n condicional negativa que significa IF NOT (= a menos que) y se emplea para hacer amenazas o dar avisos: Most people employed a professional painter, unless they were very hard up. PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS Se forman para primeras y segundas personas con el adjetivo posesivo aÃ±adiendole -self (singular) o -selves (plural); y para las terceras con el pronombre personal de complemento mÃ¡s -self o selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, (singular) ourselves, yourselves, themselves (plural): 59 Usos: • Como objeto de un verbo cuando el sujeto y el objeto del verbo son la misma persona. Sirve para convertir todos los verbos en verbos reflexivos: I cut myself yesterday when I was having a shave. Did you hurt yourself when you fell doown? • Se utilizan despuÃ©s de preposiciones cuando el sujeto del verbo y el objeto de la preposiciÃ³n es la misma persona: What did you say? Nothing, I was talking to myself. Mary looked at herself in the mirror. • Se usan tambiÃ©n para enfatizar nombres y pronombres, por tanto se coloca despuÃ©s del nombre o pronombre al que dan Ã©nfasis. En inglÃ©s hablado suelen ir al final de frase: I donÂ´t soeak Spanish myself. Do you? Arthur himself cooked the dinner. HACER COMPARACIONES AS ... AS // NOT SO ... AS: Con as ... as se pueden compara cosas, personas o acciones. Se usa tanto con adjetivos con con adverbios. Cuando la comparaciÃ³n es negativa se puede cambiar por not so ... as, aunque en inglÃ©s hablado se prefiere utilizar la primera fÃ³rmula: The living-room was almost as bad as the kitchen. Painting is not so difficult as papering. Jumbo Jets donÂ´t fly as fast as Concordes. AS con MUCH/MANY se utiliza tanto con nombres como con pronombres: Nombre: As much money; As many people; As many of the questions. Pronombres: As much of it; As many of them (the questions) You have got aas much of it (pintura) on the floor as you have on the wall. He earns as much money as his two brothers put together. AS ... AS + CLAUSE: El segundo as va seguido de una oraciÃ³n subordinada. Generalmente se emplea con adverbios, aunque puede emplearse tambiÃ©n con adjetivos: 60 He writes Russian as well as he speaks it. As fast I put it in, it falls out again. She is as tall as she is thin. AS ... AS en sÃ−miles: Los sÃ−miles son frases hechas, por lo que hay que procurar no transliterar, puesto que difieren de uno a otros idiomas y puede resultar negativo. Hay que expresar todo el conjunto. Si no se sabe la comparaciÃ³n u ofrece alguna duda se recurre a la estructura que vale para cualquier sÃ−mil: as ... as anything: As heavy as lead As drunk as a lord As light as a feather As white as a sheet As strong as an ox As soft as putty As weak as a kitten As sour as vinager As cold as ice As black as night As quiet as a mouse As clean as a new pin/whistle As pretty as a picture As deaf as a post/wall As brave as a lion As quick as a flash/lightening As proud as a peacock As ugly as sin As pale as a ghost As old as the hills As mad as a March hare As poor as church As easy as ABC As fresh as a daisy As obstinate as a mule As ... as anything GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING Get + Object + To-infinitive significa persuadir a alguien, convencer. Si el objeto es una cosa significa causar, provocar que esa cosa suceda: We couldnÂ´t get the car to move because of the mud. They were determined to get the Department of Environment to think again. I got our new M.P. to ask a question in the House. MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING Make + Object + Infinitive (sin TO) tiene mÃ¡s el significado de imponer, forzar, obligar que de 61 persuadir: Do you think you can make the ministry change their minds? Those people in Essex managed to make them think again. ALL + CLAUSE All seguido de una oraciÃ³n subordinada tiene dos significados: • The only thing cuando sujeto o complemento del verbo TO BE: All he wanted to do was to go to bed. This is all that one has to pay. All you need is love. • Everything (todo) cuando se utiliza como complemento de cualquier otro verbo o despuÃ©s de preposiciÃ³n. Existe la excepciÃ³n de un refrÃ¡n, que se construye con el verbo TO BE y significa todo (Ãºltimo ejemplo): He told me all I wanted to know. After all that had happened I was tired out. ALL THE GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. - (refrÃ¡n) TAIL QUESTIONS o QUESTION-TAGS Llamamos question-tags o tail questions en inglÃ©s a aquellas preguntas breves que aÃ±adimos aun comentario para pedir a nuestro intelocutor la confirmaciÃ³n de lo que decimos. Su uso es muy frecuente, especialmente en la lengua hablada y su correspondencia en espaÃ±ol es: Â¿verdad?; Â¿no es verdad?; Â¿verdad que si?; verdad que no? En inglÃ©s estas preguntas siempre se hacen con los auxiliares. Cuando hay un verbo auxiliar en la frase, se repite Ã©ste, y es otro verbo cualquiera se emplea do, does, did; en cualquier caso el sujeto es siempre un pronombre o there si la oraciÃ³n es impersonal. Si la oraciÃ³n es afirmativa, la pregunta que hacemos es nagativa, y al contrario: You can speak English, canÂ´t you? MaryÂ´s parents live in Middleford, donÂ´t they? You got up early, didnÂ´t you? Lo mismo que el sujeto siempre tiene que ser un pronombre o there, el auxiliar en interrogonegativa siempre tiene que ir contraido; y como la primera persona del presente del verbo to be “am” no se puede contraer con “not”, pasa a la segunda forma del verbo: 62 I am a student, arenÂ´t I? TambiÃ©n la question-tag del imperativo se hace con “will”: Close the window, will you? • Repetir lo que ya se sabe Este tipo siempre es afirmativa, indiferentemente de uqe el verbo principal vaya en afirmativa o negativa, en donde el hablante se limita a repetir o confirmar algo que ya sabe. Va a menuda precedida de “so” y la entonaciÃ³nes en sentido creciente: YouÂ´re Mr Newton, are you? So you know the sort of things we make, do you? • Ponerse de acuerdo con alguien En este tipo la entonaciÃ³n es decreciente y la question tag es afirmativa o negativa segÃºn el verbo principal. El auxiliar del verbo principal se acentÃºa y si no hay auxiliar hay que ponerlo: • Arthur looks smart today. Yes, he does look smart, doesnÂ´t he? • He must have bought a new suit. Yes, he must, mustnÂ´t he? • Jack isnÂ´t very friendly today. No, he isnÂ´t very friendly, is he? • Cuando se estÃ¡ casi seguro de la respuesta AquÃ− el auxiliar tambiÃ©n debe acentuarse, o aÃ±adirlo en caso de que no lo hubiese. La entonaciÃ³n es decreciente: You are coning to my party, arenÂ´t you? Stalin did die in 1951, didnÂ´t he? Napoleon wasnÂ´t born in Sardinia, was he? • Cuando se estÃ¡ completamente seguro de la respesta AquÃ− el auxiliar del verbo principal no se acentÃºa. La quention-tag tiene entonaciÃ³n decreciente y el hablante estÃ¡ bastante seguro de los hechos o quiere simplemente confirmaciÃ³n: Bruce was sent to prison for armed robbery, wasnÂ´t he? Applefield is near Reading, isnÂ´t it? 63 • Cuando se busca una respuesta de SI o NO Estas quetion-tags son dichas con entonaciÃ³n creciente y el hablante es pera la respuesta de “si” si la question-tag es negativa o “no” si es afirmativa: Arthur took the job, didnÂ´t he? He wonÂ´t go back to Middleford, will he? ORACIONES CONDICIONALES Las oraciones condicionales se clasifican en diferentes tipos de acuerdo con la correspondencia temporal ente la oraciÃ³n condicional introducida por la partÃ−cula IF y el tiempo en que vaya la oraciÃ³n principal: If you study, you pass your exams. If we hurried, we shall catch the 10 oÂćlock train. If we hurried, we would catch the 10 oÂćlock train. If we had hurried, we would have caught the 10 oÂćlock train. Los ejemplos dados representan los tres tipos mÃ¡s usuales de oraciones condicionales en inglÃ©s. Los ejemplos 1 y 2 corresponden a las oraciones condicionales que llamamos probables, posibles, reales o de validez general, es decir, aquella en que se cumple la condiciÃ³n. El ejemplo 3 corresponde al tipo de oraciones improbables o hipotÃ©ticas; es menos probable que la condiciÃ³n se realice; puede o no realizarse. El ejemplo nÃºmero 4 es el que corresponde a las oraciones llamadas imposibles; la condiciÃ³n no puede cumplirse de ninguna manera. La secuencia de los tiempos para cada uno de los tipos es el siguiente: 1.- Oraciones Posibles OraciÃ³n Condicional PRESENTE OraciÃ³n Principal PRESENTE If you study, you pass your exams PRESENTE FUTURO If you study, you will pass your exams PRESENTE Auxiliar modal en presente + Infinitivo de presente si to If you study, you can pass your exams PRESENTE IMPERARIVO 64 If you want to pass your exams 2.- Oraciones Improbables Study OraciÃ³n Condicional OraciÃ³n Principal CONDICIONAL SIMPLE PASADO SIMPLE If you studied, PASADO SIMPLE If you studied, You would pass your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de presente sin to you could pass your exams 3.- Oraciones Imposibles OraciÃ³n Condicional PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPRFECTO If you had studied, PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO If you had studied, OraciÃ³n Principal CONDICIONAL COMPUESTO You would have passed your exams Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de perfecto sin to you could have passed your exams Observaciones: 1.- En el tipo 1 de las correspondencias temporales de presente, es el Ãºnico caso en que if puede ser sustituido por when, con lo que se denomina condiciÃ³n abierta, de validez general, es decir, que siempre se da: When you study, you pass the exams. 2.- En el tipo 2 de condicional cuando se trate del Pasado Simple del verbo to be, hay que poner were para todas las personas (subjuntivo): If I were you, I would study much harder. 3.- En el tipo 1 de condicional cabe la posibilidad de utilizar en la oraciÃ³n condicional el defectivo should, que en este caso nada tiene que ver con que sea auxiliar de condicional sino que el significado es: por si acaso: If I should go, you will come with me. 4.- En estos dos Ãºltimos casos, al igual que con el Pluscuamperfecto del tipo 3 de condicional tenemos la posibilidad de omitir if al invertir el orden del sujeto y del verbo sin que la oraciÃ³n pierda su matiz de condicional: AsÃ− en vez de decir: podriamos decir: If I were you, ... Were I you, ... If I should go, ... Should I go, ... 65 If you had studied, ... Had you studied, ... Por Ãºltimo hay otras conjunciones y giros que pueden introducir oraciones condicionales, aparte de la partÃ−cula if, por ejemplo: unless, as long as, provid, providing that, even if, supposing (that): You can come provided you tell your mother first. We wonÂ´t leave the town unless they send us away. Supposing the plane is late? Tenemos que hacer notar que unless es sinÃ³nimo de if not, Normalamente se utiliza en el primer tipo de condicional: I won't give you a ticket unless you pay me. As long as and providing that significan lo mismo que but if only if. Se utilizan normalmente en el primer tipo de condicional: They'll find the hotel as long as they follow the map Even if significa lo mismo que if, pero enfatiza la condiciÃ³n. Se puede usar para referirse al pasado, present y futuro: Even if we had ordered a taxi, we wouldn't have arrived on time. El Verbo: TO SUGGEST Suggest significa sugerir y se emplea para hacer sugerencias. Tiene varias estructuras: • Si suggest va en presente puede ir seguido por simple indicativo o that-should, es decir, por una oraciÃ³n completiva con that: Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur works harder. Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur should work harder. • Si suggest va en pasado solo puede ir seguido por that-should o por gerundio (la forma -ing) que tambiÃ©n puede ir precedida por adjetivo posesivo, aunque existe tambiÃ©n la forma coloquial que en vez de ir precedida la forma -ing por adjetivo posesivo puede ir precedia por pronombre personal de complemento (aunque gramaticalmente es incorrecto): Mr Steele suggested Arthur should work harder.--> (forma literaria) Mr Steele suggested his working harder. --> (forma standard) Mr Steele suggested him working harder. --> (forma coloquial) She suggested that they should meet at the cinema She suggested their meeting at the cinema. 66 She suggested them meeting at the cinema. LA VOZ PASIVA La Voz Pasiva en inglÃ©s se forma con el verbo to be en el tiempo correspondiente y el participio pasado del verbo que se conjuga. La Voz Pasiva se emplea con mucha mÃ¡s frecuencia en inglÃ©s que en espaÃ±ol: Su uso nos permite colocar al principio de la oraciÃ³n, como sujeto, al complemento de una oraciÃ³n activa para darle mÃ¡s realce, pues siempre es la primera palabra de una frase la que mayor efectoppsicolÃ³gico presente: “Moll Flanders” was written by Henry Fielding. En este ejemplo nos ineteresa hacer notar el hecho de que “Moll Falnders”, y no otro libro, fuÃ© escrito por Henry Fielding; por eso empleamos la voz pasiva: por el contrario si quisieramos hablar de Hrmry Fielding dirÃ−amos: Henry Fielllding wrote “Moll Flanders” Como en las oraciones pasivas el sujeto es el complemento directo de la oraciÃ³n activa, solo los verbos transitivos se pueden poner en pasiva. Todos los tiempos de la voz activa tienen sus correspondientes tiempos en la voz pasiva, aunque algunos, los continuos sobre todo, se usan muy raramente. He gives ----------> He is given He is giving ------> He is being given He will give ------> He will be given He has given ----> He has been given Transformaciones: • Esta es igual a la espaÃ±ola, se da en las oraciones transitivas formadas por sujeto + verbo + complemento directo: C.D. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by) Arthur bought a book A book was bought by Arthur. • Se da en las oraciones transitivas que aparte de llevar complemento directo, llevan tambiÃ©n complemento indirecto, normalmente este complemento indirecto siempre es de persona, por lo que pasa a ser sujeto en la pasiva: C.ID. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) 67 C.D. activo ----------------> Queda igual (no cambia) Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by) Arthur bought Mary a book Mary was bought a book by Arthur. • Se da en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funciÃ³n de complemento directo; es tipicamente inglesa y sigue la siguiente estructura: Sujeto de la subordinada Sujeto pasivo Verbo de la principal Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo) Sujeto de la principal Complemento Agente de presente (acciÃ³n simultanea o posterior) Verbo de la subordinada Infinitivo con to de perfecto (acciÃ³n anterior) Act. They expected that everyone attended Solidarity Services. Pas. Everyone was expected to attend Solidariry Services. • Es la que coincide con la espaÃ±ola en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funciÃ³n de complemento directo, se hace poniendo en pasiva la oraciÃ³n principal dejando igual la oraciÃ³n subordinada sustantiva, que es la fÃ³rmula que tenemos en espaÃ±ol, y se emplea principalmente con los verbos de dicciÃ³n o pensamiento, que es forma de traducir el morfema pasivo espaÃ±ol se de la pasiva refleja. No obstante se prefiere la transformaciÃ³n del apartado c) en inglÃ©s. Act. They say that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school Pas. It is said (by them) that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school. c) Mary is said to be the most beautiful girl in the school. NOTA: Cuando el sujeto de la activa es un pronombre personal, pronombre indefinido o un sustantivo no limitado ni determinado no suele ponerse en inglÃ©s de Complemento Agente; sin embargo si es un nombre propio o un sustantivo determinado hay que ponerlo como Complemento Agente (con by) en la pasiva. REPORTED SPEECH Hay dos formas de informar lo que una persona ha dicho: • ESTILO DIRECTO: las palabras exactas dichas por el hablante original que son repetidas y situadas entre comillas (“”). (Poniendo dos puntos (:) o coma (,) antes de las comillas): John said, “I enjoy playing cricket” He said, “I am learning English” • ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech): 68 • Expresar el significado exactos sin utilizar las palabras originales del hablante. • La frase del estilo indirecto se convierte en el complemento directo gramatical del verbo introductor: John said that he enjoyed playing cricket. He said that he was learning English. HE SAID = REPORTING CLAUSE (frase introductora) REST = REPORTED CLAUSE (frase del estilo indirecto) Los tipos principales de oraciones ( Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas (Statements), Preguntas (Questions), Mandatos (Commands), como tmbiÃ©n Exclaciones (Exclamations) se pueden expresar en estilo indirecto. Las construcciones son como sigue: I) STATEMENTS ( “That-clause”) A) Cambios de tiempos Verbales. Varios casos: • Cuando el verbo introductor esta en presente simple, pretÃ©rito perfecto o futuro, la oraciÃ³n directa se hace sin efectuar ningun cambio de tiempo verbal: He says/will say/has said, “This work is too difficult” “ “ “ “ “ “ that this work is too difficult. • Pero cuando el verbo introductir estÃ¡ en un tiempo verbal en pasado, que es lo normal, es normal que el verbo de la frase indirecta pase a un tiempo verbal anterior, lo que se denomina en inglÃ©s BACK-SHIFT (=cambio a una referencia temporal anterior). Dos tipos posibles de back-shift: • PRESENTE (NOW) a PASADO (THEN) Presente “ Pasado Preteriro Perfecto “ PretÃ©rito Pluscuamperfecto Presente de defectivos “ Pasado de defectivos • PASADO (THEN) a PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) • PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) No back-shift (no es posible ningun cambio a tiempo anterior porque en InglÃ©s no hay ningÃºn modo de expresar BEFORE-BEFORE-THEN ni en tiempo ni aspecto verbal. CAMBIOS: en la oraciÃ³n de estilo indirecto: Simple Present ---------------- Simple Past Simple Past--------------------- Past Perfect Future shall/will --------------- Conditional should/would Present Progressive---------- Past Progressive 69 Present Perfect---------------- Past Perfect DOS POSIBILIDADES DE BACK-SHIFT Presente---------------------------Pasado Pasaso-----------------------------Preterito Pluscuamperefcto “I am tired” she complained that she was tired. “I love cricket” he said that he loved cricket. “He is being a fool” Everybody thought that he was being a fool. “I saw them yesterday” She told me that she had seen them yesterday. Presente Pasado Pluscuamperfecto E.D. NOW THEN BEFORE THEN E.I. THEN (pasado) BEFORE THEN (Pluscuamperfecto) (Nothing at all) E.D. “Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning” E.I. Jim said that Max had already gone when he phoned that morning” ExplicaciÃ³n del BACK-SHIFT: el tiempo de la oraciÃ³n original, que sea presente NOW para el estilo directo, pasa a ser pasado THEN para el estilo indirecto y se estÃ¡ en pasado THEN pasa a pluscuamperfecto BEFORE THEN haciendo el cambio respecto al PUNTO DE ORIENTACION. EXCEPTIONS: • Cuando lo expresado por la oraciÃ³n de estilo indirectohe idea coincide en tiempo y hora con lo expresado en estilo directo (o el estado de cosas reflejadas todavÃ−a existe en el momento de hablar), no hay necesidad de hacer cambios en los tiempos verbales. Es decir, cunado el evrbo introductor estÃ¡ en tiempo pasado, el tiempo presente se mantiene en la oraciÃ³n del estilo indirecto cuando exprese una verdad universal ( o una generalidad exacta, verdades generales o hechos habituales). Socrates said: “ Virtue is knowledge” Socrates said that virtue is knowledge. Peter said: “The moon is 50.000 miles away” Peter said that the moon is 50.000 miles away. Jim said: “I eat at two o'clock everyday” Jim said that he eats at two o'clock everyday. • El Back-shift desde Pasado Simple / Pasado Continuo a Preterito Pluscuamperfecto puede tambiÃ©n no aplicarse en las oraciones causales, si de algun modo cambia el significado de la frase en aspecto verbal, 70 aunque generalmente el pasado pasa a pluscuamperfecto: She said:”I decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road” She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road. El Pasado y el Pasado Continuo no cambia en las oraciones temporales: He said: “When we were living in London, we had a lot of friends” He said that when they were living in London, they had a lot of friends. • Auxiliares Modales: WOULD, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, MIGHT, USED TO, COULD, MUST (ind.), HAD BETTER normalmente no cambian: He said: “I might be there” He said that he might be there. She said:”I would help him if I could” She said that she would help him if she could. MUST (como ObligaciÃ³n) puede cambiar tambiÃ©n a HAD TO: She said:”You must go” She said that you must/had to go. SHOULD (after I/We) se cambia a WOULD, pero cuando implica Obligacion permanece sin cambio: He said:”I should be grateful if I ...” He said that he would be grateful if he .... I said:”You should be more careful” I told him that he should be more careful. He said:”If my children were older I should emigrate” He said that if his children were older he would emigrate. • Oraciones Condicionales del tipo 2 permanecen tambiÃ©n invariables. Como tambiÃ©n lo hacen los Tiempos Pasado (= subjunctive) utilizados despuÃ©s de WISH, IT IS TIME, WOULD RATHER ... He said:”I wish I knew” He said that he wished he knew. She said:”IÂ´d rather Tom went” 71 She said that she'd rather Tom went. • Otros cambios que son necesarios cuando se pasa de Estilo Directo a Indirecto: La conjunciÃ³n that se puede poner inmeditamente despuÃ©s del verbo introductor, pero no es esencial y muy a menudo se suprime. C) Los Pronombres y Adjetivos Posesivos generalmente cambian de 1st o 2nd a 3rd persona (excepto cuando el hablante estÃ¡ informando con sus propias palabraas); es decir, cuando el verbo de la frase del estilo indirecto tiene el mismo sujeto que el verbo de la frase de estilo directo: I said:”I like my new house” I said that I liked my new house. He said:”I have forgotten the combination of my safe” He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe. Algunas veces se le puede aÃ±adir un nombre para evitar ambigÃ¼edad: Tom said:”He came in through the window” Tom said that the thief had come in through the window. • Palabras que se refieren a LUGAR y TIEMPO y denoten cercanÃ−a pasa a sus correspondientes palabras que denoten lejanÃ−a. Si el estilo Indirecto se hace en el mismo dÃ−a a lugar estos cambios no son necesarios: thisthat herethere thesethose tomorrowthe next day/the day after nowthen yesterdaythe day before/the previous day agobefore the day before yesterdaytwo days before todaythat day the day after tomorrowin two days' time We met at the bridge and he said:”I'll be here again tomorrow” We met at the bridge and he said that he'd be there again the next day. • If the speech is reporting on the same day, these changes aren't necessary: At breakfast this morning he said:”I'll be very busy today” At breakfast this morning he said that he'll be very busy today. II) QUESTIONS (Wh-clauses) Las reglas anteriores se aplican tambiÃ©n a las preguntas indirectas; sin embargo hay unos puntos 72 adicionales que hay que significar o tener en cuenta: • El verbo introductior SAY se cambia a ASK o algun verbo similar de acuerdo a lo que intentemos querer decir: INQUIRED/WONDERED/WANTED TO KNOW ... • La palabra de uniÃ³n de la frase del verbo introductor con la frase del estilo indirecto es IF or WHETHER, excepto cuando las preguntas directas empiecne con unpronombre o partÃ−cula interrogativa tales como WHO/ WHY/ WHAT/ WHERE/ HOW /WHEN... etc. que serÃ¡ la que haga de uniÃ³n. • La estructura interrogativa de las preguntas directas se reemplaza por la CONSTRUCCION AFIRMATIVA en el Estilo Indirecto; tanto los auxiliares DO/DOES/DID cono el SIGNO de INTERROGACIÃ N se omiten: • “Do you live here?” He asked me if I lived there. • “Did you go to England last year?” The teacher asked the student if he had gone to England the previous year. • He said:”I have left my watch at home. Can you tell me the time, please?” He said that he had left his watch at home and asked me (politely) if I could tell him the time. • “Does Peter speak Spanish?” He asked if Peter spoke Spanish. • “What's your name?” He asked her what her name was. • “Which chair shall I sit in?” He wonderedwhich chair he should sit in. IF/WHETHER.- El uso generalmente favorece a IF cuandoquiera que la distinciÃ³n entre ellos no sea necesaria: He asked me if (or whether) I had seen the film. WHETHER expresa una duda o una elecciÃ³n entre dos alternativas asÃ− muy a menudo va seguido de OR: “Is it your turn or Susan's?” She asked whether it was his turn or Susan's. WHETHER (y no IF) se utiliza en: • Cuando la pregunta indirecta precede a la oraciÃ³n principal: Whether this is true or not, I cannot say. 73 • Delante de un INFINITIVO: She hasn't decided whether to sail or fly to America. He wondered whether to leave. • Cuando introduce una OraciÃ³n Concesiva: Whether he works or not, I don't think he will pass his/the exam. • Las preguntas que empiezan con SHALL I/WE pueden ser de cuatro formas: • Pueden ser especulaciones acerca del futuro o pueden pedir informaciÃ³n de algun acontecimiento futuro tambiÃ©n. estas preguntas siguen la Regla Ordinaria (shallwould). El verbo introductor es normalmente: WONDER Las Especulaciones son normalmente introducidas por WONDER: • “Where shall I be (this time) next year?” He wondered whre he would be in a year's time • “When shall I know the results of the test?” The student asked when he would know the results of the test. • “Shall I ever understand women?” He asked himself if he would ever understand women. • Ofrecimientos: El verbo introductor es: OFFER • “Shall I bring you a cup of tea?” He offered to bring me a cup of tea or He offered me a cup of tea. • Sugerencias: Verbo introductor: SUGGEST + that-should o -ING • “Shall we meet at the theatre?” He suggested that they should meet at the theatre. (formal) meeting at the theatre. their meeting at the theatre. (standard) them meeting at the theatre. (colloquial) • PeticiÃ³n de instrucciones o consejo: alternativa WAS/WERE TO • “Shall we send it to your flat, Sir?” 74 He asked the customer if they should send it to his flat. were to send it to his flat. • “What shall we do with your mail while you're away?” His landlady asked Paul what she should do with his mail while he was away. what she was to do with his mail while he was awayÂ . • WILL YOU/WOULD YOU/COULD YOU • Preguntas Ordinarias: He said: “Will you be here tomorrow?” He asked her if she would be there the following day. • Peticiones: ASK + Object + To-infinitive He said, “Will you help me, please?” He asked me (politely) to help him • Invitacion/Ofrecimiento: verbo tansitivo OFFER He said, “Will you have a drink?” He offered me a drink. • Mandatos: Depende de la entonaciÃ³n: “Will you be quiet for a moment !” “Do be quiet for a momentÂ !” He told them to be quiet • COMMANDS Las reglas que afectan a pronombres, adjetivos y otros cambios tambiÃ©n se pueden aplicar a los mandatos indirectos, excepto que no hay backshif porque no hay verbos en forma personal (son oraciones subordinadas de infinitivo, que es una forma no personal) Additional notes: • El vebro introductor SAY ... cambia a un verbo of MANDATO or PETICION tales como TELL/ORDER/COMMAND... de ascuerdo a la intenciÃ³n que queramos expresar: My mother said to me: “Go homeÂ !” My mother told me to go home. • Se tiene que introducir un Complemento Directo que representa la persona a la que va dirigida el mandato: 75 I was there and he said: “Stand upÂ !” I was there and he told me to stand up. • La forma imperativa del verbo en el mandato directo pasa a su corresponsdiente forma de infinitivo con to, si el mandato es negativo se le antepone NOT al infinitivo con to (Mandato Negativo = NOT + TO-INFINITIVE): “Be quietÂ !” I told Peter to be quiet. “FireÂ !” The captain ordered the soldiers to fire. “Run quicklyÂ !” He told me (us) to run quickly. “Put on you space-suitsÂ !” He told/commanded/instructed them to put on their space-suits. En inglÃ©s hay muchas posibilidades de expresar un mandato, for example: “WILL YOU?” “Shut the door, will you?” (Es un mandato) He told him to shut the door. Es muy fuerte y dependede la entonaciÃ³n: “Will you stop talkingÂ !” The teacher told the students to stop talking. Mandatos Negativos: NOT + TO-INFINITIVE His friend said: “Don't be rudeÂ !” His friend asked him not to be rude. “Don't move, boysÂ !” He told the boys not to move. “Please, don't forgetÂ !” She begged me not to forget. Otras formas de Estilo Indirecto de espresar Mandatos Indirectos: 1) La ConstrucciÃ³n: To BE + TO-INFINITIVE He said:”Don't open the doorÂ !” He told me not to open the door or He said that I was no to open the door. a) El verbo introductor en tiempo presente: 76 He says:”Meet me at the stationÂ !” He says that we are to meet at the station. • Mandato precedido po una oraciÃ³n subordinada: • Tiempo • Condicional He said:”If she leaves the house follow her” He told me to folllow her if she left the house or He said that if she left the house I was to follow her. • EXCLAMATIONS: Las Exclamaciones en el estilo indirecto pasan a ser Oraciones Subordinadas (that-clauses). Una exclamaciÃ³n es en cierto modo una oraciÃ³n: • What como un determinante en un frase nominal. How como gradaciÃ³n con adjectivo/adverbio. “What a beautiful presentÂ !” He said that it was a beautiful present “What a lovely houseÂ !” He said that it was a lovely house. “What a terrible noiseÂ !” He said that it was a terrible noise. “What a different situation she is inÂ !” He said that she was in different situation. “How marvellousÂ !” He said that it was marvellous. “How beautiful she dancesÂ !” He said that she danced beautiful. • Para expresar emcionesse utilizan INTERJECCIONES: “UghÂ !” /Î x/ (disgust) “OhÂ !” /Ou/ (surprise) “OuchÂ !”/â …Ï t/ (pain) He gave an exclamation of disgust/surprise/pain. He exclaimed with disgust/surprise/pain. • Otros casos no tienen reglas y todo depende del significado de la exclamaciÃ³n: He said:”Good morning” He greeted me/wished me a good morning. He said:”HappyChristmas” He wished me a Happy Christmas. 77 He said:”Liar” He called me a liar. He said:”Congratulations” He congratulated me. He said:”DamnÂ !” He swore • Dos casos especiales: PLEASE y THANK YOU “I should like some tea, pleaseÂ !” (please is not use in R.S.) He said politely that he would like some tea or He asked politely for some tea. He said:”Thank you” He thanked me. • LET'S/LET HIM/LET HER/LET THEM.Genralmente expresan una sugerencia y se hace con el verbo SUGGEST en Estilo Indirecto. Hay otras varias formas de expresar sugerencia: What about ... etc. Se utiliza el verbo SUGGEST como verbo introductor seguido de: • -ING form (precedida de una adjetivo posesivo o pronombre personal) • That-clause with SHOULD He said:” LetÂ´s have a good breakfastÂ !” He suggested their having a good breakfast. (standard English) He suggested them having a good breakfast. (spoken English) He suggested that they should have a good breakfast (formal English) He said:”LetÂ´s wait here till the rain stops” He suggested their waiting there till the rain stopped. He suggested that they should wait till the rain stopped. Formas Negativas: He said:”LetÂ´s not say anything about it” He suggested their not saying anything about it. He suggested that they should not say anything about it. Otras formas de expresar SUGERENCIAS: 78 • What about + -ING: “What about going to the cinema this evening” He suggested going to the cinema that evening. • Shall + 1st person • How about + -ING form • Do you feel like + -ING • Suppose + simple present. • YES/NO ANSWERS: Se expresan en el estilo Indirect con SUJETO + verbo auxiliar apropiado: He said:”Can you swim?” and I said: “No” He asked me if I could swim and I said that I couldn't. He said:”Do you like it?” and she said:”Yes” He asked her if she liked it and she answered that she did. Yes/No: se pone en el estilo indirecto con el auxiliar solo, y la negaciÃ³n si la contestaciÃ³n es No: “Would you be here for the next ten minutes?” she said, and I said:”Yes” She asked if I would be there for the following ten minutes and I answered that I would. • MIXED TYPES: (Question + Statement or Command), poco a poco: • “I don't know the way, do you?”, he asked He said that he didn't know the way and asked me if I did. • “You pressed the button”, said the mechanic. “Don't do it again. You might have a nasty accident”. She had pressed the button and the mechanic told her (warned her) not to do it again because (as) she might have a nasty accident. • “Could you show me to work it? I'm not used to electric typewriter's”, she said She asked me if I could show her to work it as (adding that/ explaining that) she wasn't used to electric typewriter's • “UghÂ ! there is a slug in my lettuce, writerÂ !”, she cried She gave an exclamation of /she exclaimed with/ disgust because (that) there was a slug in her lettuce and cried for the waiter. • “What about going for a swim. It is quite fine now”, he said He suggested going for a swim because it was quite fine then. • FREE INDIRECT SPEECH.79 • Un recurso muy comÃºn en la narrativa. • Consiste en expresar una oraciÃ³n poniendo el verbo en un tiempo anterior mientras se omite (o se pone entre parentesis) las oraciones del verbo introductor, que son las siglas convencionales E.I. • Los pronombres y tiempos verbales se cambian como en el estilo indirecto normal, pero por otra parte la estructura permanece como en el E.D. (se mantiene la inversion) porque no hay verbo introductor. • Es un medio mÃ¡s flexible para expresarse que el normal (=dependent) E.I., mÃ¡s concision: nada de he said, he exclaimed ... es utilizado por Virginia Wolf, James Joice etc. Mary, “Why do they always have to pick on me?” -------------- D.S. Mary asked why did they always have to pick on her? --------- R.S. Why did they always (grooned Mary) have to pick on her? --- F.I.S. or Why did they always have to pick on her? ------------------------ F.I.S. RELATIVES CLAUSES Pronombres Relativos Personas Cosas Nom. WHO (THAT) WHICH (THAT) Ac. WHOM (THAT) WHICH (THAT) Gen. WHOSE WHOSE(*) (*) El pronombre WHOSE tiende a ser utilizado solamente para personas, aunquegramaticalmente es correcto utilizarlo tambiÃ©n para cosas cada dÃ−a este uso esmenos frecuente recurriendo a otras estructuras para evitar usarlo: En vez de This film whose tittle is "Lipstick" is quite good. DirÃ−amos This film the tittle of which is "Lipstick" is quitegood. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambiÃ©n RESTRICTED son las oraciones ESPECIFICATIVAS en espaÃ±ol, que identifican o establecen la identidad del ANTECEDENTE: Paul found the book (which) you lost This is the room where the tragedy ocurred. Las personas o cosas se distinguen por la oraciÃ³n especificativa, la que da una informaciÃ³n esencial del antecedente y no pueden ser omitida porque cambiarÃ−a el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en espaÃ±ol. • El relativo THAT solo se puede usar en las DEFINING (especificativas), tanto de SUJETO como de OBJETO, sustituyendo a personas y a cosas. This is the driver who/that overtook us five minutes ago. 80 • Cuando el pronombre relativo no es sujeto de la oraciÃ³n generalmente se omite (principalmente en inglÃ©s hablado) dando lugar a las CONTACT. The man (whom/who/that) I saw yesterday is a lawyer. • Cuando es sujeto de la oraciÃ³n no se puede omitir, excepto si va con un tiempo continuo o pasivo, que al suprimir el pronombre relativo tambiÃ©n hay queomitir el verbo "TO BE" quedando solo el Participio de presente (en tiemposcontinuos) o el Participio de pasado (en tiempos pasivos). The boy (who is) walking along the street is my cousin. The church (which was) built in the 19th century has beautiful windows. • Ni el pronombre WHO ni THAT ni WHOSE admiten preposiciones delante de ellos, asÃ− que quellos verbos que rigen preposiciÃ³n, Ã©sta siempre se pone al final de la oraciÃ³n de relativo. This is the book (contact) he looked at. • En estilo formal o literario la preposiciÃ³n puede preceder al pronombre WHOM o WHICH, pero nunca a los del apartado anterior (WHO, THAT o WHOSE): The people from whom they had hired the car wanted it to be returned: No obstante algunas preposiciones no pueden ser postpuestas especialamente aquellas preposiciones que tienen que ver con nociones temporales: That was the meeting (that) I kept falling asleep during (incorrect). That was the meeting during which I kept falling asleep (correct). NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambiÃ©n NON-RESTRICTED son las oraciones EXPLICATIVAS en espaÃ±ol, que no definien ni restringen el ANTECEDENTE: Mr Smith, who is an ingeneer, lives in Oxford. The Victoria Line, which was open in March 1969, was London first complete new tube for 60 years. No definen ni distinguen al antecedente sino que solamente dan una informaciÃ³n adicional del antecedente. Van siempre entre comas y aunque se precinda de ellas no cambia el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en espaÃ±ol. Peter has a sister, who works at the U.N. headquarters in Geneve.(implica que solo tiene una hermana). Observaciones: • No se puede usar nunca el pronombre THAT. 81 • Se pueden dividir en dos oraciones. • Van siempre entre comas. • El pronombre relativo no se puede suprimir nunca aunque no sea el sujeto de la oraciÃ³n, si es persona WHO (sujeto)/WHOM (objeto) y si es cosa WHICH: Liz Taylor, who acted in Anthony and Cleopatra, judged the competition. The London train, which should arrive at 2.30, is ten minutes late. George Sand spent many holidays in Majorca with Chopin, whom she first met in Paris. The headmaster has recently been to Canada, which he described in detail in a lecture. Tipos de pronombres relativos: • Pronombres relativos como sujeto: On the sunny days which/that began their holiday, they really appreciated the peace and quiet. • Pronombres relativos como objeto: se pueden suprimir en las especificativas: Jennifer was home for one of the few weekends (which/that) she had during his training. • Pronombres relativos con preposiciÃ³n; Ã©stas van al final de la oraciÃ³n de relativo: The man (who/that) I worked for isnÂ´t the most generous man in the world. • WOSE siempre precede a la cosa poseida: The girl whose foot you trod on happens to be my girlfriend. • WHERE (in which), en estos contextos actua como adverbio relativo: Trust Arthur to find the one place where it had been raining. • WHY: Surely the reason why he stole the money is obvious. • Adverbio relativo: BEFORE: On the eveing before they were due to live, Arthur telephoned his mother. • Adverbio relativo: AFTER: It began to rain during the week after they arrived. ORACIONES TEMPORALES 82 Las oraciones temporales son las introducidas por las conjunciones: when, as soon as, whenever, after, before, as, while, until, etc... Se clasifican en inglÃ©s en tres tipos de acuerdo a la correspondencia verbal: • Oraciones temporales referidas al presente: Correspondencias verbales OraciÃ³n Principal OraciÃ³n Temporal Simple Present Mary takes her umbrella with her when it rains. Simple Present Arthur has his supper as soon as he gets home. I turn the radio off whenever they play pop. • Oraciones temporales referidas al pasado: OraciÃ³n Principal OraciÃ³n Temporal Simple Past Simple Past Simple Past Past Prefect Past Perfect Simple Past Simple Past Past Progressive Past Progresive I turned the TV on when I got home. Simple Past Mr Steele went to the office as soon as he arrived. Mary had already left before Arthur arrived. We saw an accident as/when we were going to work. I was listening to the radio when the telephone rang. • OraciÃ³nes temporales referidas al futuro: Present Continuous Simple Present Future Simple Present Going to form Present Perfect Auxiliar modal en prsente IÂ´m going to have a bath when I get home tonight. Present Perfect 83 IÂ´ll do my homework before I go to bed. Arthur canÂ´t go home until he has finished work. WeÂ´re going out as soon as weÂ´ve had dinner. Observaciones: • Cuando se usa el pasado simple en las dos oraciones indica que la segunda acciÃ³n sigue inmediatamente a la primera. • Cuando se utiliza en alguna de ellas el pasado perfecto o pluscuamperfecto, es cuando nos referimos a una acciÃ³n anterior a otra acciÃ³n pasada. • Cuando se utilizan pasados continuos en las dos nos indica que las dos acciones son simultaneas. Nota importante: La subordinada temporal nunca puede ir en TIEMPO FUTURO. ORACIONES FINALES Hay dos tipos de oraciones finales en inglÃ©s: • Aquellas en las que el sujeto de la oraciÃ³n principal es el mismo que el de la subordinada, o en las que el complemento directo de la oraciÃ³n principal es el sujeto de la subordinada. • Las que tienen sujetos distintos (diferentes), es decir que el sujeto de la oraciÃ³n principal es distinto del de la oraciÃ³n subordinada. El primer tipo de oraciones se suele expresar por madio del infinitivo con to o bien con in order o so as seguidos del infinitivo con to: I went ro London to see you. That boy is working hard in order to pass his exam. In order y so as se emplean cuando la oraciÃ³n final es negativa y cuando el complemento de la oraciÃ³n principal (si es una persona) no es el sujeto de la subordinada: I have taken my umbrella so as not to get wet. Yesterday John took his brother to the cinema so as to feel less lonely. La segunda clase de oraciones se expresan con so that + will/would o can/could o may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to y con in order that + may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to. Las formas verbales can, will, may (raramente shall) se emplean cuando el verbo principal estÃ¡ en presente, futuro o pretÃ©rito perfecto. Si el verbo principal estÃ¡ en pasado se emplean could, would, might o should: Peter has bought a car so that his children can go for a ride every Sunday. She puts on the light so that they will able to read. 84 He learnt French so that his friends could be impressed. Cuando las oraciones son negativas, se expresa del mismo modo, poniendo el verbo auxiliar en negativa: He finished his homework so that his father wouldnÂ´t be able to punish him. Pero mÃ¡s frecuenta que esta fÃ³rmula de negaciÃ³n es el uso de to prevent o avoid from, seguidos de gerundio (-ing): He lent us some mney to prevent us from going to the bank. POSITION OF ADVERBS Adverbs of MANNER a) Adverbs of MANNER after a short object: He repeated the word SLOWLY. He explained the exercise CAREFULLY. b) Adverbs of MANNER before a long object: He repeated SLOWLY everything the teacher said. He explained CAREFULLY what he wanted the students to do. c) Adverbs of MANNER before the verb for emphasis: He SLOWLY repeated all the words. SLOWLY he repeated all the words. He CAREFULLY explained what had to be done. CAREFULLY he explained what had to be done. Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME before the verb: The king ALWAYS asked the same questions. The students GENERALLY speak in English. We NEVER see Dick nowadays. The soldiers OFTEN came from countries far from Prussia. They SOON learned enough to understand it. Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME 85 a) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the end: I came here YESTERDAY. They left London EARLY. The news came ONE MORNING. Say the sentences AGAIN. This never happened BEFORE. We'll go back home TOMORROW. b) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the beginning, for emphasis: YESTERDAY I came here. ONE MORNING the news came. BEFORE this never happened. TOMORROW we shall go back home. Adverbs between auxiliary and participle: Such a thing had NEVER happened. We had RECENTLY joined Frederick's army. The king was ALWAYS shouting. We have OFTEN been in London. Adverbs of DEGREE Adverbs of DEGREE before verb or participle: The soldier HARDLY spoke German. The king JUST asked a few simple questions. The king NEARLY fell off his horse. He could HARDLY speak. Adverbs after "TO BE" not before: We were NEVER happy in that town. I am ALWAYS at home. The young soldier was JUST twenty. Jhon is SELDOM ill. SUFFIXES Suffixes (adjectives) -FUL careful, fearful, hopeful,useful, beautiful. 86 -LESS cloudy, foggy, hilly, noisy, rainy, stormy, sunny. -Y careless, fearless, hopeless, useless. -WARD (adj.) homeward, downward, upward, southward. -WARDS (Adv.) homewards, downwards, upwards, southwards. Suffixes (nouns) -ER baker, butcher, driver, painter, writer, builder -OR actor, author, conductor, doctor, sailor, tailor. -M AN policeman, fireman, fisherman, businessman. -MAKER dressmaker, shirtmaker, watchmaker, shoemaker. -IST artist, dramatist, pianist, violinist. metal-worker, coachbuilder, shopkeeper, car-driver. -ETC. Suffixes (abstract nouns) -DOM kingdom, freedom, wisdom, dukedom. -HOOD childhood, manhood, fatherhood, neighbourhood. -NESS carefulness, happiness, hardness, likeness Prefixes unable, unafraid, uncertain, uncommon, unhappy = negative in several directions bad, badly too much too little indistinct, impossible, illegal disagree, discontinue, dishonest, disloyal disperse, distend, display, disseminate. a mistake, a misdeed, a misunderstanding, to mislay to overeat, to overcharge, to overflow, to overload, to overestimate, to overheat, to overwork, to overdo. to underpay , to undercharge, to undervalue, to underestimate. GLOSSARY - BACHILLERATOS Aprobar un exÃ¡men = TO PASS 87 Aprobar, dar aprobaciÃ³n a algo, aprobar una medida = TO APPROVE (OF) I passed the exam. I approve the law. Suspender un exÃ¡men = TO FAIL : I failed the exam. Suspender, tener colgado algo = TO SUSPEND : I suspended the clothing. Copiar un exÃ¡men, engaÃ±ar = TO CHEAT : I cheated the exam. Asignatura = SUBJECT: I have eight subjects. Firma = SIGNATURE: I like your signature. Firmar = TO SIGN: I signed the paper. AÃ±o AcadÃ©mico = YEAR / LEVEL: I study 3rd year/level. Cursillo = COURSE: I attended to English course. I haven't passed the course. Carrera Universitaria = UNIVERSITY COURSE: He studies a University course. Carrera Profesional = CAREER: This career is very (dangerous) difficult. Carrera de correr = RACE: The race will be tomorrow. TÃ−tulo Universitario = DEGREE: He has a degree. TÃ−tulo de Bachiller / Licenciado = BACHELOR DEGREE: He has a bachelor degree. Doctorado (Letras) MASTER OF ARTS // (Ciencias) MASTER OF SCIENCE Your uncle is Master of Arts / Sciences CatedrÃ¡tico = (Proffesor) DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY // PHILOSOPHY DOCTOR His father is Doctor of Philosophy Notas = MARKS/QUALIFICATIONS: Your marks are good Hacer un exÃ¡men (lo hace el alumno) = TO TAKE: The pupil took an exam. Hacer un exÃ¡men (lo prepara el profesor) = TO MAKE: The teacher made an exam. Apuntes = NOTES: He lost his notes. Presentarse a un exÃ¡men = TO SIT IN // TO SIT FOR: The pupil sat for an exam. Deberes escolares = HOMEWORK: My son did his homework yesterday. 88 Tarea de casa = HOUSEWORK: My mother is making the housework. Derecho(s) = RIGHT(S): Deber(es) = DUTY/DUTIES: People have rights and duties. Colegio Privado = Public/Private/Independent School: I study in a public school. Colegio PÃºblico = STATE SCHOOL: He studies in a state school. GuarderÃ−a = NURSERY SCHOOL: In this nursery school there are few children. Escuela Primaria = PRIMARY SCHOOL: The primary school starts at six years old. Escuela Secundaria = SECONDARY SCHOOL: The secondary school starts at 11. Selectividad=ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION: I'll take the advanced level exams. EducaciÃ³n Superior = HIGHER EDUCATION The higher education starts at 14. UNIVERSIDAD: - Ingenierias = Polytechnic: In Vigo there is a Polytechnic. - Magisterio = College of Education: In Vigo there is a College of Education. - DemÃ¡s Carreras = University: In Vigo there is a University. F.P. 2 Grado = College of Further Educaction In Vigo there is a College of ..... Formas de expresar la edad He is 40. He is 40 years old. He is a baby ( 0 - 2) He is 40 years of age. He is a child ( 2 - 8) He is about/around 40. He is a boy ( 8 - 14) He is about/around 40 years old. He is a teenager ( 13 - 19) He is in his fourties (40-49) He is a young man ( 19 - 35) He is in his early fourties (40-45) He is a middle-aged man ( 35 - 55) He is in his late fourties (45-49) He is an elderly man (anciano) He is fourty something (40 y algo) False Friends miserabe # miserable (triste) 89 No tiene donde caerse muerto = He is poor because he hasn't any money. Eres un miserable, tacaÃ±o = You are a mean man and egoistic. He is miserable (triste) because his father was dead. Realize # realizar (= darse cuenta) // realizar = do/make/carry out/ perform They realized that she was wrong. They made a cake. Actually # actualmente (= realmente) // actualmente = at present/currently/nowadays in fact, indeed Actually it is wonderful. At present he is a singer. Actual # actual (= real) // actual = modern/current/present/fashionable The story is actual It's a current issue (tema de actualidad). Boring # bored, etc. adjs. (= aburrido =es aburrido // = aburrido=estar aburrido) Story # history (cuento, (historieta) // historia (asignatura)) End # ending (fin/final) = finish,close,purpose,extremo // final, conclusion, desenlace After # afterwards (prep, conj.// adverb.) Know # meet (saber, conocer // encontrarse con, toparse con) Exit # Success (salida // Ã©xito) Notice # News Program / Programme On the one hand / On the other hand To realise something / to make a dream come true Avoid # prevent (evitar, eludir // impedir a uno que haga algo) Follow / Continue (seguir, entender // seguir, continuar) Cook # Cooker ( cocinar, cocinera // cocina, electrodomJstico) 90 Econimic = econÃ³mico, rentable (developmen, growth, policy) Economical = econÃ³mico (method/style/appliance), puede ir con more, less, very etc. Classic = clÃ¡sico, tÃ−pico, memorable (study, text, play) Classical = clÃ¡sico, culto (theory/idea/method/music) Work # job (inc.=trabajo, empleo // con.= trabajo, empleo, tarea) Travel = viaje, viajar en general Trip = viaje, excursiÃ³n (incluye estancia) Journey = viaje, trayecto (solo desplazamiento) Like / as (para comparaciones, ejemplos // como, en calidad de) Solve # Resolve (= solucionar/solution // decidir/resolution/decide) They solved the problem. They resolve to go to the party. Used to // Usually (= hÃ¡bitos en el pasado // hÃ¡bitos en el presente) They used to sleep longer in summer They ussually sleep less in winter. Another (sing,) uno mÃ¡s igual al anterior. Please, give me a book ..... give me another (book). Other (sing. o plural) otro mÃ¡s distinto al anterior. Please, give me a book ..... give me other (# book). Pass (movement, go by) I passsed in front of you and you didn't look at me. Spend (occupy time, spend time = pasar el tiempo) (buy things, spend money = gastar dinero) I spent my holidays in Italy. I spent a lot of maney. Waste (malgastar el dinero) 91 (perder el tiempo) I wasted my money. I wasted the time. Be (in position, place = estar en un lugar) He is in Vigo. Stand (on your feet = estar de piÃ©) He is tired because of standing in the bus. Stay (not to go away = quedarse) He didn't go to the party, he stayed at home. I'm sitting = estoy sentado. I'm standing = estoy de piÃ©. I'm kneeling = estoy arrodillado. I'm lying = estoy tumbado. To lie lied lied = mentir He used to lie. To lie lay lain = yacer, tumbarse She lies in peace with her husband. When she was dead, she lay in peace. To lay laid laid = poner horinzontal (la mesa), colgarse When she starts to lay from the tree, she broke one leg. To raise raised raised = (tr) levantar, alzar The soldiers raised the flags. To rise rose risen = (intr) levantarse, salir el sol I like to see the sun rising. To hang hanged hanged = colgar, ahorcar, ejecutar a uno The thieves were hanged by the police. 92 To hang hung hung = colgar, estar colgado Mary hung the clothes. Hard (adj.): difficult The problem is hard. (adv.): much I'm tired because I worked hard. Hardly (adv.): scarcely = apenas I'm not tired because I hardly worked. To live (verb) = vivir lives (3rd person) = vive I live in Vigo. life (sust. sing.) = vida He lives in Vigo. lives (sust. plur.) = vidas My life is very happy. live (adj.) = en vivo, en directo Their lives are very sad. alive (adj.) = vivo no muerto (not dead) The live concert was very good. living (adj.) = que tiene vida interna, He isn't dead, he is alive. funcionamiento interno it is a living essence. (inner working) Last = the final one (no hay m<s despuJs) This has been my last exam in COU. = the one before (el inmediatamente anterior) Last night i went to the party. Latest = the most recent (el m<s reciente): the latest one I have just read Cela's latest novel (adn no muri\ y puede escribir m<s) The last one = the last one up to now (el dltimo hasta el momento) I have just read Shakespeare last novel (ya muri\, no puede escribir m<s) Latter: the former ... the latter (el primero ... el dltimo de una enumeraci\n) We went there with Peter and Mary; the former (Peter) invited us, the latter (Mary) paid for our dinner. Late = after the time fixed (llegar despuJs de un tiempo) You are always late. Later = comparativo de "late" 93 You are always later than me. SINÃ NIMOS look worried love hate break talk mend watch preocupied like dislike crash speak repair see anxiuous enjoy loathe crack chat fix observe nervous keen on detest split converse glance afraid adore can't stand destroy say gaze frightened be fond of can't bear crush whisper scan scared smash exclaim fracture dialogue gossip critic mad friend crazy collegue insane partner fool classmate nuts folk pal comrade Distintos significados segÃºn la pronunciaciÃ³n ROW /rou/ = remar/remo (paddle) The row (paddle) is broken. /rou/ = fila de butacas: The last row in the cinema. /rau/ = bronca, discusi\n: The row was very violent. LEAD /li:d/ = dirigir, conducir: He led us towards that old castle. /led/ = plomo: Lead is a metal. LIVE /liv/ = (verb) vivir I live in Vigo. 94 /laiv/ = (adj.) en vivo, en directo The live concert was very good. CONTENT /acento en "O"/ = contenido: The content of that film was very good. /acento en "E"/ = contento: I'm content because I passed the exam. OBJECT /acento en "O"/ = objecto: What is the object? /acento en "E"/ = poner observaciÃ³n a algo: OBJECT TO: I object to the law. DESERT /'dezet/ = desierto: I went to desert. /di'ze:t/ = desertar, abandonar: The soldier deserts the battle. DESSERT /di'ze:t/ = postre: What is there for dessert? WIND /wind/ = viento: The wind blew the roof. /waind/ = dar cuerda: The company didn't give wind to the problem ATTEND = asistir: He attended to school. = atender: He attended his ill brother. ASSIST = ayudar RIGHT = derecho:Go straight/along the King Street, turn to the right and you get the coach station = de acuerdo I'll see you tomorrow. All right! = derechos (rights): People have rights and duties. WILL = (aux. futuro): I'll see you tomorrow. = testamento: The will was written by Mary. FOOD = comida comprada en supermercado: When we go to supermarket I buy food. MEAL = comida que se sirve en la mesa: Mary makes the meal every day. LUNCH = comida del mediodÃ−a He always have lunch at 2.00 a.m. BREAKFAST = desayuno We always have breakfast at 7.30 a.m. DINNER = cena We always have dinner at 6.00 a.m. SUPPER = cena This is the last supper. Prepositions ON con dÃ−as (si se menciona el dÃ−a): 95 DAYS week On Monday. date On February 24th, 1953 On weekends On holidays On Christmas Day On my birthday On Christmas Eve IN con unidades de tiempo menor o mayor que un dÃ−a: centuries In the 20th century years In 1999 seasons In Winter months in January Partes del dÃ−a In the morning/afternoon/evening. Edades cronolÃ³gicas In the Middle Age. AT con horas, clock, time // y excepciones de las anteriores: At night/at noon/at dawn/at midday/at Christmas/at Easter at midnight/at the moment/at lunchtime/at the age of. etc. PROVERBS Silence gives consent. QuiÃ©n calla, otorga. From smoke into smother. De Herodes a Pilatos March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers. Marzo ventoso, Abril lluvioso sacan a Mayo florido y hermoso. The nearer the church, the farther from God. DetrÃ¡s de la Cruz estÃ¡ el diablo. That is true which all men say. Voz del pueblo, voz del cielo. Bussiness is bussiness. Los negocios son los negocios. Travellers tell strange tales. A luengas tierras, luengas mentiras. Birds of a feather flock together. Cada oveja con su pareja. Ill weeds grow apace. Mala hierba nunca muere. Every dog has his day. A cada puerco le llega su San MartÃ−n. 96 It is no use crying over spilt milk. A lo hecho, pecho. Misfortunes never come singly. Las desgracias nunca vienen solas. It never rains but it pour on the poor. A perro flaco, todo son pulgas. Watched pot never boils. El que espera, desespera, y el que viene, nunca llega. The longest day will have an end. No hay bien ni mal que cien aÃ±os dure. What is bred in the narrow comes out in the bone. La cabra siempre tira al monte. Like master like man. De tal palo, tal astilla. Health is better than wealth. La salud vale mÃ¡s que el dinero. God helps them that help themselves. A dios rogando y con el mazo dando. The pan calls the kettle black. Dijo la sarten al cazo: "Apartate, que me tiznas. All is not gold that glitters. No es oro todo lo que reluce. Where there is a will there is a way. Querer es poder. Hunger is the best sauce. A buen hambre no hay pan duro. There is many a slip 'twist the cup and the lip. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. Look before you leap. Antes que te cases, mira lo que haces. There is no smoke without fire. Cuando el rio suena, agua lleva. More noise than work. Mucho ruido y pocas nueces. The early bird catches the worm. Al que madruga Dios le ayuda. No pains no gains. No hay atajo sin trabajo. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones. Love me, love my dog. El que vea la mota en el ojo ajeno, vea la viga en el propio. One cannot make an omelet without breaking the eggs. QuiÃ©n bien quiere a BeltrÃ¡n, bien quiere a su can. Out of the frying pan into the fire. No se pescan las truchas a bragas enjutas There are none so deaf as those that won't hear. Salir de las llamas y caer en las brasas. Enough is as good as a feast. No hay peor sordo que el que no quiere oir. Cat after kind (or king). Un "NO" a tiempo vale mucho dinero. 97 Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves. Dios los crÃ−a y ellos se juntan. Hechos son amores y no buenas razones. PROVERBS (2) It's the last straw that breaks the camel's back. Es la gota que colma el vaso. The leopard cannot change its spots. Genio y figura hasta la sepultura. Life is not al beer and skittles. No todo el monte es orÃ©gano. La vida no es coser y cantar. No es color de rosa. Little pitchers have big ears. Los niÃ±os tienen la costumbre de escuchar. That is all my eye and Betty Martin. That's all nonsense. Big fleas have little fleas. Todo lo grande o pequeÃ±o tiene sus problemas. A burnt child dreads the fire. Gato escaldado del agua huye. Old birds are not caught with chaff. The child is father of the man The cobbler should stick to his last. No es fÃ¡cil engaÃ±ar a un perro viejo. MÃ¡s sabe el diablo por viejo que por diablo. Viendo al niÃ±o que quiere saber que va a ser de mayor. Don't count your chickens before they are hatched. Zapatero a los zapatos. It's no use crying over spilt milk. No hay que hacer castillos en el aire. Every dog has his day. The early bird catches the worm. No vale la pena lamentarse de algo que no tiene arreglo. Even a worm will turn. A todo cerdo le llega su San MartÃ−n. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. A quiÃ©n madruga Dios le ayuda. Take time by the forelock. A la persona mÃ¡s tranquila se le acaba la paciencia en un momento determinado. There's many a slip between cup and lip. Todo el mundo necesita descanso y diversiÃ³n. There's no smoke without fire. Coger la oprtunidad por los pelos. You can't make silk purse out of sow's bristles. Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa. There is no royal road to learning. Cuando el rÃ−o suene agua lleva. Rome was not built in a day. Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona es y mona When poverty comes in at the door, love flies out of the se queda. window. No se aprende sin esfuerzo. 98 One swallow does not make summer. Zamora no se hace en una hora. You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. Poverty mrried life is a great danger. Don't look a gift horse in the mouth. Una golondrina no hace verano. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. El que wuiere pesca que moje el culo. As you make your bed, so you must lie on it. A caballo regalado no le mires el diente. Birds of a feather flock together. MÃ¡s vale pÃ¡jaro en mano que cien volando. Blood is thicker than water. QuiÃ©n mala cama hace en ella yace. You can't get blood out of a stone. Dios los cria y ellos se juntan. Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. Son muy fuertes los lazos de parentesco. All is not gold that glitters. No se puede sacar agua de las piedras. No le pidas peran al olmo. When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. Nadie tira piedras contra su tejado. Make hay while the sun shines. No es oro todo lo que reluce. Where ignorance is bliss, `tis folly to be wise. A encounter between equals. It's an ill wind that blows nobody any good. Hacer el agosto. Aprovechar las circunsts. In for a penny, in for a pound. The labourer id worthy of his hire. Es mejor ser ignorante, pues ser sabio crea problemas. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. No hay mal que por bien no venga. Every cloud has a silver lining. Preso por mil, preso por 1.500. A miss is as good as a mile. A cada uno hay que darle lo que le corresp. A fault confessed is half redressed. Lo que es bueno para uno, es bueno para el otro. Never say die. No hay mal que por bien no venga aunque 100 aÃ±os dure. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Lo mismo de librase por poco que por mucho. A stitch in time saves nine. Si has cometido algo y lo ves compensado. One man's meat is another man's poison. Ã”nimo, mientras hay vida, hay esperanza. It never rains but it pours. Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath. Si estÃ¡s rodando continuamente, no llegas a ninguna parte. 99 He who pays the piper calls the tune. MÃ¡s vale prevenir que curar, pero pronto. Lo que para uno es bueno, para el otro es veneno. Llueve sobre mojado, una desgracia nunca viene sola. No te vayas a la cama sin hacer las paces. El que paga tiene derecho a escoger. - PROVERBS - (Cont.) absence Absence makes the heart grow fonder. actions Acttions speak louder than words. apple An apple a day keeps the doctor away. bed As you make your bed so must you lie on it. beggars Beggars must not bechoosers. bed Early to bed, early to rise Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. bird A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. An early bird catches the worm. Birds of a feather flock together. bitten Once bitten, twice shy. blood Blood is thicker than water. You cannot get blood out of a stone. boys Boys will be boys. brooms New brooms sweep clean. cake You cannot eat your cake and have it. cat A cat may look at a king. When the cat's away the mice will play. charity Charity begins at home. chickens Don'count your chickens until they are hatched. 100 cloud Every cloud has a silver lining. coat Cut your coat according to your cloth. cooks Too many cooks spoil the broth. courtesy Courtesy costs nothung. dog Barking dogs seldom bite. Every dog has his day. Let sleeping dogs lie. drowning A drowning man will clutch at a straw. eggs Don't pull all your eggs in one basket. enough Enough is as goos as a feast. example Example is better than precept. exchange Exchange is not robbery. feathers Fine feathers make fine birds. fire Where there's smoke there's fire. first First come, first served. fool A fool and his money are soon parted. fortune Fortune knocks one at every man's door. friend A friend in need is a friend indeed. fruit Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest frying-pan Out of the frying-pan into fire. God God helps those who help themselves. grasp Grasp all, lose all. habit Habit is second nature. hanged As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb. haste More haste, less spped. hay Make hay while the sun shines. 101 heads Two heads are better than one. heart Faint heart never won fair lady. honesty Honesty is the best policy. hunger Hunger is the best sauce. hungry A hungry man is an angry man. imitation Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. lamb A pet lamb is a croos ram. late Better late than never. laugh Laugh and grow fat. He laughs best who laughs last. leak A small leak will sink a grat ship. least Least said soonest mended. listeners Listeners hear no good of themselves. loaf Half a loaf is better than no bread. look Look before you leap. meat One man's meat is another man's poison. miss A miss is as good as a mile. necessity Necessity is the mother of invention. news No news is good news. pence Look after the pence and the pounds will look after themselves. penny A penny saved is a penny gained. In for a penny, in for a pound. Penny wise, pound foolish. EXERCISE.1.- Don't pull all your eggs in one basket. A.- People mix with those who have tates similar to their own. 2.- A rolling stone gathers no moss. B.- Live within your means. 102 3.- One man's meat is another man's poison. C.- It is unwise to reckon your gains until you actually get them. 4.- Make hay while the sun shines. D.- Even when things seem gloomy there is alwasy hope. 5.- Empty vessels make most noise. E.- You should not risk all you have in a single speculation. 6.- Cut your coat according to your cloth. F.- What suits one prson may not suit another. 7.- Birds of a feather flock together. 8.- Every cloud has a silver lining. 9.- Out of the frying-pan into the fire. G.- In trying to get yourself out of trouble you often get into a worse one. H.- It is the people who have nothing in their heads who talk most. 10.- Don't count your chickens before they are I.- One who often changes his job will never be rich. hatched J.- Work while you can; don't put things off till tomorrow. PHRASAL VERBS Verbos con adverbio/preposiciÃ³n To BREAK To LOOK - away = irse, escaparse - at = mirar a - down = averiarse, abatirse - after = cuidar de desglosar, descomponer - down on = despreciar - in = adiestrar, acondicionar - into = examinar - into = violentar - for = bucar - off = desgajar, dejar sin terminar - forward to = desear, tener ganas de - out = estallar, hacer estallar - out = tener cuidado - through = abrirse camino - over = ojear, echar un vistazo - up = levantar la sesi\n - up = visitar, buscar en un diccionario, listin, etc. To COME - about = suceder, acaecer To CARRY - across = atravesar, tropezarse con - on = continuar, seguir, comportarse - off = desprenderse - out = sostener - on = avanzar, adelantar - through = terminar 103 - out = salir, nacer, adelantarse - over = suceder To BRING - round = volver en sÃ−, restablecerse - about = originar, provocar - up = surgir - back = devolver - round = persuadir To GET - out = revelar, publicar - away = huir - up = educar - down = bajar, apearse, entristecerse - off = bajarse de un vehiculo To GO - on = subirse a un vehiculo - about = circular, emprender, intentar progresar, llevarse bien con alguiÃ©n - back = volver - on with = progresar, llevarse bien con alguiÃ©n - back on = retractarse - out of = salir de - for = ir en busca de, favorecer, apoyar - over = recuperarse, deshacerse de - in = entrar - up = levantarse - in for = tomar parte en, favorecer - into = meterse To HOLD - off = dispararse, morirse - up = parar, atracar - on = seguir, ocurrir - on = esperar, aguantar - round = dar la vuelta - out = aguantar, mantenerse firme - through = atravesar, pasar, sufrir - over = aplazar, diferir - with = estar de acuerdo con, acompaÃ±ar - without = pasarse sin To KEEP - back = retener, suprimir, preservar To PUT - down = sujetar - down = depositar, poner abajo - on = seguir, proseguir - off = posponer, apagar, desconectar 104 - up = mantener, conservar, continuar - on = ponerse, conectar - up = levantar, hospedar - up with = soportar To GIVE To RUN - away = regalar, dar - away = huir - back = devolver - away with = fugarse - off = despedir, echar - down = difamar, hablar mal de - on to = dar a - into = chocar, toparse con - out = cansarse, rendirse - out of = quedarse sin existencias - up = rendirse, dejar de (+-ING) - over = atropellar To SEE To MAKE - off = despedir, ir a despedir - for = contribuir - about = averiguar - out = descubrir, descifrar, componer - through = comprender, conocer - over = ceder - to = atender - up = inventar, maquillarse, costear To TAKE To TURN - aback = dejar atÃ³nito, desconcertar - down = bajar el volumen, doblar - after = parecerse a - into = convertirse en - away = apartar, quitar - off = apagar, desconectar - back = hacer volver, retroceder - on = encender, conectar - down = escribir, tomar nota - up = aparecer - in = incluir, admitir, engaÃ±ar - out = apagar, resultar, suceder - on = aceptar, comprender - over = entregar, invertir - out = extraer, quitar - to = redundar en - off = quitarse la ropa, despegar un aviÃ³n - over = tomar posesiÃ³n de To WORK 105 - up = empezar, adoptar - out = calcular THE GENDER Kinds: 1.- Male 2.- Female 3.- Either male or female 4.- Neither male or female These concepts reflected in grammatical gender of nouns 1) Masculine: man, bull 2) Femenine: woman, cow 3) Common words: student, friend 4) Neuter: tree, table Sex in Modern English Grammar is expressed in various ways: 1) By the meaning of the noun itself: COMMON MASCULINE FEMENINE parent father mother child boy girl son daughter spouse husband wife youth lad lass sovereign king queen horse stallion mare sheep ram ewe deer (=ciervo) stag doe (hind) swine (cerdo) boar sow fowl cock hen 106 Some words have only masculine form: MASCULINE FEMENINE widower widow bridegroom bride bachelor spinster nephew niece lord lady uncle aunt master mistress dog (hound) bitch (breach) drake duck brother sister monk nun gentleman lady wizard (brujo) witch gander (ganso) goose cob (swan) cisne hen 2.- Masculine and Femenine are also indicated by addition of a suffix: a) The most common femenine suffix is -ESS: MASCULINE FEMENINE abbot abbess actor actress baron baroness duke duchess emperor empress god goddess 107 host hostess lion lioness major majoress prince princess negro negress tiger tigress waiter waitress b) Other femenine suffixes are: -TRIX -INE -INA -ETTE -I -EUSE -ENNE MASCULINE FEMENINE administrator administratix victor victrix prosecutor prosecutrix executor executrix hero heroina Joseph Josephina Gzar Gzarina Baron Baronette fiancÃ© fianceÃ© protegÃ© protegeÃ© masseur masseuse comedian comedienne 3.- By using an extra word which clearly shows the gender, either as suffix or prefix: MASCULINE FEMENINE doctor lady doctor male nurse nurse 108 boyfriend girlfriend dog fox bitch fox (wixen) Jackass Jenny ass billy goat nanny goat (=niZera) laundry man laundry woman milkman milkmaid (milkwoman) landlord landlady tom cat tabby cat cock pigeon hen pigeon cock robin Jenny robin 4.- By use of pronouns = personal pronouns which refer to the nouns are the most common gender indicators in English. The 3rd. person singular pronouns have different forms for masculine, femenine or neuter: The student hadn't got her book with her. My friend said that he had sold his house. Sometimes the 3rd. person singular pronouns are prefixed to words to distinguish gender: MASCULINE FEMENINE a he-donkey a she-dankey a he-devil a she-devil a he-bear a she-bear 5.- Sometimes the words MALE/FEMALE are prefixed to othe words: MASCULINE FEMENINE a male cat a female cat a male rabbit a female rabbit COMMON GENDER.In English there are many words for animate beings that do not indicate their gender. That is to say, these words indicate both masculine and femenine: cousin friend person fool neighbiur 109 When making a sentence using one of these words, when the gender is not known you can use "he/she/they": Your cousin wrote but he/she didn't say his/her name. All substantives coming from verbs to denote agents are common gender: reader teacher drunkward inhabitant copyist liar Some substantives coming from other substantives also denote common gender: criminal librarian musician prisoner Because of social conditions many common gender words are used only of: 1) males: baker, tailor, merchant, soldeir, shoemaker, captain 2) females: nurse, milliner (sombrerera), cook, flirt (maja), dressmaker Some words having masculine or femenine forms have become common gender by using one of the forms to denote the genus: Masculine: man, dog, lion, jew Femenine: duck, goose, hen, bee UNNATURAL GENDER.Names of people.- They become neuter when the idea of personality is little developed: baby. She was a baby. It is a girl. When we wish to speak scornfully of a person we use the pronoun "that" or "it": Would you like to be married to that? Fancy seeing it every day. Name of animals.- domestic and large beasts are normally personified according to their sex: I have a dog. His name is Sam. With smaller animals and birds, the neuter is generally used, but some are referred to as masculine and some as femenine: Masculine: cuckoo, rabbit, mouse. Femenine: dove, sparrow, lark, thrush, mole, bee, hare. Name of things.- countries and cities are generally neuter, but in literary English they can be referred to as femenine: England ruled the seas thanks to its/her navy. Sexless things.- generally referred to as femenine: moon, nature, sea, ships, engines, aircraft, motor-cars 110 ... and abstract ideas. Sexless things.- referred to as masculine: sun, rivers, mountains, war, death etc. GENDER IN PRONOUNS.First and second person pronouns do not denote gender because it is clear from context: I me my mine you your yours For the third person there are three forms: Masculine, femenine and neuter. Sometimes this causes difficulties in expression: it is necessary to use constructions like "he/she/they": Nobody knows how to do that, do they? The reader's heart, if he or she has a heart ... Some pronouns are two-sex and some no-sex: two-sex no-sex Interrogative Who? what? Relative Who which Indefinite somebody something anybody anything everybody everything VERBS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS 1.- The following verbs are used without a preposition in English, but with preposition in Spanish: to abuse to approach to attend to lack to mock to marry to stop to cease to finish to begin to distrust to enjoy to doubt to enter Never abuse friendship He approached the house I attended the meeting The poor man lacked means They mocked me John married Mary He stopped working I ceased working He finished working He began working I distrust Michael He enjoys good health I doubt his word They entered the shop abusar de acercarse a asistir a carecer de burlarse de casarse con dejar de cesar de terminar de empezar a desconfiar de disfrutar de dudar de entrar en 111 to smoke He smokes a pipe fumar en to play They played football jugar a to ride I like riding horses montar a to sound This sounds hollow sonar a 2.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but without a preposition in Spanish: to ask for He asked for a book pedir to listen to They listened to the radio escuchar to hope for We hoped for a fine day esperar to look at She looked at the picture mirar to look for I was looking for my watch buscar to operate on They operated on Mary operar to pay for I will pay for the ticket pagar to point at He pointed at me seÃ±alar to search for He searched for his papers buscar to wait for I was waiting for the bus esperar to rob of They robbed me of my watch robar to steal from They stole my watch from me robar to remind of That reminds me of England recordar 3.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but a different preposition in Spanish: to buy from I bought a book brom the bookseller Comprar a to congratulate on I congratulated him on his success felicitar por to consist of All consisted of doing it Consistir en to demand of They demanded too much of John exigir a to depend on It depends of the circumstances Depender de to fall into He fell into the river caerse en to live on He lives on charity vivir de to marvel at He marvelled at the news Maravillarse de to play a trick on They played a trick on John gastar una broma a to think of He thought of his children pensar en to translate into Translate this into English traducir al to dream of I dreamt of you last night soÃ±ar con to smell of This smells of soap oler a to taste of This tastes of fish saber a VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITIONS: OF/FROM/IN/ON/TO/AT/FOR and WITH OF: accuse, approve, assure, beware, boast (or ABOUT), complain (or ABOUT), consist, convince (or ABOUT), cure, despair, dream (or ABOUT), expect (or FROM), hear (or FROM), be/get rid, smell, suspect, taste, think (or ABOUT), tire(d), warn (or AGAINST) FROM: borrow, defend (or AGAINST), demand (or OF), differ, dismiss, draw, emerge, escape, excuse (or FOR), hinder, prevent, prohibit, protect (or AGAINST), receive, separate, suffer IN: believe, delight, employ(ed), encourage, angage(d), experience(d), fail, help (or WITH), include, indulge, instruct, interest(ed), invest, share, involve(d), persist. 112 ON: act, base(d), call, comment, concentrate, congratulate, consult (or ABOUT), count, decide, depend, economize, embark, experiment, insist, live, rely, lean (or AGAINST), operate, perform (or IN), write (or ABOUT), pride (oneself), vote (ON a motion; FOR someone). TO: accustom(ed), amount, appeal, apply (or FOR), attach(ed), attend, belong, challenge, compare (or WITH), condemn(ed), confess, consent, convert, entittle(d), listen, mention, object, occur, prefer, react (or AGAINST), respond, reply, see, submit, surrender, turn, yield. AT: amuse(d) (or BY), arrive (or IN), astonish(ed) (or BY), exclaim, glance, guess, knock, look, point (or TO), shock(ed) (or BY), stare, work (or ON), surprise(d) (or BY), wonder (or ABOUT). FOR: account, ask (or OF), act (or ON), apologize, blame, beg, call, charge, exchange, hope, look, mistake, mourn, pay, prepare, provide, search, thank, vote (or ON), wait (or ON). WITH: agree, begin, communicate, compare (or TO), complete (or AGAINST), comply, confuse, contrast (or TO), cope, correspond, disgust(ed), finish, help (or IN), interfere (or IN), mix, occupy(ied), part, please(d), quarrel (or ABOUT), reason, satisfy(ied) (or BY), threaten(d). WORDS FOLLOWED BY FOR/WITH/OF/TO/AT/FROM/IN/ON and ABOUT FOR: eager, enough, famous, fit, gateful (or TO), qualified (or IN), sorry, ready (or TO), responsible, sufficient, thankful (or TO), valid. WITH: angry (WITH someone; AT something), busy (or AT), consistent, content, familiar (or TO), identical, patient, popular. OF: afraid, ahead, aware, capable, careful (or WITH), certain, conscious, envious, fond, guilty, ignorant, independent, jealous, kind (or TO), north/south/east/west, short, shy, sure, worthy. TO: close, contrary, cruel, dear, equal, faithful, fatal, harmful, inferior, indifferent, liable, new, obedient, obvious, polite, previous, rude, similar, sensitive, useful. AT: bad, clever, efficient, expert (or IN), good, indignant, quick, slow, sad (or ABOUT), skilful (or IN). FROM: away, different, far, safe. IN: deficient, fortunate, honest, weak. ON: dependent, intent, keen. ABOUT: curious, doubtful (or OF), enthusiastic, relunctant (or TO), uneasy, right (or IN). This section consists of a list of verbs, adjectives and particles with the particular preposition that usually follow them. The vebs list has been compiled in the form of sentence examples. The adjective and particle lists give a phrase only: They abandoned their fellow soldiers TO the enemy (left) He died FOR his beliefs He died FROM/OF starvation They were alsolved FROM blame for the mistake My ideas differ FROM yours He was too absorved IN his work to hear the bell 113 She had to answer/account TO her father for her behaviour We differ IN our ideas We differ ON this idea They were accused OF stealing We differ WITH each other ON this They were acquitted OF blame for the mistake libertar She directed her remarks AT her father absolver He was accustomed TO a large breakfast She directed him TO the station She acquainted him WITH the situation (informar a uno sobre) He disagreed WITH her ON/OVER the matter Money problems only added TO their unhappiness The dustman disposed OF five tons of rubbish yesterday He could not adjust TO thr new conditions They dreamt OF winning a fortune The question admits OF several answers Wide-eyed, they drank IN the beauty of the place He admitted TO being the thief (confesarse culpable de) They drank TO better days The evening ended IN confusion (result) They admitted him TO their plans The evening ended WITH a dance (conclude) They agreed ON/ABOUT the question We must enrol FOR the exam before next week She agreed TO his suggestion He exchanged his house FOR a bigger one He agrred WITH his father on the plan They excluded him FROM the club (deny entry to) He aimed the gun AT the target He apologized TO her for his behaviour (disculparse con) They excused him FOR his absence (for not bring there) Delighted, she approved OF his behaviour They excused him FROM attending (allow not to be there) He armed himself AGAINST possible danger She failed IN her exam She asked at the hotel FOR her friend (ask to see) She failed IN trying to pass the exam She asked at the hospital ABOUT her friend (ask how He fell INTO the habit of not attending s/o is) They feed mostly ON vegetables She asked a favour OF her (ask s/o to do domething) She fed him WITH a spoon They would not associate WITH his friends She told him not to fuss OVER her Wise investments assured him OF large income He was gladdened BY her good news She was very attached TO her aunt (fond of) In passing they glanced AT him 114 He attached his caravan TO his car He asked them to glance THROUGH the notebook She asked him to bear WITH her temper (tolerate) She grieved AT the bad news He began BY playing a concerto She grieved FOR the missing child He began WITH a concerto He grieved OVER the past They believed strongly IN internationalism She helped him IN/OVER this matter That book belongs TO me She helped him WITH the English He boasted OF his success at billiards They hid FROM her in the celler She borrowed a pond FROM his sister They hinted AT the idea that she was wealthy Thieves broke INTO the bank They improved ON the old engine with the new one He broke himself OF smoking He inculcated knowledge UPON her She broke WITH him after a row She insisted ON coming with us He brushed the dust FROM/OFF his coat He was inspired WITH courage by her example She burst INTO tears at the news He was inspired BY her The smouldering rags burst INTO flames He instilled knowledge INTO her She did not care ABOUT/FOR reading her uncle She joined IN the singing He changed his scooter FOR a car She joined WITH us in singing the song He changed FROM elementary to an intermediate class They judged her BY/ON her performance Unkindly they laughed AT her She changed INTO something warmer (put on warmer clothes) In support they laughed WITH her How much were you charge FOR dinner? He was leaning AGAINST the wall smoking He was charged WITH careless driving He leaned ON his brother for support They commented ON his behaviour (speak about) Don't meddle IN/WITH other people's affairs He compared her WITH her friend They objected TO her bahaviour (dislike, complain) He compared her TO a flower The doctor operated ON him for a cyst They competed WITH one another FOR the job Although panniless she would not part WITH her jewellery She complained TO him ABOUT his friend They were prohibited FROM buying arms 115 They concealed the news FROM him (keep from) He played FOR England at Lord's We concentrated ON doing one job at at time It is rude to point AT someone She concluded FROM his remark that he was angry (deduce) You may however point TO someone or something (indicate) He confused her WITH her friend They presented him WITH a clock when he retired She was confused BY his directions They presented a clock TO him when he retired I congratulated him ON winning They prevented him FROM buying a house Her father consented TO her engagement He provided FOR her in his will Civilisation consists IN having a constructed attitude He provided her WITH a car Porridge consists OF oatmeal and water They quarrelled ABOUT/OVER money It downed ON them that they had been tricked (realise) They quarrelled WITH their neighbours A greengrocer deals IN vegetables We deal WITH the greengrocer at the corner She reckoned ON inheriting a few thousand when he died She had to reckon WITH his mother (deal with, take into account) She delighted IN listening to music He soon recover FROM flu He depends ON his father for allowance She succeeded IN passing the exam They deprived the prisoner OF his property and money She succeeded TO her father's property The word isosceles derived FROM the Greek He supplied her WITH a car She asked him not to refer TO the matter again He supplied a car TO the hotel He reflected ON her attitude character (think about) She suspected him OF stealing He released her FOM her promise They swore AT the man for his bad driving She relied ON her father for everything He swore ON the Bible he was telling the truth She soon replied TO their letter She sympathised WITH him in his loss He reprimanded them FOR arriving late He threatened them WITH the police Illness resulted FROM lack of food He threw the book AT them in anger The game resulted IN a draw He threw the coin TO a poor man He ruled ON the case very carefully (give judgement) She was treated FOR the complaint by a specialist 116 He ruled OVER a large kingdom He treated her TO a drink This serviette ring serves AS an egg-cup She translated an English novel INTO Finnish He served the summons ON the debtor He asked the operator not to trouble herself ABOUT looking up the number She served WITH the W.R.N.S. during the war We trust IN him (believe in) His creditors settled FOR anything they could get We trust TO his honesty (believe in) He retired and settled IN a seaside town We would trust him WITH everything we have He settled WITH his creditors These figures vary FROM the official ones (differ) She shared IN her husband's worries The tides vary WITH the moon (alter) She shared the money WITH him She vouched FOR her friend's honesty They sheltered FROM the storm, by standing in a doorway They watched hopefully FOR the sign that he was getting better The markman shot AT the clay pigeon He shouted AT the man who annoyed him (speak badly) The mother watched OVER her child(take care of, guard ) He wrote to his friend ABOUT the exhibition He shouted ACROSS the valley TO his friend (call to) They yielded TO the enemy's demands She spoke OF the man as an old friend She spoke ABOUT/OF a matter I thought was secret He spoke TO his friend The general spoke WITH the soldiers In this list the short forms s/o, s/th have been used for someone and something: abridgement OF a book destructive OF an abstract idea absent FROM class destructive TO something concrete agreeable TO a suggestion detrimental TO something alive TO a possibility devoid OF a quality alive WITH ideas/insects different FROM s/o or s/th aloof FROM a situation disappointed BY soemthing angry WITH someone disappointed WITH someone angry AT her behaviour disgusted AT/WITH s/o or s/th 117 antipathetic TO an idea disgusted BY something anxious ABOUT/FOR someone displeased AT something apparent FROM a remark displeased WITH someone apparent IN her behaviour eager FOR something apparent TO everyone eligible FOR something appreciative OF someone employed AT a place apprehensive FOR s/o's safety employed BY someone apprehensive OF someone employed IN a job apt + infinitive with TO envious OF s/o or s/th ashamed OF someone equivalent IN (literally) attentive TO someone What is the equivalent TO (figuratively) auxiliary TO something What is dog equivalent TO in Latin? averse TO an idea evident FROM a statement avoidance OF s/o or s/th exception TO a rule aware OF something exclusive OF tax awkward AT doing something except FROM tax awkward IN a situation faithful TO someone/something basis FOR agreement familiar TO someone (known to someone) basis IN fact familiar WITH someone (onclose terms with) blind TO something familiar WITH something bound FOR somewhere famous FOR something capable OF something favorable FOR something cautious OF acting favorable TO someone celebrated FOR a performance filled WITH something characteristic OF someone full OF something comparable TO something equivalent OF dog in Latin? 118 compatible WITH something good AT games conditional (UP) ON something good FOR you (health) conductive TO something good OF you to do s/th (kind) consistent WITH something good TO a needy (charity) deaf TO an appeal good WITH children (understanding) deficient IN something good WITH food (accompany) grateful TO someone BY something qualified BY experience FOR a job hatred OF someone quick AT a subject hostile TO s/o or s/th quick IN movement identical WITH something reckless OF danger impassive TO something regardless OF consequences impatient AT an obatacle related BY marriage impat ient OF success related IN other ways impatient WITH someone related TO each other (im)polite TO someone responsible TO someone FOR something inappropiate FOR someone revenge ON someone FOR something inappropiate TO something rich IN minerals incapable OF something safe FROM something (an enemy) indebted TO someone FOR something safe WITH someone independent IN attitude schooled IN something independent OF someone sensible OF something (aware, grateful for) indifferent TO someone/something sensitive TO unkindness injurious TO health sick OF doing something innocent OF something sick WITH an illness inseparable FROM someone/something solicitious OF something (ir)relevant TO something sufficient FOR one's needs 119 jealous OF someone/something suitable FOR a purpose kind Of you to call suitable TO one's needs or position kind TO friends surprised AT/BY something liable FOR something TO someone surprised INTO doing something liable TO do something suspicious OF someone loyal TO someone sympathetic TOWARDS someone mad AT someone terrified BY someone/something mad WITH pain thoughtful FOR/OF people noted FOR something thoughtless OF people obidient TO someone/something tolerant IN a matter oblivious OF something unequal IN skill the (an) opportunity OF unequal TO demands an oportunity TO unjust TO someone orthodox IN something unmindful OF something parallel TO/WITH something valued IN ,50 particular ABOUT something valued FOR her good qualities peculiar TO somewhere vexed AT something pleased BY something vexed WITH someone ABOUT/FOR something pleased WITH someone/something void OF something popular WITH someone weak AT languages presumptuous OF him weak IN vitamins proud OF someone/something COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING WITH SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS: 1. She admitted him ______ her plans. 2. Burglars broke ______ their flat. 3. The surgeon operated ______ him for appendicitis. 4. He presented the fireman ______ a medal. 120 NOMBRES COMPUESTOS BÂ¡Error! Marcador no definido. H BLACK-OUT = mareo, amnesia temporal HANG-OVER = resaca (bebida/guerra) BLAST-OFF = lanzamiento HANGERS-ON = parÃ¡sitos, pegotes BREAKDOWN = interrupciÃ³n, fracaso HIDE-OUT = escondrijo, guarida averÃ−a, crisis HOLD-UP = retraso, demora, ATRACO BREAK-OUT = evasiÃ³n, fuga I BREAK-THROUGH = descubrimiento INTAKE = admisiÃ³n, entrada (alumnos) BREAK-UP = separaciÃ³n L BUILD-UP = concentraciÃ³n de fuerzas LAY-BACK = trampa habitual BY-PASS = carretera de circunvalaciÃ³n LAY-OFF = paro involuntario C LAY-OUT = plan, trazado, distribuciÃ³n CALL-UP = reclutamiento LET-DOWN = decepciÃ³n, chasco CARRY-ON = embrollo, lÃ−o LEFT-OVERS = sobras (comida etc.) CARRYINGS-ON = relaciones amorosas LET-UP = calma, respiro, tregua, RELAX ilicitas LOOKER-ON = espectador, mirÃ³n/mirona CAVE-IN = socavÃ³n, derrumbamiento LOOK-OUT = vigilancia, puesto de CHANGE-OVER = cambio observaciÃ³n CHECK-UP = chequeo LOOK-OVER = echar un vistazo CLEAN-OUT = limpieza a fondo LOW-DOWN = informes confidenciales CLOSE-UP = primer plano M COMEBACK = rehabilitaciÃ³n, acciones MIX-UP = confusiÃ³n, lRo BONDS = obligaciones O COMEDOWN = humillaciÃ³n, revÃ©s, bajÃ³n OFF-SHOOT = vÃ¡stago (Bot), ramal CUTBACK = corte sucursal subsidiaria D OFF-CHANCE = posibilidad remota 121 DOWN-FALL = caida, ruina OUT-BREAK = brote, estallido, epidemia DOWNPOUR = chaparrÃ³n, aguacero OUT-BURST = explosiÃ³n D. Day = dÃ−a, momento crÃ−tico OUTCOME = resultado DRAWBACKS=inconveniente, desventajas OUT-CRY =grito, protesta pÃºblica (ruidosa) DRESSING-DOWN=reprimenda, rapapolvo OUTLAY = desembolso, inversiÃ³n DROPPING-OFF = bajada en NÂº de ..... OUT-LET = punto de venta, salida DROPPING-OUT = darse de baja, retirarse OUTLOOK = perspectiva, punto de vista, F ACTITUD FALL-OUT = polvillo radioactivo OUTPUT = producciÃ³n FLARE-UP =arranque de cÃ³lera,riÃ±a, estalli- ONSET = comienzo, ataque, arremetida do sÃºbito, manisfestaciÃ³n, P ruptura de hostilidades PAY-OFF = momento decisivo, COLMO FLASH-BACK = escena retrospectiva coyuntura crÃ−tica FRAME-UP = conspiraciÃ³n R G ROUND-UP = redada, rodeo, investigaciÃ³n a gran escala GET-AWAY = escapada RUNNER-UP = subcampeÃ³n/subcampeona GET-UP = atavÃ−os U GO-AHEAD = luz verde, permiso o seÃ±al UPBRINGING = educaciÃ³n para construir UPKEEP = mantenimiento, conservaci\n GO-BETWEEN = intermediario UPSHOT = resultado, consecuencia GOINGS-ON = actividades/conducta UPSTART = arribista, insolente, presumido sospechosas UP-SURGE = acceso, aumento grande S UPTAKE = entendimiento, aprensiÃ³n SEND-OFF = despedida (por todo lo alto) UPTURN = mejora, aumento SETBACK = revÃ©s, contratiempo W SET-TO = bronca, pelea (coloquial) WALK-OUT = salida, huelga, retirada 122 SET-UP = situaciÃ³n, tinglado WASH-OUT = fracaso total, calamidad SHAKE-UP = reorganizaciÃ³n, conmociÃ³n WRITE-OFF = perdida total, depreciaciÃ³n SHOWDOWN = confrontaciÃ³n, conflicto (coche inservible) SPLASHDOWN = amerizaje WRITE-UP = reportaje/crÃ³nica muy STAND-BY = persona de toda confianza, Elogiosa recurso seguro STAND-IN = suplente (CINE = doble) SHOW-OFF = presumido, ostentoso (pers.) T TAKEOVER = toma de posesiÃ³n, entrada en funciones, ABSORCION TAKING-TO = rapapolvos TIE-UP = enlace, paralizaciÃ³n (por huelga) embotellamiento (trÃ¡fico) TIP-OFF=advertencia clandestina, SOPLO aviso TURN-OUT=concurrencia, NÂº de asistentes entrada, pdblico TURN-OVER=volumen de negocios,ventas rotaciÃ³n de existencias, NÂº de mercancias Uses of main verbs DO and MAKE The general rule is that DO means "perform an action", while MAKE has a much more concrete meaning of "build", "prepare" etc. In addition to this, there are, of course, many idiomatic expressions where this basic rule is not always observed; the most common of these expressions are: DO = PERFORM AN ACTION MAKE = CREATE do something make a chair do nothing make a noise 123 do some work make friends do an exercise make money do an examination make profits do good make the beds do wrong make war do a task make peace do well make a fuss do badly make a face do a favour make a trip do justice make room of do business make trouble do one's duty make one's heir do one's hair make a scene VERBOS IRREGULARES INGLESES Infinitive to be to bear to beat to become to begin to bend to bite to bleed to blow to break to bring to build to burn to burst to buy to catch to choose to come to cost Pasado was/were bore beat became began bent bit bled blew broke brought built burnt burst bought caught chose came cost Participio been borne/born beaten become begun bent bitten bled blown broken brought built burnt burst bought caught chosen come cost Significado: ser o estar soportar, sufrir golpear, vencer hacerse empezar doblar, torcer morder sangrar soplar romper traer construir, edificar quemar estallar, reventar comprar coger, atrapar escoger, elegir venir costar 124 to cut to dig to do to draw to dream to drink to drive to eat to fall to feed to feel to fight to find to fly to forbid to forgive to forget to freeze to get to give to go to grow to hang to have to hear to hide to hit to hold to hurt to kneel to know to lay to learn cut dug did drew dreamt drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found flew forbade forgave forgot froze got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt knelt knew laid learnt cut dug done drawn dreamt drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found flown forbidden forgiven forgotten frozen got given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt knelt known laid learnt to leave left left to lend to let to lie to light to lose to make to mean to meet lent let lay lit lost made meant met lent let lain lit lost made meant met cortar cavar hacer dibujar, tirar de soÃ±ar beber conducir comer caer, caerse alimentar, dar de comer sentir, palpar luchar encontrar volar prohibir perdonar olvidar helar, congelar conseguir, obtener dar ir crecer, cultivar colgar haber, tener oir esconder pegar, golpear sostener, agarrar herir arrodillarse saber, conocer poner horizontal aprender abandonar, salir, marchar prestar permitir, dejar, alquilar yacer, tumbarse encender perder hacer significar, querer decir encont rarse 125 Infinitive to pay to put to read to ride to show to shut to sing to sit to ring to rise to run to say to see to seek to sell to send to set to shake to shine to shoot to sleep to slide to smell to speak to spell(ed) to spend to spin to spit to spoil(led) to stand to steal to stink to strike to swear to sweep to swell to swim to swing to take to teach to tear to tell Pasado paid put read rode showed shut sang sit rang rose ran said saw sought sold sent set shook shone shot slept slid smelt spoke spelt spent spun/span spat spoilt stood stole stank/stunk struck swore swept swelled swam swang took taught tore told Participio paid put read ridden shown shut sung sit rung risen run said seen sought sold sent set shaken shone shot slept slid smelt spoken spelt spent spun spat spoilt stood stolen stunk struck sworn swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told Significado: pagar poner leer cabalgar, montar mostrar, enseÃ±ar cerrar cantar sentarse sonar, timbrar levantarse, salir sol correr decir ver buscar vender enviar establecer agitar brillar disparar dormir deslizarse oler hablar deletrear gastar, pasar el tiempo hacer girar escupir desarramar, estropear estar de piÃ© robar oler mal golpear, pegar blasfemar barrer hinchar nadar mecer, balancear tomar, llevar enseÃ±ar rasgar decir, contar, ralatar 126 to think thought thought to throw threw thrown to tread trod trodden to undergo underwent undergone to understand understood understood to undertake undertook undertaken to wake woke woken to wear wore worn to win won won to wind wound wound to wring wrung wrung to write wrote written TOP FORTY OF THE MOST FATAL MISTAKES pensar, creer arrojar, tirar pisar sufrir entender, comprender emprender despertar llevar puesto, usar ganar dar cuerda retorcer escribir 1,. DIvide your writings into paragraphs.2.- WORD ORDER: - S.V.O. - Remember nothing can come between the verb and its object. - Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, place and manner usually come at the end of the sentence. - Adverbs of frequency and degree are usually placed before the main verb. - Adjectives come before the noun (Multiple Premodification) 3.- VERBS: - If you are telloing a story in the PAST, use the PAST. - If the verb is irregular, you should know its forms too. - Don't forget the -s or -es of the third singular person. - With some verbs you have to use a certain pattern, be careful with: * Modal verbs (all of them take an infinitive withouit TO, except OUGHT TO and USED TO). * Make somebody do something. * Want somebody to do something. * Explain something to somebody. * Be/Get used to doing something. * Used to do something (expresses a habit in the past only, to refer to a habit in the present use the Present Simple with an adverb of frequency). * Suggest doing something (includes the speaker). 127 * Suggest that somebody should do something. * Allow somebody to do soemthing. * Look forward to doing something. * Enjoy something/Enjoy doing something/Enjoy oneself. * Like or Dislike doing something. * I wish with the Simple Past expresses a wish regarding the PRESENT. * I wish with the Past Perfect expresses a wish regarding the PAST. 4.- DETERMINERS and PRONOUNS: - A/ An. - Revise the use of definite and indefinite articles. - Be careful with This and These - Another/Other - Neither/None 5.- PREPOSITIONS: - Think OF/ABOUT. - At that moment. - Arrive AT/IN. - UNTIL with expressions of TIME // AS FAR AS with expressions of PLACE. - Based ON - Get married TO somebody/Marry somebody (never WITH). - Fall OFF a bike, a horse, a table, etc. - ON with dates or days of the week. - IN with months, seasons (except AT Christmas/Easter), years, centuries, parts of the day (except AT night/midday). - ON television/Channel 2, etc. - BY goes with the agent of the passive voice. - ON the coast. 128 - Depend ON. - Consist OF - Interested IN - If a verb is followed by a PREPOSITION, the GERUND (-ing form) must be used. 6.- NOUNS: - Be careful with irregular plurals (men, women, children, feet ...). - Use a plural verb with a plural noun (people, police ...). - Remember every verb needs a subject but don't double IT. - The Saxon Genitive: use it only for people, be careful with the order of elements, the articles and plural possessors. 7.- GRAMMAR IN GENERAL: - To express purpose use the infinitive with TO. - The construction FOR + GERUND is used when you are describing an object. - To express purpose it is also possible to use IN ORDER TO/SO AS or SO THAT, the problem is that the latter is only used when there are two different subjects: (e.g. I study English IN ORDER TO get a better job, but I've opened the window SO THAT we can breathe some fresh air). - Relative Clauses. * Use the appropiate relative in each case. * If the relative is the subject of the clause do not use another one. * Punctuation is crucial for the meaning. The distinction between Defining and Non-defining should be clear. * Double negatives. 8.- SPELLING: - Nationality words with CAPITALS. - Days of the weeks with CAPITALS. - Double consonats. 9.- VOCABULARY: - BORING / BORED, etc. (adj=aburrido=es aburrido/adj=aburrido=estar aburrido) 129 - ACTUALLY (adv=realmente, en realidad) - STORY / HISTORY (cuento, historieta/historia (asignatura)) - END / ENDING (fin/final) - AFTER / AFTERWARDS (prep,conj./adv.) - KNOW / MEET (saber, conocer/encontrarse con, toparse con) - EXIT / SUCCESS - WORK / JOB - TO REALISE SOMETHING / TO MAKE A DREAM COME TRUE - TRAVEL / TRIP / JOURNEY - NOTICE / NEWS - ON THE ONE HAND / ON THE OTHER HAND - PROGRAM / PROGRAMME - ATTEND / ASSIST - CAREER / UNIVERSITY COURSE - LIKE / AS - AVOID / PREVENT - FOLLOW / CONTINUE - LAST / LATEST - COOK / COOKER - ECONOMIC / ECONOMICAL - CLASSIC / CLASSICAL - PASS / SPEND These pairs of words frequently occur together in English, joined by and. Say which is the order in which they are generally used. Then put them into sentences that will illustrate their meanings and uses: example: seek Answer: hide and seek hide Sentence: The children are playing hide and seek in the garden. chips dry shoulders prim & 130 fish & high & head & proper pros & tear buried cock & cons wear & dead & bull weather spick & steak & dried wind & span kidney cut & cat & song & blood eggs dog dance flesh & ham & fast far & bricks & by & hard & wide mortar large good & ladies & sick & figures chattels gentlemen tired facts & women rules & high-water needles men & regulations hell & pins & women & collar & to & waifs & children tie fro strays ink tooth & simple sticks & pen & nail pure & stones drakes bits & thunder odds & ducks & pieces blood & ends forks sound knives & safe & GRAMÃ”TICA ESPAÃ OLA 1.- El ArtÃ−culo: Es el que va colocado delante del nombre para determinar o seÃ±alar su gÃ©nero y su nÃºmero. Singular: el, la, lo (masculino, femenino, neutro) DETERMINADO Plural: los, las (masculino y femenino) Singular: un, una (masculino y femenino) 131 INDETERMINADO Plural: unos, unas (masculino y femenino) ARTÃ CULOS CONTRACTOS: al (a + el); del (de + el) • El artÃ−culo concuerda con el nombre en gÃ©nero y nÃºmero. 2.- El Adjetivo Es la parte de la oraciÃ³n que sirve para expresar ciertas cualidades del sustantivo o para limitar su sugnificaciÃ³n. Ej.: Mesa grande (cualidad) Esta mesa (se trata de una mesa en concreto) Por tanto el adjetivo se divide en determinativo y calificativo. DETERMINATIVO Son los que limitan la significaciÃ³n del sustantivo con indicaciÃ³n de lugar, posesiÃ³n, nÃºmero ... etc. Por tanto se dividen en: Demostrativos, Posesivos, Numerales e Indefinidos • Demostrativos: AcompaÃ±an al nombre e indican su proximidad o lejanÃ−a con relaciÃ³n al que habla. Singular Plural Masculino 1Âª persona: este Femenino esta 2Âª persona: ese esa 3Âª persona: aquel aquella 1Âª persona: estos estas 2Âª persona: esos esas 3Âª persona: aquellos aquellas • Posesivos: AcompaÃ±an al nombre e indican que lo expresado por el sustantivo pertenece a algun dueÃ±o. Singular 1Âª persona: Masculino singular mi plural mis Femenino singular mi plural mis 2Âª persona: tu tus tu tus 3Âª persona: su sus su sus 132 Plural 1Âª persona: nuestro nuestros nuestra nuestras 2Âª persona: vuestro vuestros vuestra vuestras 3Âª persona: su sus su sus • Numerales: Son los que limitan la extensiÃ³n del sustantivo indicando nÃºmero u orden. Ej.: veinte marcas de vehÃ−culos; segunda vez ... etc. CLASES: • Cardinales: que expresan nÃºmero: uno, dos, tres ... mil etc. • Ordinales: que indican el lugar que un objeto ocupa en una serie ordenada de objetos. Ej.: las primeras industrias regionales. • Indefinidos: Son aquellos que completan la significaciÃ³n del sustantivo, pero de un modo vago y general. Ej.: algunos empleados; ciertas piezas .... etc. CLASES: Indefinidos cuantitativos Mucho bastante otro alguno Indefinidos distributivos cada Poco tanto tal unos sendos Todo cuanto cualquiera ambos unos ... otros Varios demasiado cierto entrambos CALIFICATIVOS Son los que dicen como son las personas, animales o las cosas. Ej.: carretero serio; mulas tordas; ruedas verdes El gÃ©nero y nÃºmero del adjetivo siempre es el mismo que el de los sustantivos. Ej.: caballo delantero; mulas tordas. SegÃºn el gÃ©nero los adjetivos pueden ser de dos terminaciones: buen-o/-a; o de una terminaciÃ³n: verd-e, az-ul, valient-e. Para la formaciÃ³n del femenino o del plural, el adjetivo sigue generalmente las mismas reglas que el sustantivo. ApÃ³cope del adjetivo: Hay adjetivos calificativos que suprimen algunos de sus sonidos finales cuando van delante del sustantivo. 133 Ej.: grande ... gran; bueno ... buen; santo ... san; malo ... mal. Grados del Adjetivo Los grados del adjetivo expresan las cualidades de un sustantivo poseidas en unas proporciones distintas. Ej.: el coche es rÃ¡pido; el tren es mÃ¡s rÃ¡pido; el aviÃ³n es rapidÃ−simo. Grados de significaciÃ³n del Adjetivo: • Positivo: Indica simplemente la cualidad: conquista prodigiosa. • Comparativo: Establece relaciÃ³n de la cualidad poseÃ−da entre dos sustantivos. FORMAS: de IGUALDAD: el coche es tan rÃ¡pido como el tren. de INFERIORIDAD: el coche es menos rÃ¡pido que el tren. de SUPERIORIDAD: el coche es mÃ¡s rÃ¡pido que el tren. • Superlativo: Expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo poseÃ−da en el mÃ¡s alto grado: Ej.: aviÃ³n rapidÃ−simo CLASES: • ABSOLUTO: Es el que no compara la cualidad con ningun otro objeto Ej.: aviÃ³n muy rÃ¡pido o rapidÃ−simo. • RELATIVO: Es el que expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo, poseÃ−da en el mÃ¡s alto grado, pero comparÃ¡ndola con la de otros: Ej.: Luis es el mÃ¡s alto de la clase. Comparativos y Superlativos Irregulares Positivo Comparativo Superlativo bueno mejor Ã³ptimo malo peor pÃ©simo grande mayor mÃ¡ximo pequeÃ±o menor mÃ−nimo alto superior supremo bajo inferior Ã−nfimo 134 interno interior Ã−ntimo 3.- El Pronombre El pronombre es la palabra que hace las veces del nombre, es decir, que se pone en en su lugar para evitar su repeticiÃ³n. CLASES: • PERSONALES Singular Plural Yo Me 1Âª Persona Mi Conmigo TÃº Te 2Âª Persona Contigo Ã©l, ella, ello le, le, lo se, se 2) DEMOSTRATIVOS Masculino Singular Plural Nos Nos Vosotros, Vosotras Vos Vos Ti 3Âª Persona Nosotros, Nosotras Os Os Ellos, Ellas Les Les se se Femenino Ã ste Neutro Ã©sta Esto Ã se Ã©sa Eso AquÃ©l Ã stos aquella Ã©stas Aquello Estos Ã sos Ã©sas Esos Aquellos aquellas Aquello 3) POSESIVOS Masculino 1Âª Persona Femenino Mio Neutro Mia (lo) mio 135 Mios Mias (lo) nuestro Nuestro Nuestra Nuestros Tuyo Nuestras Tuya Tuyos Tuyas (lo) tuyo Vuestro Vuestra (lo) vuestro Vuestros Suyo Vuestras Suya Suyos Suyas 2Âª Persona (lo) suyo 3Âª Persona 4) REFLEXIVOS Singular Plural Nosostros mismos Yo mismo 1Âª Persona Me Nosotras mismas Nos Vosotros mismos TÃº mismo Te Vosotras mismas Ã l mismo Os Ellos mismos Ella misma Ellas mismas (ello mismo) (ellos mismos) se se 2Âª Persona 3Âª Persona 5) RECÃ PROCOS Plural 1Âª Persona (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) 136 Nos (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) 2Âª Persona Os (uno a otro: dos) (unos a otros: + de dos) 3Âª Persona Se 6) RELATIVOS Singular: que, el que, cual, el cual, quien, cuyo Masculino Plural: que, los que, cuales, los cuales, quienes, cuyos Singular: que, la que, cual, la cual, quien, cuya Femenino Plural: que, las que, cuales, las cuales, quienes, cuyas 7) INTERROGATIVOS Si los pronombres relativos se colocan al comienzo de la frase, sirven entÃ³nces para interrogar o preguntar y por eso de denominan INTERROGATIVOS, Ã©stos siempre llevan acento (Â´) y no tienen antecedente 8) INDEFINIDOS INDEFINIDOS: Son aquellos que designan las personas, animales o cosas de una Manera vaga, general, sin concretar claramente. Ej.: Algo tiene que comer. (ALGO indica un alimento pero no concreta de Cual se trata) Los mÃ¡s usados son: Para PERSONAS: alguiÃ©n, nadie, cualquiera, uno. Para COSAS: algo, nada OTROS: Variables alguno todo uno Invariables alguien 137 ninguno cierto cualquiera nadie varios otro quienquiera algo mucho bastante demasiado nada poco CONJUGACIÃ N ESPAÃ OLA (Resumen) Tiempos Verbales HABER SER (simples) Presente He soy Preterito Imperfecto habÃ−a era Preterito Indefinido hube fuÃ− Futuro Simple habrÃ© serÃ© serÃ−a habrÃ−a Condicional Simple Las tres conjugaciones: AM-AR, TEM-ER, PART-IR ConjugacionesIndicativo 1Âª -AR 2Âª -ER 3Âª -IR Presente -o -o -o PretÃ©rito Imperfecto -aba -Ã−a -Ã−a PretÃ©rito Indefinido -Ã© -Ã− -Ã− Futuro Simple -arÃ© -erÃ© -irÃ© Condicional Simple -arÃ−a -erÃ−a -irÃ−a ConjugacionesSubjuntivo 1Âª -AR 2Âª -ER 3Âª -IR Presente -e -a -a PretÃ©rito Imperfecto -ara/-ase -iera/-iese -iera/-iese PretÃ©rito Indefinido ------------------- ----------Futuro Simple -are -iere -iere Condicional Simple ------------------ ----------Los tiempos compuestos o perfectos que corresponden a los tiempos simples son: Simples Presente PretÃ©rito Imperfecto PretÃ©rito Indefinido Futuro Simple Condicional Simple Compuestos PretÃ©rito Perfecto PretÃ©rito Pluscuampecfecto PretÃ©rito Anterior Futuro Perfecto Condicional Compuesto • Para formar los tiempos compuestos: se hacen con el correspondiente tiempo simple del verbo HABER + el Participio perfecto o Pasado de verbo que se conjuga: 138 PretÃ©rito Anterior de amar: Yo hube amado • Para formar la VOZ PASIVA: se hace con el tiempo correspondiente del verbo SER + el Participio Perfecto o Pasado del verbo que se conjuga: PretÃ©rito Imperfecto Pasivo de amar: Yo era amado Correspondencia de tiempos espaÃ±oles con los tiempos ingleses Tiempos simples Tiempos simples EspaÃ±oles Ingleses Presente Simple Simple Present PretÃ©rito Imperfecto Simple Past PretÃ©rito Indefinito Simple Past Futuro Simple Simple Future Condicional Simple Simple Conditional 1.- TABLE OF TENSES - ACTIVE VOICE Past Simple Tiempos compuestos Tiempos compuestos espaÃ±oles PretÃ©rito Perfecto Pret.Pluscuamperfecto PretÃ©rito Anterior Future Perfecto Cond. Compuesto ingleses Present Perfect Past Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Perfect Conditional I sang Present I sing -->[Author:p]Continuous I was singing I am singing Perfect I had sung I have sung Future Conditional I shall sing I should sing I shall be I should be singing singing I shall have I should have sung Perfect I had been I have been Continuous singing Singing sung I shall have I should have been singin been singing Formas no personales del verbo Simple Infinitive to sing Continuous Infinitive to be singing Perfect Infinitive to have sung Present Continuous Infintive to have been singing Present Participle singing Past Participle sung Perfect Participle having sung 2.- TABLE OF TENSES - PASSIVE VOICE Past Present Future Conditional 139 Simple I was sung Continuous I was being sung I had been Perfect sung Perfect I had been being sung I am sung I am being Sung I shall be sung I should be sung I shall be being I should be being sung sung I have been sung I shall have been sung I have been being sung I shall have I should have been been being sung being sung Continuous Formas no personales del verbo Simple Infinitive To be sung Continuous Infinitive To be being sung Perfect Infinitive To have been sung Present Continuous Infintive To have been being sung Present Participle Being sung Past Participle Having been sung I should have been sung Expressing contrast Expressing personal opinions However In my opinion Nevertheless From my point of view On the one hand In my view On the other hand Personally Although As far as I'm concerned In spite of / Despite Expressing facts Adding information As a matter of fact Apart from this / that In fact Moreover / In addition Actually Giving examples Rephrasing For example / For instance That is (to say) Such as Causes and results In other words Modifiers 140 Because of this / that To a certain extent For this / that reason More or less That's why At least Therefore Basically As a result of Especially Consequently In particular So... Personal letters Above all Thanks for your letter Writing dialogues It was great to hear from you Really? I'm writing to tell you You know, it's fast and cheap How's it going It doesn't fill you up, do you know what I mean? By the way, how's your sister On the top of all that, it's so fatty Well, Middleford isn't very big To tell you the truth, I love fast food Anyway, I must stop writing now You're joking! Write soon and tell me all your news Of course not. Best wishes. Time connectors First of all Formal letters Next / Then Dear Sir / Madam After that I'm writing to you about While I look forward to hearing from you In the meantime Yours faithfully All of a sudden Yours sincerely Finally In the end Summarising: In short / In conclusion 141 On the whole / To sum up CONJUNCIONES Y CONECTORES DE FRASES 1.- Tipos y usos: • Conjunciones coordinantes: and, or, but • Conectores: however, indeed • Conjunciones subordinantes: - Temporales After As As long as As soon as Before Since Till Until When While Whenever Etc. • de lugar: where, wherever • causales: because, since, as • de finalidad: so that, in order that • consecutivas: as a result, so, then, so + adjetivo/adverbio + that, such + nombre + that • concesivas: although, though, even though • de manera: as, as if, as though 2.- Significados 2. 1 RelaciÃ³n aditiva And Also As well Besides Furthermore Likewise Both ... and ... Too In addition to this Moreover And what's more Again Not only ... but also... 2.2 RelaciÃ³n alternativa As well as 142 Or, either ... or... Otherwise Neither ... nor... Or else Whether ... or... 2.3 RelaciÃ³n contrastiva Etc. But However Still Nevertheless Whereas While Yet Notwithstanding Despite 2.4 RelaciÃ³n de causa-efecto On the other hand So Therefore Consequently Because Due to the fact that 2.5 RelaciÃ³n de ordenaciÃ³n Etc. • CronolÃ³gica: conjunciones temporales • LÃ³gica: Firstly ..., secondly..., and finally ComprensiÃ³n de texto: Respuestas According to the text... The text states that... The text mentions... The text refers to... The text says that... Resumen del contenido del texto: Introducelo diciendo The text is about... This is the story of... The author states /suggests/criticizes/explains/points out /lists/highlights/argues/puts forwards... The text deals with... Preguntas hipotÃ©ticas: Respuestas Where would you like to spend your next few years? I would like to... Preguntas que solicitan tu opiniÃ³n: Respuestas What do you think of...? I think that... Do you believe...? Well, personally, I feel... 143 I believe... In my opinion... From my point of view... ASKING ABOUT LANGUAGE Asking for definitions Possible Answers What does `leather' mean? It's a sort of... What's a tracksuit? It's a kind of... What's the meaning of `shy'? It's used to... Do you know the meaning of `garden centre'? Asking for explanations It's an object/thing ... used to/for... Asking for repetition How do you say (...) in English? Pardon? What do they call (...)? Excuse me? How could I say (...) in English? Could you repeat it, please? Do you know any other word/expression for (...) I didn't hear you. Can you say it again? How do you spell/write (...)? Read and learn this dialogue: I can't understand you. Can you say it more slowly? Laura: Richard, please. What does `leather' mean? Richard: Excuse me? Laura: What's the meaning of `leather'? Richard: It's a kind of material made of animal skin. It is used to make shoes, jackets ... Laura: How do you spell it? Richard: L-E-A-T-H-E-R. Laura: Thank you. Just another question. How could I say Ì don't feel very well' in other words? Richard: Well, you can say Ì feel down', or Ì feel blue'. Laura: Thanks a lot. You're a really good friend. ABOUT DIFFERENT FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES Asking how someone feels Saying you are curious 144 Are you all right/OK? Can someone tell me what is going on? Is everything OK? I'm interested to know... Are you sure you are all right/OK? Can someone tell me about...? You're not nervous/worried/unhappy (about)..., are you? I'd like to know more about... Is anything the matter? How do you feel about...? What's wrong? How are you doing? Expressing pessimism Expressing optimism Mm, I'm not so sure. Everything will be fine. I doubt that. You wait and see. It's all going to be OK. I'm not at all sure. Things will work out fine/all right. I don't really believe... I feel quite sure (about)... There is no way... I'm not too happy about... Read and learn this dialogue: John: Hello, Mary! Is everything all right? Mary: Yeah, I guess John: Are you sure you are OK? You aren't worried about anything, are you? Mary: Well, I don't want to bore you with my problems. John: Please, I'm interested to know what is happening to you. Mary: I'm not sure my maths teacher like me. In fact, I think he hates me. John: Why are you saying that? I doubt it. He is a very pleasant man who seems to like everyone. I don't Really believe he can dislike you. Mary: Are you sure about that? I took a maths exam I don't think I'm going to pass. John: You wait and see. It'll all turn out fine, and I'm sure that you will pass. Mary: I really hope so. 145 EXPRESSING LIKES AND PREFERENCES Asking and answering about likes Asking and answering about preferences Do you like/enjoy (+ noun or -ing)...? Do you prefer (+ noun or -ing) to (+ noun or -ing)? Are you keen on...? We can ... or ..., what do you think? What are your feelings about...? Do you like ... better/more than ...? I like/enjoy/adore/love/hate/dislike... Which do you prefer ... or ...? I'm (not) keen on... I'd rather (+ inf. s/to) than (+ inf. s/to). I've always liked/hated/loved/enjoyed... I like/enjoy ... better/more than ... I've been mad about... I much prefer ... to ... I think ... is great/brilliant/fantastic/fun. ... appeals to me more than ... There's nothing I like/enjoy more than... Read and learn the following: Student 1: Do you enjoy jazz festivals? Student 2: Well, I'm not very keen on jazz. Student 3: We can go to a concert or to the cinema. What do you prefer? Student 4: I much prefer listening to music to watching a film. Student 5: Laura, do you enjoy listening to classical music? Student 6: There's nothing I enjoy more than listening to classical music. Student 7: Do you prefer folk music to opera? Student 8: Not really, I much prefer opera to pop music. ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION Formal Would it be possible...? Would it be possible if I came back home later? Informal Would you mind if...? Yes, of course. I wonder if I could...? Would you mind if she finishes my work? May I...? No, I don't mind it at all. Do you mind...? I wonder if I could see your dictionary. Do you think I could...? Sure./ I'm sorry, but I'm already using it. 146 Could I...? May I come in? Can I...? Yes, you may. Do you mind if Arthur comes to the party with us? No, I don't. Please tell him to come. Do you think I could go to the U2 concert tomorrow? I'm afraid you can't. Could I have a ham sandwich? Yes, here you are. Can I go with my sister to the cinema tonight? Yes, you can. Read these dialogues and find out which expressions are used when you talk to somebody for the first time: • Amy, let me introduce David LÃ³pez. This is Amy Anderson, the language coordinator. • Please to meet you Mr LÃ³pez • How do you do Mrs Anderson? • Is this your first time in Ireland? • Yes, it is. • And what do you think about it? • (...) • Hello, Liz. I'm Iris. Your mother talked to you about me, didn't she? • Yes, she did. Nice to meet you, Iris. Are you enjoying your stay in Dublin? • Sure, Dublin is a wonderful city. Could you show me around? • Of course, Let's see. First, we could go to the city centre and then visit Stephen's Park. Then, ... IDIOMS An IDIOM is an idiomatic expression. There are many idioms in English and people like using them very much in conversation. They are quite colloquial. There are idioms related to colours such as to be the black sheep, to be in the red, to feel blue, to have got green fingers, etc. Most of them are body idioms which are related to parts of the body: Choose the right colour to complete these colour idioms. • She was white/green with envy. • The police caught the thief green/red-handed. • “How are you?”, “I'm in the pink/blue as my holiday starts today.” • When I started driving i was very red/green and I had to learn a lot. • He was white/red in the face with cold. • A blue/white lie is sometimes justified. Read these situations and choose a body idiom for each one. 147 1) To turn one's ________ on somebody. 6) To make one's ________ stand on end. 2) To be wet behind the _______. 7) To be all ________ and thumbs 3) To put one's ________ down. 8) To pull somebody's ________. 4) To _________ the music. 9) To be a pain in the ________. 5) To _________ one's way. 10) To pay through the ________. • You buy something and pay a very high price for it. • You have done something bad and you are going to be criticised or punished for it. • You can use this expression when talking about a horror film. • You say this about a person who can't do anything with his/her hands. • If you do this to a friend, you don't help him/her when he/she needs it. • When you go to s disco and there are many people, you do this to be able to move around. • When a person doesn't have much experience of things and doesn't realised all the dangers of something. • When you tell someone something that is not true and they believe you, but they will laugh when they realise that it is not true. • You use this idiom to refer to a person you find very annoying and irritating. • When you do this, you are firm in your position, you use your authority to prevent something from happening. Practise the idioms above as in the example: • I've bought a new CD. • How much was it? • Â£30. • You paid through the nose, didn't you? EXPRESSING CERTAINTY, UNCERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY, AND IMPOSSIBILIY To express you are sure To express you are not sure I am (completely) sure that... I am not really sure... I know for sure that... I am not convinced that... I am a hundred per cent sure that... I can't say for sure that... I am positive that... To say that something is possible or probable I am not certain that... To say that something is impossible or improbable That will probably... It's impossible/not possible/not probable that... It's possible/probable that... That's unlikely... It's likely that... It is very doubtful that... I bet that... I can't believe that... 148 There's a good chance that... I don't think that is the case. Perhaps/Maybe... Example: A: I am positive this is a television. B: I don't think that is the case. Perhaps it is a computer. APOLOGIZING Responses Apology That's all right/OK. Sorry, Don't worry. I'm very sorry. It was my fault. I'm terribly sorry. I apology for/about... Please, accept my apologies (for...) Excuse Excuse me for... Please, forgive me for... I'm afraid... That was very foolish/careless of me, I'm afraid. Forget it. Not at all. It doesn't matter at all. Please, think nothing of it. It's perfectly all right. There's no reason to apologise (for)... Make dialogues for these situations using varied structures. • Apologise to a friend for arriving late for his party. • Apologise to your brother/sister for forgetting his/her birthday. • Apologise to your parents for coming back home late. Give an excuse. • You are riding your bike. A person step off the pavement. You have to stop fast in order to avoid hitting him/her. You are angry. The other person is frightened. • You are a customer of a hostel and the room is dirty and the bed hasn't got any sheets. Your partner is the receptionist who tries to apologise. COMMUNICATING To maintain a conversation with an interlocutor is not easy. Sometimes, while you are talking, you may need some time to think of what you are going to say next. In these cases, you do not usually stop the conversation, but you use some expressions such as the following: Taking some time to think Err, let's see/Let me see... Um, let me think/Let's think... Well, mm, you se... (...), you know, (...) (...), I mean, (...) Oh, wait a second... 149 If you want to change topics, that is, what the conversation is about, you can say expressions like these: Changing topics during a conversation By the way, Oh, before I forget, ... While I remember, ... Oh, I almost forgot to tell you... Finally, when you have been talking for a while and want to finish your intervention, you can use expressions like these ones: Finish one's intervention In short, ... To sum up, ... Briefly, ... In conclusion, ... The point I'm trying to make is... Read this dialogue: Alex: So, what is it you wanted to say before? Mary: Let's see, what I wanted to say is that, you know, the working class conditions of factory workers have changed a lot over the years. Alex: But, that has been mentioned before, I mean, that is not the reason why we are here today. Mary: I think you didn't understand very well what I meant, mm, you see, our salary, job safety and so on, have improved. Maggie: By the way, I would like to know if we are going to fight for a pay rise this year. Alex: Why not? I have always been in favour of yearly pay rise. Mary: Oh, I almost forgot to tell you, the manager called this morning to tell me he wanted to talk to us about something very important. Alex and Maggie: And you tell us now! In conclusion, we have been wasting our time, he probably wants to talk to us about all this. Mary: But I thought... 150 DEBATING A debate is a conversation among several people who may have different opinions on a topic. In a debate there is a moderator, a neutral person who does not show his/her opinion on the topic, and the partcipants who show their point of view. The moderator's job is to set the times for the participants to talk. Rules for debating Select people who have different opinions. Be well-informed on the topic. Respect the turns and the time. Follow the debate line. Respect other people's opinions. Stating the facts For example, ... Beginnings As we know, ... I'd like to start by saying that... On the issue of... I must say... My point is... Disagreeing I see what you mean, but... Offering solutions I'm afraid I don't agree... It'd be much better... That argument ignores... Why don't we...? That's true, but... I think we should... I'm not sure... This is nonsense. Read this debate's sample: Presenter: Good afternoon, everybody. I'm Arthur Newton. It's seven o'clock and this is another edition of Let's talk about. The subject of today's discussion is: extraterrestrial life. In the studio we have to guests to open the debate. If you want to take part, call 01-66-77-55. Our first guest is AB. AB: my point is... Presenter: thank you. Over to you, JJ JJ: I completely disagree. That argument ignores... Presenter: Thanks, so now it's over to you, the viewers. Our first caller is... 151 FUNCTIONS Asking for advice I've got a small problem... I'm not sure what to do... Could you give some advice? Do you think I should/ought to...? What should I do? What would you advise me to do? Giving advice I (don't) think you should... I (don't) think you ought to... If I were you, I would... You'd better... You could... Why don't you.... What would you recommend? Apologizing Accepting I'm really very sorry about... That's all right. It was my fault. Don't worry. Sorry about.... That's OK. How silly of me. Agreeing Forget it. I quite agree with you Partially agreeing I think you are right. I see what you mean, but... You're are absolutely right. Yes, but on the other hand... That's absolutely true. I can see that, but... I couldn't agree with you more! I suppose you could be right, but... Right! Expressing boredom Disagreeing I don't think that's very interesting Do you really think so? How boring! I'm sorry, but I don't agree (with...) *It turns me off! I think that's nonsense. *So what? You can't be serious. Checking that someone has understood you Saying something in a different way 152 Do you see what I mean? I mean... Do you understand? What I mean is... Do you see? What I'm trying to say is... *OK? *Do you get it? Saying goodbye Expressing excitement Excuse a moment. How exciting! I'm afraid I really must go now. That's fantastic! Bye for now. See you later Interrupting Sorry to interrupt you, but... May I interrupt you for a second? Hold on a moment! Introducing yourself Answer How do you do? My name's is... How do you do? I'm... Hello. I'm... Hello. My name's.... *Hi Introducing others This is John How do you do? How do you do? Please to meet you. Hi, nice to meet you. Hello, John. Invitations Accepting Declining Thank you very much. Thank you very much, but... That's very kind of you. I wish I could, but... That would be very nice. I'd love to, but... Lovely! I'm afraid I can't, because... Would you like to...? What about...? How about...? Do you fancy... -ing? Why don't you....? 153 Asking about languages How do you say...? When do we use...? How do you pronounce...? What does... mean? How do you spell...? What's the meaning of...? Do you say... or ...? What's another word for...? Is this right? Presenting a gift Thanking Please accept this... That's extremely kind of you. Allow me to present you with... I'm extremely grateful. It gives me great pleasure to present... I appreciate... very much. Expressing regret I wish I had / hadn't (done...) I'm sorry I (did...) I should / shouldn't have (done...) What a pity I (did...) If only I had / hadn't (done...) How silly of me (to do...) Expressing pleasure Expressing relief I'm so glad... What a relief! Thank goodness... Thank goodness for that! Isn't it wonderful that... Giving an opinion I think... Asking for an opinion I believe... What do you think of...? I'd say... How do you feel about...? Personally, I feel... What's your opinion of...? In my opinion, ... It seems to me that... Saying you are not sure I'm not really sure. As far as I'm concerned,... Saying you don't know Asking someone to repeat I'm afraid I don't know very much Sorry? about... 154 I don't think... I've no idea. What did you say? I wish I knew. Could you repeat that pleae? I didn't quite catch that. *What? Expressing request Granting Refusing Could you...? Yes, of course I'm afraid not. Would you...? Will you...? Do you think you could...? Would you mind... -ing? Not, not at all. I'd rather not Suggesting Shall we...? Let's... We could... Why don't we...? Why not...? I think we should... I suggest that we... I suggest (possessive) -ing... Agreeing with suggestions That's a good idea. Disagreeing with suggestions What a good idea! I don't think that's a very good idea. That sounds like a very good idea. That doesn't sound like a very good idea to me. Yes, why not! No, don't let's. Yes, let's. How about... -ing? What about... -ing? SUBJECTS (note the stress) Latin EASILY CONFUSED WORDS Course mathematics (maths) Career science Marks physics Qualifications chemistry Qualities biology Subjects 155 botany Degree zoology Lecture geography history religious education (RE) physical education (PE) SOME EXPRESSIONS Gets my goat, he wouldn't say “Boo!” to a goose mutton dressed as lamb pulls your socks up Personality: WHAT'S HE/SHE LIKE? self-confident shy, reserved attractive ugly hard-working lazy, a shirker, a tease good at bad at helpful unhelpful original unoriginal witty, clever dull optimistic pessimistic organised, efficient disorganised, inefficient tidy untidy conservative adventurous generous mean cheerful, good-humoured bad-tempered sympathetic, understanding unsympathetic Appearance: WHAT DOES HE/SHE LOOK LIKE? He broad-shoulder He/She tall, average height She a nice figure 156 bald well built delicately built Handsome of medium build blonde, brunette fat, thin, slim a good complexion fair, dark, red-haired pretty, beautiful weather-beaten suntanned pale wide, small, generous mouth long, hooked, broad, snub nose freckles wrinkles CLOTHES Skirt good-looking ACCESORIES bracelet MATERIALS Silk VERBS get dressed Trousers earrings Satin undressed Jeans necklace Cotton ready Shirt chain Tweed changed Blouse brooch Velvet wear Cardigan ring Linen put on a coat etc. Twinset pearls Wool take off Sweater belt Lace try something on Pullover handbag sit Waistcoat fit Tie match bow-tie go with jacket shorten suit lengthen a dress 157 pyjamas take in trousers nightdress let out etc. tights slippers IN FASHION/OUT OF FASHION Mini Maxi Flared Midi skirt bell-bottom trousers Full narrow Pleated Straight SCHOOL SYSTEM HIGHER OR FURTHER EDUCATION VERBS sit take an exam Playgroup pass / fail Playschool University do a course Kindergarten Polytechnic follow Compulsory education Teacher Training College pay attention to Junior Trade School apply for a place at Primary Night School got to University Comprehensive evening classes lectures secondary school day release grammar get a first class degree public school second do research (into) 112 123 LAS ORACIONES y SUS CLASES 158 ORACIONES SIMPLES Por el tono del verbo Copulativas Transitivas Activas Intransitivas Reflexivas Pasivas RecÃ−procas Impersonales Enunciativas Interrogativas Deliberativas Exhortativas Por la Ã−ndole del verbo ORACIONES COMPUESTAS Copulativas Disyuntivas COORDINADAS Distributivas Adversativa Ilativa YUXTAPUESTAS (Sin conjunciÃ³n) Sujeto Complemento Directo SUSTANTIVAS Complemento Indirecto (COMPLETIVAS) Complem. Circunstancial 159 Complem. Nominal AposiciÃ³n ADJETIVAS o SUBORDINADAS de RELATIVO (Hacen el oficio de un adjetivo) Finales Concesivas Lugar ADVERBIALES Modales (modo) Temporales (tiempo) Causales (causa) Consecutivas Condicionales 160

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